Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

1 MKS True/False

1. Aquaculture continues to develop rapidly, especially through its growth in Asia.

2. Shellfish and algae that are cultured for human consumption and other uses.

3. Fingerling of fish species were released into the environment in stock enhancement

programmes.
4. Ponds are broadly defined as earthen impoundments for holding aquatic species.

5. Floating cages may be small and of limited strength.

6. Intake water should also have low level of suspended solids.

7. Oceanic water is generally considered to be of higher quality.

8. Recirculation has been used for a long time in aquariums and hatcheries.

9. Carp culture depended on the availability of natural seed for stocking.

10. Live foods are usually cultured well away from areas housing culture stock.

11. Female tilapias lay their eggs in multiple batches.

12. Oreochromis species, each batch contains about 2000 eggs.

13. Tilapias are socially aggressive and tend to develop social hierarchies.

14. Nursing of hatchery produced postlarvae is impractical.

15. Fresh fish or molluscs may be used as supplementary feed.

16. Seawater has a very long residence time, and its quality tends to be stable.

17. Marine shrimp, and other species by aquaculture depends upon a supply of high-

quality water.
18. Streams enter estuaries water quality is influenced particularly by volume of

freshwater inflow.
19. Osmoregulation for the marine fish requires constant intake of water and excretion of

ions.
20. Triacyglycerols are the most common form of acylglycerols.

21. Fish are unique and greatly advantaged in comparison to terrestrial animals.

22. Moist feeds or semi-moist pelleted feeds are commonly farm made.

23. Diets for aquatic animals (aquafeed) need to be palatable and easily ingested.

24. Lipids in aquafeed are provided with the inclusion of oils or fats.

25. Fiber is an indigestible carbohydrate and therefore does not play an important role in

fish nutrition.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
1 MKS Completion

1 Pearls and sponges are cultured and sold for their traditional uses.
2 Shrimp and prawn culture is an important export product.
3 Aquaculture will become increasingly important as a source of seafood production.
4 Ponds in general are cheaper to construct per unit area than tanks and cages.
5 Hygiene is a major concern in aquaculture hatcheries.
6 Cyprinids constitute the major group of all cultured animals in freshwater.
7 Cyprinid culture is very important to the world aquaculture industry.
8 Eggs of cultured cyprinids hatch out in 2-3 days at temperature between 23’ C and 27’
C.
9 Pond-cultured carps are harvested when individuals fish reach a weight of about 1-1.5
kg.
10 Major carps are generally marketed fish.
11 Intensive ponds are well treated to eliminate all fish predators.
12 Shrimp feed on natural foods that enter the ponds regularly on the tide.
13 The yield is lowest in these extensive systems, at 50-500 kg/ha/yr.
14 Storm runoff suspends and dissolves mineral and organic matter from the land surface
and hemoglobin unloads oxygen to the tissue fluids.
15 Seawater has a very long residence time, and it’s quality tends to be stable.
16 The marine fish is hypotonic to the environment.
17 Warm water fish evolved in environments where low DO concentration were more
common.
18 Total alkalinity results primarily from bicarbonate in waters for aquaculture.
19 Calcium is a major contributor to total hardness in freshwater.
20 Amino acids consist of atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
21 Species have been grouped in conformity to their tropic level.
22 Proteins are important not only to provide essential amino acids but also as an energy
source.
23 Rainbow trout are generally used in feed formulations.
24 Carbohydrates have very important physical roles in aquafeed.
25 Moist feeds or semi-moist pelleted feeds are commonly farm made.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
2 MKS

1. Explain the farming system of Hybrid and mono sex species (pg-4)

The tilapia, particularly hybrid and mono sex species, are widely cultured in intensive farms as a result of the high demand
from local consumers and an increasing demand from restaurants and barbecue shops.

2. The main soul properties important for aquaculture used (pg-6)

1. Physical: texture, strength, stability and water - holding ability.
2. Physicochemical: ion exchange capacity, acid- alkaline reaction, leaching effects and absorptive/ binding capacity.
3. Biological: organic matter and nutrients transforming biomass.

3. Semi- intensive freshwater aquaculture (pg-13)

In a semi- intensive system, the production of the pond in increased beyond the level of extensive aquaculture by adding
supplementary feed, usually in the form of dry pellets, to integrate the feed naturally available in the pond, allowing for higher
stocking density and production per hectare.

4. Carps (pg-14)

Carps and related species of the family Cyprinidae are a major source of animal protein for millions of people in many Asian
countries, as well as in Eastern Europe. World cyprinid aquaculture production in 2007 was 18944071 t, valued at US$ 20265 million.

5. Extensive systems for tilapias (pg-24)

- backyard ponds
- roadside ditches
- irrigation tanks

6. Semi - intensive pond system (pg-25)

Semi- intensive pond systems represent a vast improvement over extensive systems of production. The pond are
intentionally built for aquaculture. Stocking is planned. Seed is produced on the farm or bought from a hatchery.

7. Rainfall (source of fresh water) (pg-32)

Rainfall, the ultimate source of freshwater, is saturated with nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and a few other gases. Its
sweeps dust, pollutants, and other particles from the air, and these substances dissolve in rain drops.

8. Isotonic animal (pg-34)

Invertebrates such as decapod crustaceans and bivalves tend to conform to their environmental salinity more than fish. They
tend to be isotonic in seawater, although the ion concentrations of their body fluids differ from seawater.

9. Dissolved oxygen (pg-.36)

Oxygen is needed to oxidize organic matter from food to provide energy for biological activities. Low DO concentration
may cause chronic problems of poor appetite, slow growth, and increased susceptibility to diseases.

10. Extensive farming system (pg-39)

Extensive, where the cultured stock is entirely dependent on the food organisms naturally produced in the system, such as,
for example, phytoplankton and zooplankton in a pond.

11. Mineral Deficiencies in fish (pg-47)

Mineral deficiencies in fish can manifest in a multitude of nutrition-related diseases. The most prevent symptoms of mineral
deficiency in fish are a reduction in feeding and growth performance, followed by skeletal malformations and hemorrhaging to the skin
and fins.

12. Oxidative conditions (pg.57)

Oxidative conditions are preferable and ozone produces such conditions. Ozone is also safe as it and its oxide derivatives
have a very short half-life and the final product, oxygen, is very useful.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Explain the farming system of Hybrid and mono sex species (pg-4)

 The tilapia, particularly hybrid and mono sex species,

 are widely cultured in intensive farms as a result of the high demand from local
consumers and
 an increasing demand from restaurants and barbecue shops.

The main soul properties (pg-6)

- Physical: texture, strength, stability and water - holding ability.
- Physicochemical: ion exchange capacity, acid-alkaline reaction, leaching effects
and absorptive/ binding capacity.
- Biological: organic matter and nutrients transforming biomass.

Semi- intensive freshwater aquaculture (pg-13)

 In a semi- intensive system, the production of the pond in increased beyond the
level of extensive aquaculture by adding supplementary feed,
 usually in the form of dry pellets, to integrate the feed naturally available in the
pond,
 allowing for higher stocking density and production per hectare.

Carps (pg-14)

a. Carps and related species of the family Cyprinidae are a major source of animal
protein for millions of people in many Asian countries, as well as in Eastern
Europe.
b. World cyprinid aquaculture production in 2007 was 18944071 t, valued at US$
20265 million.

Extensive systems for tilapias (pg-24)

- backyard ponds
- roadside ditches
- irrigation tanks

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

Semi - intensive pond system (pg-25)

a. Semi- intensive pond systems represent a vast improvement over extensive

systems of production.
b. The pond are intentionally built for aquaculture.
c. Stocking is planned.
d. Seed is produced on the farm or bought from a hatchery.

Rainfall (source of fresh water) (pg-32)

a. Rainfall, the ultimate source of freshwater, is saturated with nitrogen, oxygen,

carbon dioxide, and a few other gases.
b. Its sweeps dust, pollutants, and other particles from the air, and these substances
dissolve in rain drops.

Isotonic animal (pg-34)

a. Invertebrates such as decapod crustaceans and bivalves tend to conform to their

environmental salinity more than fish.
b. They tend to be isotonic in seawater, although the ion concentrations of their
body fluids differ from seawater.

Dissolved oxygen (pg-.36)

a. Oxygen is needed to oxidize organic matter from food to provide energy for
biological activities.
b. Low DO concentration may cause chronic problems of poor appetite, slow
growth, and increased susceptibility to diseases.

Extensive farming system (pg-39)

 Extensive, where the cultured stock is entirely dependent on the food organisms
naturally produced in the system,
 such as, for example, phytoplankton and zooplankton in a pond.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Mineral Deficiencies in fish (pg-47)

a. Mineral deficiencies in fish can manifest in a multitude of nutrition-related

diseases.
b. The most prevent symptoms of mineral deficiency in fish are a reduction in
feeding and growth performance, followed by skeletal malformations and
hemorrhaging to the skin and fins.

Oxidative conditions (Ozone) (pg.57)

a. Oxidative conditions are preferable and ozone produces such conditions.

b. Ozone is also safe as it and its oxide derivatives have a very short half-life and
the final product, oxygen, is very useful.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

5 MARKS

1. Structure used for aquaculture (pg-4) (5 Mrk)

- A small fertilization tank

- A embryonic development tank with gentle flow through of water
- A larval tank with gentle circulation
- A fingerling tank with gentle flow-through of water
- A pond for growth of fingerlings to large juveniles;
- A cage for grow-out to harvest.

2. Hatchery systems (pg-9)

Hatcheries are those aquaculture facilities associated with reproduction, larval rearing and supply of
juveniles to farm. A single hatchery often supplies a large number of farms, although many aquaculture
industries (e.g. the oyster and eel industry) stay rely heavily on natural recruitment as a source of aquaculture
stock; natural recruitment, other benefits of hatchery production include the potential for genetic
improvement of culture stock and the reduced potential conflict with capture fisheries.

3. Extensive Pond Farming (pg-13) (5 Mrk)

This long-established farming methods consists of maintaining ponds (natural or artificial) in such a
way that they foster the development of aquatic fauna. Earthen are cleaned and fertilized to stimulate aquatic
vegetation and consequently intensify the presence of micro-organisms, small molluscs and crustaceans,
larvae and worms, which form the base of the aquatic food pyramid. This encourages the development of
marketable animals at a higher yield than that of the natural ecosystem. Production in extensive farms is
generally low (less than 1 t/ha/y). The species produced vary according to regions: different species of carp
and catfish.

4. Artificial Reproduction (pg-15) (5 Mrk)

Artificial reproduction by induced breeding through hormone treatment followed by artificial

fertilization and incubation of fertilized eggs and the subsequent rearing of larvae to fingerling size has several
advantages including:

- Better rates of fertilization and hatching

- Protection against enemies and unfavourable environmental conditions
- Better conditions for growth and survival

5. Sexual dimorphism of tilapia (pg-21) (5 Mrk) (Hand-sexing)

Tilapias display distinct sexual dimorphism as they become juveniles. The males and females are
differentiated by means of their genital morphology.

- Males have a single longer and pointed opening which serves as an urogenital pore.

- Females have two round openings, one for urinary excretion and another for expulsion of eggs
in the urogenital papillae.

This differentiation becomes more obvious when the fish are 10 g and larger.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

6. Low pH on gill structure and function in freshwater fish (pg-35)

1. Inhibition of sodium and chloride uptake.

2. Increased ion permeability and ion efflux.
3. Increased hydrogen ion influx.
4. Increased mucus production.
5. Mucus coagulation and precipitation.
6. Inhibition of gas exchange.
7. Damage to epithelial layers.

7. Ammonia and nitrate (pg-37)

The tolerance of aquatic organisms to ammonia varies with species, physiological condition, and
environmental factors. Lethal concentration to warmwater fish and crustaceans for 24-96 h exposure are
between 0.4 and 2.0 mg/L of un-ionized ammonia.

Ammonia concentrations in ponds are difficult to evaluate. Because of daily fluctuation in pH,
unionized ammonia concentrations change continuously. Although afternoon pH may be high in ponds, it
seldom remains at its greatest level for more than 1 or 2 hours.
8. Dietary proteins for aquatic animals (pg-40)
Dietary protein are broken down in stages to polypeptides, peptides and then amino acids by several different
proteases, including pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin, which are able to act on peptides and break bonds
between specific amino acids. Amylase, chitinase and other various carbohydrate-digesting enzymes are
responsible for the emulsification and subsequent digestion of lipids. Products of digestion, mostly comprising
basics molecules such as amino acids, fatty acids and glucose, are then absorbed into the bloodstream by
passive diffusion or active transport.
9. Sneizko three-ring Venn diagram of the interactions between host, pathogen, and environment

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
10. Chlorine (pg-57)
Chlorine is very dangerous to use as a sterilizing agent in organically polluted waters due to the
formation of chloramines. These are highly reactive, have a long half-life and are not neutralised by
chemicals used to remove free chlorine. Many aquaculturists have neutralised free chlorine and
subsequently watched in horror as their fry proceeded to die from chloramine toxicity when the water was
used.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

Structure used for aquaculture (pg-4)

1. A small fertilization tank
2. A embryonic development tank with gentle flow through of water
3. A larval tank with gentle circulation
4. A fingerling tank with gentle flow-through of water
5. A pond for growth of fingerlings to large juveniles;
6. A cage for grow-out to harvest.
Hatchery systems (pg-9)

 Hatcheries are those aquaculture facilities associated with reproduction, larval

rearing and supply of juveniles to farm.
 A single hatchery often supplies a large number of farms, although many
aquaculture industries (e.g. the oyster and eel industry) stay rely heavily on
natural recruitment as a source of aquaculture stock;
 natural recruitment, other benefits of hatchery production include the potential
for genetic improvement of culture stock and the reduced potential conflict with
capture fisheries.

Extensive Pond Farming (pg-13)

1. This long-established farming methods consists of maintaining ponds (natural

or artificial) in such a way that they foster the development of aquatic fauna.
2. Earthen are cleaned and fertilized to stimulate aquatic vegetation and
consequently intensify the presence of micro-organisms, small molluscs and
crustaceans, larvae and worms, which form the base of the aquatic food
pyramid.
3. This encourages the development of marketable animals at a higher yield than
that of the natural ecosystem.
4. Production in extensive farms is generally low (less than 1 t/ha/y).
5. The species produced vary according to regions: different species of carp and
catfish.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

Artificial Reproduction (pg-15)

 Artificial reproduction by induced breeding through hormone treatment

followed by artificial fertilization and
 incubation of fertilized eggs and the subsequent rearing of larvae to fingerling
size has several advantages including:

- Better rates of fertilization and hatching

- Protection against enemies and unfavourable environmental conditions
- Better conditions for growth and survival
Sexual dimorphism of tilapia (pg-21) (5 Mrk) (Hand-sexing)

1. Tilapias display distinct sexual dimorphism as they become juveniles.

2. The males and females are differentiated by means of their genital morphology.

- Males have a single longer and pointed opening which serves as an

urogenital pore.

- Females have two round openings, one for urinary excretion and another
for expulsion of eggs in the urogenital papillae.

3. This differentiation becomes more obvious when the fish are 10 g and larger.

Low pH on gill structure and function in freshwater fish (pg-35)

1. Inhibition of sodium and chloride uptake.

2. Increased ion permeability and ion efflux.
3. Increased hydrogen ion influx.
4. Increased mucus production.
5. Mucus coagulation and precipitation.
6. Inhibition of gas exchange.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
7. Damage to epithelial layers.

Ammonia and nitrate (pg-37)

1. The tolerance of aquatic organisms to ammonia varies with species,

physiological condition, and environmental factors.
2. Lethal concentration to warmwater fish and crustaceans for 24-96 h exposure
are between 0.4 and 2.0 mg/L of un-ionized ammonia.
3. Ammonia concentrations in ponds are difficult to evaluate.
4. Because of daily fluctuation in pH, unionized ammonia concentrations change
continuously.
5. Although afternoon pH may be high in ponds, it seldom remains at its greatest
level for more than 1 or 2 hours.

Dietary proteins for aquatic animals (pg-40)

 Dietary protein are broken down in stages to polypeptides, peptides and then
amino acids
 by several different proteases, including pepsin, trypsin and chymotrypsin,
which are able to act on peptides and break bonds between specific amino acids.
 Amylase, chitinase and other various carbohydrate-digesting enzymes are
responsible for the emulsification and subsequent digestion of lipids.
 Products of digestion, mostly comprising basics molecules such as amino acids,
fatty acids and glucose,
 are then absorbed into the bloodstream by passive diffusion or active transport.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE

Sneizko three-ring Venn diagram of the interactions between host, pathogen, and
environment

Chlorine (pg-57)

1. Chlorine is very dangerous to use as a sterilizing agent in organically

polluted waters due to the formation of chloramines.
2. These are highly reactive, have a long half-life and are not neutralised by
chemicals used to remove free chlorine.
3. Many aquaculturists have neutralised free chlorine and subsequently
watched in horror as their fry proceeded to die from chloramine toxicity
when the water was used.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
10 MARKS
1. Farming Systems Distribution in Myanmar (pg-3) (10 Mrk)

The most intensive fish culture activities are found in Ayeyarwaddy Division and the Rakhine
State is the major area for extensive shrimp farming. In Myeik, intensive Sea bass and Whiteleg
shrimp farming are found.

Rice bran and oil cakes are the major ingredients used in the daily feed for fin fish with
organic fertilizers such as cow dung, poultry waste and limes also being applied. At present floating
and sinking pelleted feed is replacing and probiotics are increasing being used to control the water
conditions.

As shrimp culture is a recent development in aquaculture, feed was initially imported from
neighboring countries, however, at present, to supply the rapid development and subsequent demand
a good number of feed factories have been established with more under construction. A whole range
of technology, machinery and additives have been supplied from various countries including United
States, China, Japan and Thailand.

2. Cages (pg-7) (10 Mrk)

Cages are intermediate to tanks and ponds in capital cost, and are relatively cheap to operate,
requiring maintenance but no pumping. Cages located in open systems allow no control over water
quality and therefore require a good site with adequate of high-quality water. If sited correctly,
intensive farming at stocking densities up to 15-14 kg/m3 can be achieved. Being in the ambient
water, cages have problems with:
- fouling of the meshes by species such as weeds, bivalves and sponges, which reduce the flow
of water through the cage
- predators, e.g. seals, birds
- parasites
- diseases, which are difficult to manage, as cultured stock are difficult to observe and diseases
are not easily treated except with medicated feeds;
- algae bloom

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
3. Reproductive biology of Tiger Shrimp, Penaeus monodom (pg-25-26) (10 Mrk)
Penaeus monodom mature and breed only in tropical marine habitats and spend their larval
juvenile, adolescent and sub-adult stages in costal estuaries, lagoons or mangrove areas. In the wild,
they show marked nocturnal activity, burrowing into bottom substratum during the day and emerging
at night to search for food as benthic feeders. Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more
of a predator than an omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than other penaeid shrimp. After
molting, the new shell is still soft which causes prawns to become vulnerable and they may
subsequently be eaten by their predators or companions. Adults are often found over muddy sand or
sandy bottoms at 20-50 m depth in offshore waters. Wild males possess spermatozoa from around 35
g body weight and females becomes gravid from 70 g. Mating occurs at night shortly after molting
while the cuticle is soft, and sperm are subsequently kept in a spermatophore (sac) inserted inside the
closed the lycum of the females.

4. Water temperature (pg-33) (10 Mrk)

Temperature is perhaps the most important water quality variable for it directly or indirectly
affects other water quality variables, natural productivity, and culture species. It is seldom possible to
alter water temperature in outdoor culture, and cultured species that grow well at the water
temperature range of a particular site must be selected.
Increasing temperature increases the rate of physical process, chemical reaction, and
metabolism and growth of organisms. Water temperature must be monitored during the culture
period because it is useful to know if suboptimum growth is the results of water temperature. In some
tropical regions, water temperature averages a few degrees lower in the dry season than in the wet
season. Nevertheless, producers often fail to recognize the temperature effect and seek other reasons
for slower growth in the dry seasons.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Farming Systems Distribution in Myanmar (pg-3)

1. The most intensive fish culture activities are found in Ayeyarwaddy Division

and the Rakhine State is the major area for extensive shrimp farming.

2. In Myeik, intensive Sea bass and Whiteleg shrimp farming are found.

3. Rice bran and oil cakes are the major ingredients used in the daily feed for fin

fish with organic fertilizers such as cow dung, poultry waste and limes also

being applied.

4. At present floating and sinking pelleted feed is replacing and probiotics are

increasing being used to control the water conditions.

5. As shrimp culture is a recent development in aquaculture, feed was initially

imported from neighboring countries, however, at present, to supply the rapid

development and subsequent demand a good number of feed factories have

been established with more under construction.

6. A whole range of technology, machinery and additives have been supplied from

various countries including United States, China, Japan and Thailand.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Cages (pg-7) (10 Mrk)

1. Cages are intermediate to tanks and ponds in capital cost, and are

relatively cheap to operate, requiring maintenance but no pumping.

2. Cages located in open systems allow no control over water quality

and therefore require a good site with adequate of high-quality water.

3. If sited correctly, intensive farming at stocking densities up to 15-14

kg/m3 can be achieved.

4. Being in the ambient water, cages have problems with:

- fouling of the meshes by species such as weeds, bivalves and sponges,

which reduce the flow of water through the cage

- predators, e.g. seals, birds

- parasites

- diseases, which are difficult to manage, as cultured stock are difficult

to observe and diseases are not easily treated except with medicated

feeds;

- algae bloom

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Reproductive biology of Tiger Shrimp, Penaeus monodom (pg-25)

1. Penaeus monodom mature and breed only in tropical marine habitats and

spend their larval juvenile, adolescent and sub-adult stages in costal estuaries,

lagoons or mangrove areas.

2. In the wild, they show marked nocturnal activity, burrowing into bottom

substratum during the day and emerging at night to search for food as benthic

feeders.

3. Under natural conditions, the giant tiger prawn is more of a predator than an

omnivorous scavenger or detritus feeder than other penaeid shrimp.

4. After molting, the new shell is still soft which causes prawns to become

vulnerable and they may subsequently be eaten by their predators or

companions.

5. Adults are often found over muddy sand or sandy bottoms at 20-50 m depth in

offshore waters.

6. Wild males possess spermatozoa from around 35 g body weight and females

becomes gravid from 70 g.

7. Mating occurs at night shortly after molting while the cuticle is soft, and sperm

are subsequently kept in a spermatophore (sac) inserted inside the closed the

lycum of the females.

Aung Ko Ko
 Phoo pwint may aung / ( Zool-4102 ) / AQUACULTURE
Water temperature
Temperature is perhaps the most important water quality variable for it directly or indirectly
affects other water quality variables, natural productivity, and culture species. It is seldom possible to
alter water temperature in outdoor culture, and cultured species that grow well at the water
temperature range of a particular site must be selected.
Increasing temperature increases the rate of physical process, chemical reaction, and
metabolism and growth of organisms. Water temperature must be monitored during the culture
period because it is useful to know if suboptimum growth is the results of water temperature. In some
tropical regions, water temperature averages a few degrees lower in the dry season than in the wet
season. Nevertheless, producers often fail to recognize the temperature effect and seek other reasons
for slower growth in the dry seasons.

Aung Ko Ko