BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.google.com
https://hemantmore.org.in/foundation/science/physics/moving-coil-galvanometer/2896/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanometer
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special
thanks of gratitude to my teacher Mrs Pravesh Bahl as well as our
principal Mr. Narender Chauhan who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project on the “Topic The
Moving Coil Galvanometer” which also helped me in doing a lot
of Research and I came to know about so many new things am
really thankful to them.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who

helped me a lot in finalizing this project within the limited time
frame.

BY
DEVYANI
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the
project entitled “Galvanometer” by Ms. Devyani
Thakur student of BL Central Public Sen. Sec.
School Solan submitted her project under
guidance of Mrs. Pravesh Bahl.

Teacher’s Sign.
 BL CENTRAL PUBLIC SEN. SEC. SCHOOL SOLAN

PROJECT FILE
OF
PHYSICS
TOPIC :-

GALVANOMETER
{SESSION:2019-20}

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

DEVYANI THAKUR MRS. PRAVESH BAHL
CLASS : 12TH NON-MED

DAVISSON-GERMER
EXPERIMENT
The Davisson-Germer experiment demonstrated the
wave nature of the electron, confirming the earlier
hypothesis of deBroglie. Putting wave-particle duality
on a firm experimental footing, it represented a major
step forward in the development of quantum
mechanics. The Bragg law for diffraction had been
applied to x-ray diffraction, but this was the first
application to particle waves.
 Davisson, C. J., "Are Electrons Waves?," Franklin Institute Journal 205, 597 (1928)

Davisson and Germer designed and built a vacuum

apparatus for the purpose of measuring the energies of
electrons scattered from a metal surface. Electrons
from a heated filament were accelerated by a voltage
and allowed to strike the surface of nickel metal.
The electron beam was directed at the nickel target,
which could be rotated to observe angular dependence
of the scattered electrons. Their electron detector
(called a Faraday box) was mounted on an arc so that
it could be rotated to observe electrons at different
angles. It was a great surprise to them to find that at
certain angles there was a peak in the intensity of the
scattered electron beam. This peak indicated wave
behavior for the electrons, and could be interpreted by
the Bragg law to give values for the lattice spacing in
the nickel crystal.
The experimental data above, reproduced above
Davisson's article, shows repeated peaks of scattered
electron intensity with increasing accelerating voltage.
This data was collected at a fixed scattering angle.
Using the Bragg law, the deBroglie
wavelength expression, and the kinetic energy of the
accelerated electrons gives the relationship

In the historical data, an accelerating voltage of 54

volts gave a definite peak at a scattering angle of 50°.
The angle theta in the Bragg law corresponding to that
scattering angle is 65°, and for that angle the
calculated lattice spacing is 0.092 nm. For that lattice
spacing and scattering angle, the relationship for
wavelength as a function of voltage is empirically

Trying this relationship for n=1,2,3 gives values for

the square root of voltage 7.36, 14.7 and 22, which
appear to agree with the first, third and fifth peaks
above. Then what gives the second, fourth and sixth
peaks? Perhaps they originate from a different set of
planes in the crystal. Those peaks satisfy a sequence
2,3,4, suggesting that the first peak of that series
would have been at 5.85 . That corresponds to an
electron wavelength of 0.21 nm and a lattice spacing
of 0.116 nm ?? I don't know if that makes sense. I
need to look at the original article.
 Bragg's Law

When x-rays are scattered from a crystal lattice, peaks

of scattered intensity are observed which correspond
to the following conditions:
The angle of incidence = angle of scattering.
The pathlength difference is equal to an integer
number of wavelengths.
The condition for maximum intensity contained in
Bragg's law above allow us to calculate details about
the crystal structure, or if the crystal structure is
 known, to determine the wavelength of the x-rays
incident upon the crystal.

Top of Form
For a
= 0.3293
nm and order n = 1
,
wavelength

a lattice spacing of d = 0.215

nm

would give a diffraction maximum = 50

degrees
at .
Bottom of Form
This calculation is designed to calculate wavelength,
crystal plane separation or diffraction angle. After
entering data, click on the symbol of the quantity you
wish to calculate in the active graphic above. Default
data will be entered for any unspecified quantity, but
all values can be changed.

Bragg Spectrometer
Much of our knowledge about crystal structure and
the structure of molecules as complex as DNA in
crystalline form comes from the use of x-rays in x-ray
diffraction studies. A basic instrument for such study
is the Bragg spectrometer.
To obtain nearly monochromatic x-rays, an x-ray
tube is used to produce characteristic x-rays. In order
to eliminate as much of
the brehmsstrahlung continuum radiation as possible,
matched filters are used in the x-ray beam to optimize
the fraction of the energy which is in the K-alpha line.
Such filters use elements just above and just below the
metal in the x-ray target, making use of the strong
"absorption edges" just above and below the K-alpha
energy of the target metal.
The x-rays are collimated with apertures in a strong x-
ray absorber (usually lead) and the narrow resulting x-
ray beam is allowed to strike the crystal to be studied.
The spectrometer arrangement couples the rotation of
the crystal with the rotation of the detector so that the
angle of rotation of the detector is twice that of the
crystal. This satisfies the conditions of Bragg's law for
diffraction of the x-rays from the crystal lattice planes.
 Wave Nature of Electron
As a young student at the University of Paris, Louis
DeBroglie had been impacted by relativity and
the photoelectric effect, both of which had been
introduced in his lifetime. The photoelectric effect
pointed to the particle properties of light, which had
been considered to be a wave phenomenon. He
wondered if electrons and other "particles" might
exhibit wave properties. The application of these two
new ideas to light pointed to an interesting possibility:
Confirmation of the DeBroglie hypothesis came in the Davisson- Germer experiment.

Examples of Electron Waves

Two specific examples supporting the wave nature of
electrons as suggested in the DeBroglie hypothesis are
the discrete atomic energy levels and the diffraction of
electrons from crystal planes in solid materials. In the
Bohr model of atomic energy levels, the electron
waves can be visualized as "wrapping around" the
circumference of an electron orbit in such a way as to
experience constructive interference.
The wave nature of the electron must be invoked to
explain the behavior of electrons when they are
confined to dimensions on the order of the size of an
atom. This wave nature is used for the quantum
mechanical "particle in a box" and the result of this
calculation is used to describe the density of energy
states for electrons in solids.

DeBroglie Hypothesis
Suggested by De Broglie in about 1923, the path to
the wavelength expression for a particle is by analogy
to the momentum of a photon. Starting with
the Einstein formula:

Another way of expressing this is:

Therefore, for a particle of zero rest mass

For a photon:

The momentum-wavelength relationship for a photon

can then be derived and this DeBroglie wavelength
relationship applies to other particles as well.

DeBroglie Wavelengths
The Davisson-Germer experiment showed
that electrons exhibit the DeBroglie wavelength given
by:
 If you explore the wavelength values for ordinary
macroscopic objects like baseballs, you will find that
their DeBroglie wavelengths are ridiculously small.
Comparison of the power of ten for the wavelength
will show what the wavelengths of ordinary objects
are much smaller than a nucleus. The implication is
that for ordinary objects, you will never see any
evidence of their wave nature, and they can be
considered to be particles for all practical purposes.