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Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology 11

Louise Cummings Editor

Research
in Clinical
Pragmatics
Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy
& Psychology

Volume 11

Editor-in-Chief
Alessandro Capone, University of Messina, Italy

Consulting Editors
Keith Allan, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
Louise Cummings, Nottingham Trent University, UK
Wayne A. Davis, Georgetown University, Washington, USA
Igor Douven, Paris-Sorbonne University, France
Yan Huang, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Istvan Kecskes, State University of New York at Albany, USA
Franco Lo Piparo, University of Palermo, Italy
Antonino Pennisi, University of Messina, Italy

Editorial Board Members

Noel Burton-Roberts, University of Newcastle, UK
Brian Butler, University of North Carolina, Asheville, USA
Felice Cimatti, Università della Calabria, Cosenza, Italy
Eros Corazza, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
Marcelo Dascal, Tel Aviv University, Israel
Michael Devitt, Graduate Center, City University of New York, USA
Frans van Eemeren, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Alessandra Falzone, University of Messina, Italy
Neil Feit, State University of New York, Fredonia, USA
Alessandra Giorgi, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy
Larry Horn, Yale University, New Haven, USA
Klaus von Heusinger, University of Stuttgart, Germany
Katarzyna Jaszczolt, University of Cambridge, UK
Ferenc Kiefer, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
Kepa Korta, ILCLI, Donostia, Spain
Ernest Lepore, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, USA
Stephen C. Levinson, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
Fabrizio Macagno, New University of Lisbon, Portugal
Tullio De Mauro, ‘La Sapienza’ University, Rome, Italy
Jacob L. Mey, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
Pietro Perconti, University of Messina, Italy
Francesca Piazza, University of Palermo, Italy
Roland Posner, Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany
Mark Richard, Harvard University, Cambridge, USA
Nathan Salmon, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA
Stephen R. Schiffer, New York University, USA
Michel Seymour, University of Montreal, Canada
Mandy Simons, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, USA
Timothy Williamson, University of Oxford, UK
Anna Wierzbicka, Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
Dorota Zielińska, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11797
Louise Cummings
Editor

Research in Clinical
Pragmatics
Editor
Louise Cummings
School of Arts and Humanities
Nottingham Trent University
Nottingham, UK

ISSN 2214-3807     ISSN 2214-3815 (electronic)

Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology
ISBN 978-3-319-47487-8 ISBN 978-3-319-47489-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016963153

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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Preface

Clinical pragmatics is still a relative newcomer to the study of language and com-
munication disorders and is a recent offshoot of linguistic pragmatics. Yet, this field
has already produced an abundance of empirical findings. It has also contributed in
significant ways to the clinical management of clients with pragmatic disorders and
to theoretical developments in disciplines such as linguistics, psychology and cog-
nitive science. So rapid has been the growth of this area of study that it is now the
right time to take a step back and assess what has been achieved. An assessment of
the state of the art in clinical pragmatics lies at the heart of this volume. But another
equally important purpose has motivated the production of this book. That purpose
is to chart the road ahead for clinical pragmatic researchers. With so many new find-
ings and ideas to consider, it is easy to overlook what still needs to be achieved. It is
important for the many children and adults who have pragmatic disorders that clini-
cians and researchers also look forward to new areas of exploration.
The five-part structure of this volume reflects the full scope of inquiry that has
been conducted within clinical pragmatics. The first two sections on developmental
pragmatic disorders and acquired pragmatic disorders include chapters on the
pragmatic features of a range of clinical populations. Some of these populations
(e.g. autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia) have been extensively investi-
gated to date, although there is still much work to be done. Other populations (e.g.
cerebral palsy and non-Alzheimer dementias) are only beginning to receive the
attention of investigators. The choice of the term ‘pragmatic features’ is intended to
reflect the fact that alongside the often significant pragmatic impairments in these
client populations, there are also considerable areas of preserved pragmatic skill.
This is often overlooked in the search for deficits. Intact pragmatic abilities can
often be harnessed during intervention and are given the prominence they deserve
in the chapters in these sections. These chapters also include conversational and
other data that illustrate the pragmatic skills and deficits of clients. In order to
understand fully pragmatic behaviours, both skills and deficits, readers must ‘see’
how they manifest in conversation and other forms of discourse as well as read
descriptions of these behaviours.

v
vi Preface

The section on pragmatic disorders in other populations recognizes that there is

a growing literature on, and awareness of, pragmatic disorders in clients who have
not traditionally been in receipt of clinical language services for the remediation of
pragmatics. This includes children and adults who have sensory deficits such as
hearing loss and visual impairment. Evidence indicates that young children who are
deaf or hard of hearing are significantly older than their hearing peers when they
demonstrate many complex language skills. There is also a growing body of research
that pragmatic language presents a greater challenge for children with visual impair-
ment. Fluency disorders such as stuttering and cluttering create their own challenges
for pragmatic language skills. Pragmatic deficits are a feature of several disorders
(e.g. ADHD) that co-occur with fluency disorders. Fluency disorders may also have
a negative impact on social interaction and pragmatics. Each of these disorders must
move from a position of relative obscurity in clinical pragmatics to assume greater
prominence in the discussions of clinicians and researchers.
The section on management of pragmatic disorders examines the proliferation of
techniques and approaches to assessment and intervention that has occurred in
recent years. In terms of assessment, pragmatic language skills in children and
adults may be evaluated by means of checklists, standardized tests, self-report mea-
sures and approaches such as conversation analysis and discourse analysis. The
choice of method of assessment must be guided by a range of considerations, only
some of which are related to attributes of the client such as chronological age and
developmental level. Interventions are equally wide-ranging in nature and may tar-
get behaviours of communication partners as well as clients. The chapters in this
section guide readers through the complex considerations which clinicians must
address in order to manage clients with pragmatic disorders.
The final section in the volume on recent developments in pragmatic disorders
addresses aspects of pragmatic disorders which do not often appear centre stage.
The psychosocial aspects of pragmatic disorders have been largely subordinated to
a range of other concerns, even though the mitigation of the psychological distress
and impairments of social functioning that are caused by these disorders should be
at the forefront of everything clinicians and researchers do. The cognitive and neural
aspects of pragmatic disorders are more often addressed in the cognitive and neuro-
sciences even though they have central relevance to an explanation of these disor-
ders. It is hoped that by featuring these aspects of pragmatic disorders in a dedicated
section of the volume, some much needed emphasis will be achieved.
Lastly, this volume has only been possible because of the combined efforts of a
wide range of expert clinicians, researchers and scholars. Collectively, the authors
of these chapters embody a wealth of clinical knowledge and experience in the area
of clinical pragmatics. Each is motivated by a concern to better understand, and
improve the lives of, children and adults with pragmatic disorders. Their enthusiasm
in this quest, I believe, is evident in every page of this volume. I hope readers will
agree. For my part, I know I have grown as a clinical pragmatist from the experience
of working with these authors.

Nottingham, UK Louise Cummings

Acknowledgements

I wish to acknowledge Jolanda Voogd (senior publishing editor, Language Education

and Linguistics, Springer) and Alessandro Capone for their positive response to the
proposal of a book in the area of clinical pragmatics. It was Alessandro who urged
me to contribute this volume to his series Perspectives in Pragmatics, Philosophy &
Psychology. I am grateful to him for encouraging me to bring this collection of
papers together. I would also like to acknowledge Helen van der Stelt (assistant
­editor, Language Education and Linguistics, Springer) for her assistance at various
steps throughout this project. Gratitude is extended to Judith Heaney who worked
on the preparation of the final manuscript. Her attention to detail is truly valued.
Finally, I have been supported in this endeavour by family members and friends
who are too numerous to mention individually. I am grateful to them for their kind
words of encouragement during my many months of editing.

vii
Contents

Part I Developmental Pragmatic Disorders

1 Pragmatic Development.......................................................................... 3
Gabriella Airenti
2 Pragmatic Language Impairment.......................................................... 29
Mieke P. Ketelaars and Mariëtte T.J.A. Embrechts
3 Autism Spectrum Disorder..................................................................... 59
Joanne Volden
4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder.............................................. 85
Soile Loukusa
5 Intellectual Disability............................................................................... 109
Gary E. Martin, Michelle Lee, and Molly Losh
6 Childhood Brain Tumour........................................................................ 131
Kimberley Docking, Philippe Paquier, and Angela Morgan
7 Cerebral Palsy.......................................................................................... 165
Stéphanie Caillies

Part II Acquired Pragmatic Disorders

8 Disruption of Pragmatics in Adulthood................................................. 181
Caroline Jagoe
9 Aphasias.................................................................................................... 211
Gloria Streit Olness and Hanna K. Ulatowska
10 Right-Hemisphere Pragmatic Disorders................................................ 243
Margaret Lehman Blake

ix
x Contents

11 Schizophrenia........................................................................................... 267
Francesca M. Bosco and Alberto Parola
12 Traumatic Brain Injury........................................................................... 291
Lyn S. Turkstra and Adam M. Politis
13 Alzheimer’s Dementia.............................................................................. 323
Jacqueline Guendouzi and Meghan Savage
14 Non-Alzheimer Dementias...................................................................... 347
Angela Roberts, Marie Savundranayagam, and J.B. Orange
15 Parkinson’s Disease Without Dementia................................................. 379
Thomas Holtgraves and Magda Giordano

Part III Pragmatic Disorders in Other Populations

16 Hearing Loss and Cochlear Implantation............................................. 411
Louise Paatsch, Dianne Toe, and Amelia Church
17 Congenital Visual Impairment................................................................ 441
Rebecca Greenaway and Naomi J. Dale
18 Stuttering and Cluttering........................................................................ 471
Kathleen Scaler Scott

Part IV Management of Pragmatic Disorders

19 Pragmatic Assessment and Intervention in Children........................... 493
Yvette D. Hyter
20 Pragmatic Assessment and Intervention in Adults............................... 527
Charlotta Saldert

Part V Recent Developments in Pragmatic Disorders

21 Neural Aspects of Pragmatic Disorders................................................. 561
Brigitte Stemmer
22 Cognitive Aspects of Pragmatic Disorders............................................ 587
Louise Cummings
23 Psychosocial Aspects of Pragmatic Disorders....................................... 617
Pamela Snow and Jacinta Douglas
About the Authors

Gabriella Airenti is associate professor of developmental psychology at the

University of Turin, where she is one of the founders of the Center for Cognitive
Science and a member of the scientific board of the Center for Logic, Language, and
Cognition. She has been a visiting scholar at King’s College, Cambridge (1990);
invited professor at the Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris (1999); and invited
researcher at the Institute of Advanced Studies of Paris (2010). She is the current
president of the Italian Cognitive Science Association (AISC). She works on the
acquisition of pragmatic abilities and theory of mind.

Margaret Lehman Blake PhD, CCC-SLP, is an associate professor in the

Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders at the University of Houston.
She served as the president of the Academy of Neurologic Communication Disorders
and Sciences (ANCDS) in 2014. Her research focuses on cognitive-communication
disorders after right hemisphere brain damage (RHD) and mild traumatic brain
injury. Her work includes basic research on underlying deficits and treatment stud-
ies. She has authored numerous articles and chapters on RHD and has presented
nationally and internationally on evidence-based practice for disorders associated
with RHD as well as ethics for speech-language pathologists.

Francesca M. Bosco is a psychologist and clinical psychotherapist. She has a PhD

in cognitive science from the University of Turin. She is currently an associate pro-
fessor of psychology of communication at the Department of Psychology at the
University of Turin, a member of the Center for Cognitive Science at the University
and Polytechnic of Turin and a member of the Neuroscience Institute of Turin
(NIT). At the University of Turin, she is also a member of the teaching council for
the doctorate in neuroscience. Her studies are concerned with the development of
pragmatic ability, its decay and rehabilitation in brain-damaged and schizophrenic
patients, the normal development of theory of mind and theory of mind deficits in
patients with schizophrenia.

xi
xii About the Authors

Stéphanie Caillies is full professor at Reims University, France, where she teaches
psychology. She is head of the university’s Cognition, Health and Socialization
(C2S) psychology laboratory, where the main focus is on social cognition. Her
research interests include language comprehension at the semantic and pragmatic
levels, which she attempts to conceptualize for falsification in different populations,
in particular typical and atypical children. Recently, she has published two papers in
Research in Developmental Disabilities: ‘Social cognition in ADHD: Irony under-
standing and recursive theory of mind’ and ‘Theory of mind and irony comprehen-
sion in children with cerebral palsy’.

Amelia Church is a lecturer in the Melbourne Graduate School of Education where

she leads subjects in language acquisition and qualitative research methodologies.
Amelia holds a PhD in linguistics from Monash University. She published her PhD
research in a monograph Preference Organisation and Peer Disputes: How Young
Children Resolve Conflict (Ashgate, 2009) as part of the series Directions in
Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis. More recently, collaborations with
other researchers have been published in an edited volume with Amanda Bateman
entitled Children’s Knowledge-in-Interaction: Studies in Conversation Analysis
(Springer, 2016). Her current research interests include communicative competence
in early childhood, peer interaction, developmental pragmatics and conversation
analysis in institutional settings.

Louise Cummings is Professor of Linguistics in the School of Arts and Humanities

at Nottingham Trent University in the UK. She teaches and conducts research in
pragmatics and clinical linguistics. She is the author of several books: Pragmatics:
A Multidisciplinary Perspective (Edinburgh University Press, 2005), Clinical
Linguistics (Edinburgh University Press, 2008), Clinical Pragmatics (Cambridge
University Press, 2009), Communication Disorders (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014),
Pragmatic Disorders (Springer, 2014), The Communication Disorders Workbook
(Cambridge University Press, 2014), Pragmatic and Discourse Disorders: A
Workbook (Cambridge University Press, 2015) and Case Studies in Communication
Disorders (Cambridge University Press, 2016). She has also edited The Routledge
Pragmatics Encyclopedia (Routledge, 2010) and The Cambridge Handbook of
Communication Disorders (Cambridge University Press, 2014).

Naomi J. Dale PhD, is a senior consultant clinical psychologist and paediatric neu-
ropsychologist at Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Foundation Trust and aca-
demic reader in paediatric neurodisability at University College London Institute of
Child Health. She has extensive clinical experience with children with visual
impairment, language impairment, autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders
and is the joint clinical lead of the hospital’s Developmental Vision Service. She
carries an extensive research portfolio and leads the Developmental Vision research
programme at the Institute of Child Health, focussing on developmental aspects of
childhood visual disorders.
About the Authors xiii

Kimberley Docking PhD, is a speech pathology researcher, teaching academic and

clinician at the University of Sydney, Australia. Her research has made important
contributions to understanding the nature of acquired language disorders in neuro-
logical populations of children with cancer and traumatic brain injury. In particular,
she is internationally recognised for her work in language outcomes in children with
brain tumour. Kimberley’s research centres on child language development and the
long-term impact of acquired brain injury in children, including longitudinal pro-
cesses, recovery mechanisms and acquisition of cognitive-communication and lan-
guage throughout childhood.

Jacinta Douglas currently holds the Summer Foundation Chair in acquired brain
injury at La Trobe University, Australia. Her qualifications span the disciplines of
speech pathology, clinical psychology and neuropsychology. She has extensive
research and clinical experience in the rehabilitation of adults with acquired brain
injury. Her research contribution is internationally recognized and has advanced
knowledge in the domains of interpersonal communication and psychosocial func-
tioning. Recent publications include articles in the Journal of Speech, Language,
and Hearing Research, the Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation and the edited
volume Rethinking Rehabilitation: Theory and Practice (CRC Press, 2015).

Mariëtte T.J.A. Embrechts is a speech-language pathologist (SLP) who special-

izes in pragmatics. At the beginning of her career, her area of expertise was parent-­
child interaction in the stuttering field, after which her focus shifted to pragmatic
skills in children and adults with autism. In an attempt to improve diagnostic assess-
ment, she developed with colleagues several questionnaires and tests including the
Nijmegen Test of Pragmatics (Harcourt 2005). Currently, she works at the Dr. Leo
Kannerhuis, a specialized expertise and treatment centre for people with autism in
the Netherlands.

Magda Giordano is a researcher at the Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad

Nacional Autónoma de México. The focus of her research has been the study of
changes in behaviour as a result of insult or injury to the central nervous system; the
search for reparation strategies, such as neural transplants; and the evaluation of the
effects of environmental toxicants. The basal ganglia are her model of study. She is
currently interested in the possible participation of these nuclei in cognitive function
in humans, in particular in the neural and cognitive basis of pragmatic language. To
test this hypothesis, she uses behavioural and neuroimaging techniques.

Rebecca Greenaway PhD, is a higher specialist clinical psychologist and paediat-

ric neuropsychologist within the Wolfson Neurodisability Service at Great Ormond
Street Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. She has extensive clinical experience with
children with autism and children with visual impairment, as well as other neurode-
velopmental and learning disorders. She is a senior clinician in the Developmental
Vision Service, which specializes in the functional vision and developmental aspects
xiv About the Authors

of childhood vision disorders. Her PhD and clinical doctorate research focused on
children with autism. More recently, she has carried out research with children with
visual impairment.

Jacqueline Guendouzi is a linguist and professor of communication sciences and

disorders at Southeastern Louisiana University, USA. Her research interests focus
on social interaction and cognitive pragmatics particularly in the context of demen-
tia. She is co-author of the book Approaches to Discourse in Dementia (Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, 2006) and coeditor of a collection Pragmatics in Dementia
Discourse (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013).

Thomas Holtgraves is professor of psychological science at Ball State University

in Muncie, Indiana, USA. He conducts interdisciplinary research, supported by the
National Science Foundation and the National Institutes of Health, into multiple
facets of language and social psychology. He is the editor of the Oxford Handbook
of Language and Social Psychology (Oxford University Press, 2014), as well as the
author of ‘Social Psychology and Language: Words, Utterances, and Conversations’
in the Handbook of Social Psychology (Fiske, Gilbert & Lindzey 2010; Wiley) and
Language as Social Action: Social Psychology and Language Use (Erlbaum, 2002).

Yvette D. Hyter PhD, CCC-SLP, ASHA Fellow, is a professor in the Department of

Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences at Western Michigan University. She
focuses on culturally/linguistically responsive services for children and families and
macro-level structures affecting full participation in daily life. As a founding mem-
ber of the Southwest Michigan Children’s Trauma Assessment Center, she addresses
social communication of children with histories of maltreatment and prenatal alco-
hol exposure and developed a pragmatic language and social communication assess-
ment battery. She serves in leadership positions regarding diversity, inclusion and
global issues in national and international organizations and teaches a study abroad
course in West Africa about the consequences of globalization.

Caroline Jagoe is assistant professor in the Department of Clinical Speech and

Language Studies, Trinity College, University of Dublin. She is a clinician and
researcher working in the area of acquired communication disorders, specifically
with aphasia and mental health disorders, where her focus is on issues of identity,
participation and wellbeing. The application of relevance theory to communication
disorders is a focus of her research. Recent publications include a paper entitled
‘Collaborative meaning-making in delusional talk as a search for mutual manifest-
ness: A relevance theory approach’ in the Journal of Interactional Research in
Communication Disorders and a book chapter entitled ‘Relevance in the context of
multimodality and aided communication’ in The Silent Partner? Language,
Interaction and Aided Communication (J&R Press, 2016).

Mieke P. Ketelaars is an assistant professor in the Department of Clinical Child

and Adolescent Studies at Leiden University. Her main interest lies in children and
About the Authors xv

adults with atypical forms of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). During her PhD,
she focused her research on classification of children with pragmatic language
impairment. In addition, she worked alongside colleagues on the standardization of
the Dutch Adaptation of the Renfrew Language Scales (Maklu 2014). After a stay
in the USA, she is currently conducting research on the phenotype of women and
girls with ASD. She has published articles in a number of international journals
including Research in Developmental Disabilities and the International Journal of
Language & Communication Disorders.

Michelle Lee is a doctoral candidate in clinical psychology at Northwestern

University Feinberg School of Medicine. Under the direction of Dr. Molly Losh, her
research focuses on developing multi-method approaches to characterizing social
language impairments and related underlying mechanisms in individuals with
autism spectrum disorder, fragile X syndrome and Down syndrome. She is also
interested in the assessment and treatment of individuals with developmental
disorders.

Molly Losh PhD, is the Jo Ann G. and Peter F. Dolle Chair in learning disabilities
and associate professor in the Department of Communication Sciences and
Disorders at Northwestern University. Her research focuses on autism and related
neurodevelopmental disorders. Its specific goal is to define genetically meaningful
traits, and language and communicative behaviours in particular, that can help to
disaggregate existing diagnostic categories into biologically meaningful constituent
features that may penetrate diagnostic boundaries and serve as more tractable tar-
gets for study and clinical application.

Soile Loukusa PhD, works as an academy research fellow at the Child Language
Research Center, Research Unit of Logopedics, Faculty of Humanities, at the
University of Oulu in Finland. She undertakes research on pragmatic abilities and
social perception skills in children and adults with autism spectrum disorder, chil-
dren with specific language impairment and children with attention deficit hyperac-
tivity disorder. Her research interests also focus on the typical development of
pragmatic skills. Prior to her current research position, she served as a university
lecturer in logopedics at the University of Oulu and as a speech and language thera-
pist for children with developmental, language and neuropsychiatric disorders.

Gary E. Martin PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Communication

Sciences and Disorders at St. John’s University in New York and a nationally certi-
fied speech-language pathologist. Before joining the faculty at St. John’s University,
Dr. Martin was a scientist at the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute
at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Dr. Martin’s research focuses on
speech and language development of children with fragile X syndrome, autism
spectrum disorder and Down syndrome, with particular emphasis on pragmatic lan-
guage, prosody and the overlap of fragile X syndrome and autism.
xvi About the Authors

Angela Morgan is an associate professor and speech pathologist with almost 20

years of clinical-research experience in her field of interest. She is head of discipline
for speech pathology at the University of Melbourne, Australia, and group leader of
the Neuroscience of Speech research group at the Murdoch Childrens Research
Institute. Her work focuses on understanding the aetiology of childhood speech and
language disorders, working across both acquired and inherited conditions. In par-
ticular, her research examines associations and distinctions of subtypes of speech
and language disorders and strives to understand the neurobiological factors under-
pinning these diagnoses.

Gloria Streit Olness PhD, is associate professor in the Department of Audiology

and Speech-Language Pathology at the University of North Texas. She is engaged
in basic and clinically applied research and teaching in neurolinguistics and reha-
bilitative neuroplasticity, with specialized focus on discourse-based communicative
profiles of individuals who have aphasia. Her lines of inquiry seek to discern funda-
mental patterns of association and dissociation across domains of neuropathology,
impairment, communicative activity and communicative participation in context.
Since 2016, she has served as associate editor for the Journal of Speech, Language,
and Hearing Research. She also collaborates actively in the development of
evidence-­based intervention, support and advocacy for people with aphasia.

J.B. Orange is professor and director in the School of Communication Sciences

and Disorders at the University of Western Ontario, Canada. His research addresses
language and cognitive-communication disorders of adults and older adults. His
studies have a special emphasis on discourse, conversation and communication of
individuals with various forms of dementia and their family caregivers. Current
research projects include the analyses of language, discourse and conversation of
individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, aphasia, frontotemporal lobe dementia,
Parkinson’s disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Other ongoing studies include
communication enhancement education and training programmes for family care-
givers of individuals with dementia.

Louise Paatsch is the associate head of school (Research and Research Training) in
the School of Education in the Faculty of Arts and Education at Deakin University.
Her background is in language development, literacy and deaf education. She has
worked in these fields since 1990 as a teacher of the deaf, academic and researcher
at the University of Melbourne and the Bionic Ear Institute, Melbourne. Her current
research relates to investigating children’s pragmatic skill development, oral lan-
guage development, speech perception and speech production. Other areas of
research include investigating play and narrative development and literacy develop-
ment and pedagogy.

Philippe Paquier is professor and head of the Department of Clinical and Cognitive
Neuropsychology at ULB-Erasme University Hospital, Brussels. He is a full profes-
sor of psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel,
About the Authors xvii

Brussels, and an associate professor of neurolinguistics and aphasiology at the

Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels. His primary research interests focus on
paediatric neurological, cognitive and speech-language disorders, with special
emphasis on epileptic encephalopathies with neurocognitive regression (continuous
spikes and waves during slow sleep, Landau-Kleffner syndrome); the syndrome of
cerebellar mutism and related disorders in children; and the long-term neurocogni-
tive outcome of childhood brain tumour survivors.

Alberto Parola received a degree in psychology from the University of Turin in

2012. At present, he is a PhD student in neuroscience in the Department of
Psychology of the University of Turin and a member of the Center for Cognitive
Science, University of Turin. His current research interest is in the field of neuro-
pragmatics and includes the study of cognitive process underlying linguistic and
pragmatic impairment in psychiatric and neurological disease.

Adam M. Politis is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Communication

Sciences and Disorders at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and a predoctoral
Intramural Research Training Award Fellow in the Graduate Partnerships Program
at the National Institutes of Health. He is interested in the cognitive neuroscience of
dyadic conversation, particularly in individuals with neuropsychological impair-
ments. Using a second-person neuroscience approach, he seeks to identify the
behavioural and neural correlates of linguistic and nonverbal coordination in con-
versation. His ultimate goal is to identify effective interventions for impairments in
social interaction resulting from traumatic brain injury.

Angela Roberts is the principal investigator for the Northwestern University

Language and Communication in Aging and Neurodegeneration Research Group
and an assistant professor in the Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of
Communication Sciences and Disorders. Her research focuses on language and
communication challenges in aging and neurodegenerative disorders, specifically
Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal lobar degen-
eration. Her research seeks to characterize the phenotypic presentations of commu-
nication impairments in these disorders, to understand the theoretical and neural
processes that explain these disruptions and to use this information to develop and
to evaluate dyad-based education and therapy programmes that address these life-­
impacting impairments.

Charlotta Saldert holds a doctorate in linguistics and is an associate professor of

speech-language pathology in the Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology at the
University of Gothenburg. Her research focuses on pragmatics and conversational
interaction in relation to stroke and progressive degenerative conditions such as
Huntington’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Her recent publications include the
articles ‘Semantic trouble sources and their repair in conversations affected by
Parkinson’s disease’ in the International Journal of Language & Communication
xviii About the Authors

Disorders (2014) and ‘An interaction-focused intervention approach to training

everyday communication partners’ in Aphasiology (2015).

Meghan Savage PhD, is a speech-language pathologist and assistant professor in

communication sciences and disorders at Southeastern Louisiana University,
USA. Her areas of interest include measuring conversational discourse and investi-
gating evidence-based interventions to improve conversational outcomes in neuro-
genic populations. Her recent articles concern conversation and aphasia.

Marie Savundranayagam is assistant professor in the School of Health Studies at

the University of Western Ontario, Canada. Her research focuses on improving
caregiving relationships through enhanced communication, identifying ways to
enhance personhood for individuals with dementia and uncovering the mechanisms
by which caregiver interventions are effective. She teaches in the area of health and
aging and is an associate editor for the Clinical Gerontologist.

Kathleen Scaler Scott is associate professor of speech-language pathology at

Misericordia University in the USA. Her research interests are largely in cluttering
and atypical disfluencies. She is the coeditor of Cluttering: A Handbook of Research,
Intervention and Education (Psychology Press, 2011) and co-author of Managing
Cluttering: A Comprehensive Guidebook of Activities (Pro-Ed, Inc., 2013), both
with Dr. David Ward. Dr. Scaler Scott is the author of numerous publications and has
spoken nationally and internationally on the topics of fluency and social pragmatic
disorders. She was the first coordinator of the International Cluttering Association.

Pamela Snow is professor and head of the School of Rural Health at La Trobe
University, Australia. She is both a psychologist and speech pathologist. She has
published extensively on language and psychosocial difficulties experienced by a
range of clinical populations, most notably survivors of traumatic brain injury and
adolescents who are adjudicated in the youth justice system. Her research also
encompasses young people in the child protection system, as well as optimal ways
of promoting early literacy skills. She is a co-author of the volume Traumatic Brain
Injury: Rehabilitation for Everyday Adaptive Living (Psychology Press, 2012) and
has recent publications in a range of psychology and speech-language pathology
journals.

Brigitte Stemmer is professor of neuroscience and neuropragmatics at the

Department of Linguistics and Translation at the Université de Montréal and
researcher at the Centre de Recherche, Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de
Montréal, Université de Montréal. She is also affiliated to the Department of
Psychology and the Lifespan Center at Brock University, St Catharines, Canada.
She holds a PhD in applied linguistics and has worked for many years as a physician
in intensive care and neurological rehabilitation. Her research interests include neu-
rolinguistics, neuropragmatics and sports medicine. In collaboration with Harry
A. Whitaker she has published the first Handbook of Neurolinguistics in 1998
About the Authors xix

followed by the Handbook of the Neuroscience of Language in 2008. She is associ-

ate editor of Brain and Cognition.

Dianne Toe is associate professor and deputy head of the School of Education in the
Faculty of Arts and Education at Deakin University. Her background is in psychol-
ogy, audiology and education. She has worked in these fields since 1983, with 27
years as an academic at the Universities of Melbourne and Newcastle and now
Deakin University. A strong foundation in developmental psychology underpins all
of Dianne’s work. She is actively involved in research relating to the development
of pragmatic language skills in children who are deaf or hard of hearing, publishing
widely and sharing this work in a range of international forums.

Lyn S. Turkstra is professor of communication sciences and disorders at the

University of Wisconsin-Madison and faculty in the Department of Surgery/
Division of Trauma Surgery and Neuroscience Training Program. She studies com-
munication outcomes in adolescents and adults with acquired brain injury. She has
published in the journals Brain Impairment and Brain Injury on pragmatic commu-
nication disorders in adolescents and adults, including studies of interactive com-
munication behaviours and social perception in adults with TBI. She is also
co-author of treatment guidelines for communication disorders after TBI published
in the Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation.

Hanna K. Ulatowska PhD, is professor in the School of Behavioral and Brain

Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas. Her primary area of research is neurolin-
guistics, more specifically investigations of discourse in aphasia and aging. The
focus of her research is the characterization of communicative competence of these
populations and how it relates to preservations and impairments of linguistic and
cognitive functioning. She has been actively involved in investigating the represen-
tation of camp experiences in narratives of elderly concentration camp survivors in
Poland. More recently, she has been involved in investigations of testimonies of
WWII American veterans.

Joanne Volden PhD, is a professor in communication sciences and disorders at the

University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, and codirector of the Autism
Research Centre at the Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital in the same city. Her clini-
cal background in speech-language pathology led to her research interest in prag-
matics and social communication. She has spent the last 15 years studying
developmental pragmatic disorders with a particular emphasis on autism spectrum
disorder. Since 2004, she has been a member of the Pathways in ASD longitudinal
developmental study, following 400 Canadian children diagnosed with ASD
between 2 and 5 years of age. Significant publications from this study have been
published in JAMA Psychiatry, the Journal of Pediatric Psychology, the Journal of
Child Psychology and Psychiatry, the Journal of Autism and Developmental
Disorders and Paediatrics and Child Health.
Contributors

Gabriella Airenti Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy

Margaret Lehman Blake Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders,
University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
Francesca M. Bosco Department of Psychology, Center for Cognitive Science,
University and Polytechnic of Turin, Turin, Italy
Stéphanie Caillies C2S, Université de Reims Champage-Ardenne, Reims, France
Amelia Church Melbourne Graduate School of Education, University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Louise Cummings School of Arts and Humanities, Nottingham Trent University,
Nottingham, UK
Naomi J. Dale Neurodisability Service, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children
NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
UCL Institute of Child Health, London, UK
Kimberley Docking Discipline of Speech Pathology, University of Sydney,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Jacinta Douglas School of Allied Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
Mariëtte T.J.A. Embrechts Research Development & Innovation, Dr. Leo
Kannerhuis, Doorwerth, The Netherlands
Magda Giordano Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla,
Querétaro, México
Rebecca Greenaway Neurodisability Service, Great Ormond Street Hospital for
Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK

xxi
xxii Contributors

Jacqueline Guendouzi Department of Health and Human Sciences,

Communication Sciences and Disorders, Southeastern Louisiana University,
Hammond, LA, USA
Thomas Holtgraves Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University,
Muncie, IN, USA
Yvette D. Hyter Department of Speech, Language & Hearing Sciences, Western
Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
Caroline Jagoe Department of Clinical Speech & Language Studies, Trinity
College, The University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Mieke P. Ketelaars Clinical Child and Adolescent Studies, Leiden University,
Leiden, The Netherlands
Michelle Lee Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern
University, Evanston, IL, USA
Molly Losh Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern
University, Evanston, IL, USA
Soile Loukusa Child Language Research Center, Research Unit of Logopedics,
University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Gary E. Martin Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, St. John’s
University, Staten Island, NY, USA
Angela Morgan Neuroscience of Speech Group, Murdoch Childrens Research
Institute, Melbourne, VC, Australia
Department of Audiology and Speech Pathology, University of Melbourne,
Melbourne, VC, Australia
Gloria Streit Olness Department of Audiology and Speech-Language Pathology,
University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
J.B. Orange School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Western
University, London, ON, Canada
Louise Paatsch Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds,
VIC, Australia
Philippe Paquier Service de Neuropsychologie, Hôpital Erasme Université Libre
de Bruxelles, Bruxelles, Belgium
Klinische Neurolinguïstiek, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
Unit of Translational Neurosciences, Universiteit Antwerpen, Antwerp, Belgium
Alberto Parola Department of Psychology, Center for Cognitive Science,
University and Polytechnic of Turin, Turin, Italy
Contributors xxiii

Adam M. Politis Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders,

University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Rehabilitation Medicine Department, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD,
USA
Angela Roberts Roxelyn and Richard Pepper Department of Communication
Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Charlotta Saldert Division of Speech-Language Pathology, Institute of
Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
Meghan Savage Department of Health and Human Sciences, Program of
Communication Sciences and Disorders, Southeastern Louisiana University,
Hammond, LA, USA
Marie Savundranayagam School of Health Studies, Western University, London,
ON, Canada
Kathleen Scaler Scott Department of Speech-Language Pathology, Misericordia
University, Dallas, PA, USA
Pamela Snow La Trobe Rural Health School, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC,
Australia
Brigitte Stemmer Centre de Recherche, Insitut Universitaire de Gériatrie de
Montréal (CRIUGM), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catherines, Canada
Dianne Toe Faculty of Arts and Education, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, VIC,
Australia
Lyn S. Turkstra Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders,
University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
Hanna K. Ulatowska School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Callier Center for
Communication Disorders, University of Texas, Dallas, TX, USA
Joanne Volden Communication Sciences and Disorders, Faculty of Rehabilitation
Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
 Part I
Developmental Pragmatic Disorders
Chapter 1
Pragmatic Development

Gabriella Airenti

Abstract In this chapter, the development of pragmatic abilities in children is

described. Pragmatic abilities are a multifaceted skill. It is argued that using and
interpreting language in communication is a demanding task that requires inference
abilities and relies on different forms of knowledge. Very often, in everyday use of
language, the pragmatic meaning of an utterance is not what is literally said.
Consequently, interpreting an utterance requires going beyond what is said in order
to identify the speaker’s communicative intentions. This kind of interpretation
requires an inferential process based on contextual knowledge or a common ground
that interlocutors are supposed to share. Children begin to participate in communi-
cative interactions very early in life, although full pragmatic development is only
achieved throughout the school years. It is described how children at different stages
of development deal with aspects of implied meaning in communication.

Keywords Common ground • Communicative act • Conversation • Development •

Nonverbal communication • Pragmatics

1.1 Introduction

In the analysis of different aspects of language, pragmatics has always been consid-
ered as the most difficult to define. Many different definitions have been proposed
but no single definition has been widely accepted (Levinson 1983). Certainly, we
can say that pragmatics is concerned with language in use. However, language use
is a substantial part of human intentional action, and humans use language in so
wide a range of contexts and situations that any attempt to define limits seems virtu-
ally impossible. We use language to interact with others and to influence them in
many different ways. It is then rather difficult to define a precise set of pragmatic
rules dictating what we can do with language in any real or imagined situation.
At the same time, we can identify a certain number of pragmatic phenomena. What is

G. Airenti (*)
Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
e-mail: gabriella.airenti@unito.it

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 3

L. Cummings (ed.), Research in Clinical Pragmatics, Perspectives in
Pragmatics, Philosophy & Psychology 11, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-47489-2_1
4 G. Airenti

the nature of these pragmatic phenomena? This point, too, is controversial. The set
of topics, which are treated in the discipline, is fairly disparate. Different theoretical
approaches focus on a wide range of phenomena, including speech acts, presupposi-
tions, implicatures, deictics, turn-taking, conversation rules, politeness rules, genres
and styles of discourse. In this chapter, I shall focus on acquisition and try to find a
path which allows us to situate all these topics within a general cognitive perspec-
tive. Let me first spend a few words on a question that is central for the definition of
pragmatics, i.e. the relationship between language and communication.
Austin and other philosophers of language have argued that language use is a
form of action. Language is then considered mainly to be a communicative tool.1 In
this perspective, the units of pragmatics are speech acts, i.e. intentional communica-
tive actions performed in order to have effects on others (Austin 1962; Searle 1969).
We use language to perform requests or promises, give orders, convince, complain,
etc. Moreover, a fundamental aspect of pragmatics is that in everyday use of lan-
guage, the pragmatic meaning of an utterance is often not what is literally said.
Then, interpreting an utterance requires going beyond what is said in order to indi-
viduate the speaker’s ‘real’ communicative intentions (Grice 1957, 1989). For
instance, if a mother tells her child: “If you don’t do your homework now, you will
skip dessert at dinner, I promise!”, her statement is not to be interpreted as a promise
but as a threat. “What a gorgeous day!” uttered on a day when it is raining heavily
probably is not simply a false statement but is meant to be an ironic way to stress
that the weather is poor. If a mother calls her son a couched potato, she is probably
criticizing his laziness. We can produce a long list of examples of this kind, which
show that, in order to understand language in use, the study of language itself is not
sufficient.
Interpreting an utterance is an inferential process based on contextual knowledge
or a common ground that the interlocutors are supposed to share (Clark 1996). The
contextual knowledge may be of different types. It can refer to what has happened
before in the conversation, what the interlocutors may perceive, what they are sup-
posed to know, the kind of relationships they have with each other, and so on. Taking
relationships as an example, the potential meaning of an utterance like “I would like
to meet you at home at five” is different if this utterance is spoken to a friend or if a
parent utters it to a child. In the first case, it may be understood as an invitation, in
the second case as an imperative. In this example and in many others, different rela-
tionships between speakers and hearers permit different communicative intentions
to be attributed to a speaker and then, in the terminology of speech act theory, dif-
ferent illocutionary forces to be assigned to statements.2

1
Against this perspective, Chomsky (1975) and his followers (e.g. Kasher 1991) maintain that
language exists per se as the expression of thought and that communication is only one of its pos-
sible functions and not the fundamental one.
2
In speech act theory, each utterance is a speech act that may be characterized on three levels of
meaning: a locutionary act (the linguistic expression of a given meaning); an illocutionary act (the
realization of a certain type of act, such as a promise or an order, i.e. an illocutionary force); and a
perlocutionary act (the effects of a particular act on the hearer). Every linguistic utterance thus has
1 Pragmatic Development 5

Using and interpreting language in communication appropriately thus requires

inference abilities and different forms of knowledge. Note that the notion of appro-
priateness or felicitousness3 is fundamental here. We could add this notion to our
definition of pragmatics: from a cognitive perspective, pragmatics might be defined
as the set of abilities that allow speakers to use language appropriately according to
different communicative situations. Then, impaired pragmatic abilities that we may
find in clients with a range of pathological conditions would amount to an inappro-
priate use of language. In this chapter, we shall describe how children acquire prag-
matic language abilities. From the viewpoint of development, it has to be emphasized
that the acquisition of pragmatic abilities is intertwined with the acquisition of other
aspects of language, namely, the grammatical structure and meaning of language.
We will have need to refer to these aspects as we chart the steps that children pass
through on their way to becoming competent language users.

1.2 Nonverbal Communication

In the introduction, pragmatics was defined as language in use. But humans may
also communicate using nonverbal means: a parent may accept a child’s request
with a smile, or refuse permission with a scornful look. Are nonverbal communica-
tive actions part of pragmatics? In a developmental perspective this is a question
that cannot be ignored. There is no doubt that children start communicating before
acquiring language. But what is the import of behaviours in the preverbal stage to
the later development of abilities to use language?
Developmental psychologists have proposed that in the preverbal stage children
acquire fundamental aspects of pragmatics. Trevarthen (1979, 1998) has argued that
infants are quite precocious in their communicative interactions with adults. Bruner
(1975, 1983) has maintained that in the preverbal stage children acquire the condi-
tions of the most fundamental speech acts. He focuses in particular on requests. His
claim is that the acquisition of language is structured around pragmatic units that a
child has already acquired in a preverbal form. For instance, there is continuity
between an act of pointing and the formulation of a request in linguistic form. Bates
et al. (1975) have distinguished two kinds of pointing, which correspond to different
speech acts, the proto-imperative (give me!) and the proto-declarative (look!). Thus,
authors who work with infants support the idea that before the acquisition of lan-
guage, infants have already acquired some fundamental aspects of conversation

linguistic content, is expressed with a certain illocutionary force, and realizes certain perlocutionary
effects (Austin 1962).
3
In speech act theory (Austin 1962), an act is judged to be felicitous if it abides by certain condi-
tions on its use. These so-called felicity conditions are that the act must be executed by the appro-
priate people, in the appropriate circumstances, following the appropriate procedure and the people
involved must be sincere in carrying out the act. The act of sentencing someone in a court of law
is infelicitous if the person carrying out the sentencing is not a judge, or if the judge does not fol-
low certain legal procedures, or if she is not in the correct place, and so forth.
6 G. Airenti

such as turn-taking, and the function of the most basic speech acts. In support of this
view, there are observational studies and experimental work which show that in
interactions between infants and their caregivers, both partners feel engaged in the
interaction and have expectations of the other’s behaviour. In fact, a number of stud-
ies have shown that experimentally induced perturbations in interactions provoke
distress both in children and their mothers (Murray 1998).
One could object that if we compare them to the skills required by adult conver-
sation, the skills required by proto-conversations involving preverbal children are at
best rudimentary. In the same spirit, one might ask whether there is any interest in
discussing them since pragmatic comprehension, as we saw at the beginning of the
chapter, requires a complex set of skills that infants surely do not possess. But it is
not possible to ignore what takes place in the preverbal stage if we are interested in
atypical development. Recent research has shown that signs of atypical develop-
ment may be detected early on if we observe how preverbal children approach other
people. Let us take as an example the use of deictics. Children with autism have
difficulty using deictic expressions. In particular, they may be unable to use per-
sonal pronouns correctly, shifting from “I” to “you”, and vice versa, when required
by conversation (Kanner 1943). It is particularly relevant that these difficulties tend
to emerge early in the deictic use of pointing. Questions about young children’s pos-
session of these skills are included in Q-CHAT, which is a promising tool for the
early diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (Allison et al. 2008). An examination of
nonverbal communication thus allows us to understand the communicative bases of
later linguistic utterances and to detect deviations from typical development.

1.3 Communication and Theory of Mind

In recent years, the relationship between the development of communication and

theory of mind has been extensively debated. Introduced by Premack and Woodruff
(1978) with the aim of understanding if nonhuman primates had representations of
others’ minds, the concept of theory of mind has been adopted by developmental
psychologists as a tool for investigating children’s representations of their own and
other minds, both in typical and atypical development. The common assumption is
that if communication is made possible by the mutual representation of interlocu-
tors’ intentions, then it is reasonable to consider the ability to read other minds as a
prerequisite for communication. Moreover, impairments in communication such as
we find in autism may be ascribed to flawed development of theory of mind
(Wimmer and Perner 1983; Baron-Cohen et al. 1985).
Actually, the relationship between communication and theory of mind is more
complex than it was conceived at the outset of this research. Communication is a
multifaceted phenomenon. Do all aspects of communication depend on the
­development of theory of mind? If we take a strictly Gricean point of view, this is
1 Pragmatic Development 7

the case4 since any communicative act requires second-order representations.

However, this is a theoretical stance based on adult communication, and it is rather
difficult to adapt it to what we know about early development of pragmatic abilities
(Airenti 1998; Breheny 2006; Risjord 1996). Since children are able to communi-
cate well before being able to use language, we have to recognize that there are
forms of communication that do not require a full-fledged theory of mind. The
results of an impressive amount of experimental work have led investigators to pos-
tulate different levels of development of theory of mind, and it is reasonable to
hypothesize that these levels may correspond to different degrees of elaboration of
communication skills5. This hypothesis would explain why young children have
“full” communicative interactions even if their abilities to comprehend and produce
communicative acts are much simpler than those possessed by adults.

1.4 The Beginning of Conversation and the First Speech Acts

Communication with young children is a kind of paradox. If we observe children in

conversation, they show the co-existence of precocity and immaturity (Ninio and
Snow 1996). Infants may use very simple behaviours like cooing and babbling and
yet adults feel involved in interaction with them. We may explain this fact by taking
into consideration one of the fundamental aspects of pragmatics, that is, the struc-
ture of conversation itself. In any dialogue, there are contents that have to be com-
municated and understood and there is a form in which these contents are expressed.
Conversation has rules. It is characterized by a number of features at two different
levels. At the basic level, there are features that define the format of conversation
itself. These features include turn-taking. They are probably universal and we find
them already in infants. However, there is another level, which concerns the socially
approved management of these rules. This cognitive level changes with age, since
the adult way of dealing with a conversation requires planning communicative con-
tents and adapting them to the social rules of conversation. An important part of
these rules regards the specific linguistic forms that adults consider to be polite
ways to address other people in different circumstances. These rules are acquired
later through parents’ teaching and are dependent on cultural factors. We shall dis-
cuss politeness further in Sect. 1.8. In this section, we discuss the beginning of
conversation.

4
Grice’s theory of nonnatural meaning maintains that a communicative act relies on two inten-
tions, the intention to achieve an effect on a recipient and the intention that the previous intention
is recognized (Grice 1957).
5
For further discussion of this work and its implications, the reader is referred to Airenti (2015),
Apperly and Butterfill (2009), Baillargeon et al. (2016), Helming et al. (2014), Low and Perner
(2012), and San Juan and Astington (2012). Theory of mind is addressed further in Chap. 22, this
volume.
8 G. Airenti

The basic level of conversation consists in the rules of dialogue itself. The most
fundamental one is turn-taking (Sacks et al. 1978). Cross-cultural research has
shown that turn-taking is a universal system in which local variations are only quan-
titative in nature (Stivers et al. 2009). Moreover, research on different sign lan-
guages has shown important similarities between signed and spoken languages
(Holler et al. 2015). Turn-taking is the first pragmatic feature that is acquired by
infants. The spectrographic analysis of exchanges between neonates and adults
shows that newborns participate in interactions by coordinating their rhythm with
the rhythm of the adult (Malloch et al. 1997; Trevarthen et al. 1999).6 It is this ability
that makes us perceive infants’ behaviours, including sounds and smiles, as com-
municative acts and has led to the description of first interactions between infants
and adults as proto-conversations (Bateson 1975). An interesting point is that dyadic
patterns can differ depending on the affective state of the infant. Stern et al. (1975)
have shown that in 3–4-month-old infants who are in a state of particular affective
excitement, the pattern of alternation is replaced by one of simultaneity, exactly as
it happens in adult communication.
Turn-taking is linked to infants’ ability to establish joint attention. Joint attention
emerges in infants as early as 6 months (Butterworth and Cochran 1980), while
infants are able to follow the direction of gaze of an adult toward an object at 2–3
months (D’Entremont et al. 1997; Scaife and Bruner 1975). The ability to respect
turn-taking is an early developmental achievement which progresses with age. Until
they are school age, children take their turn with a delay that is up to ten times lon-
ger than in adults. This is not a difficulty in dyadic conversation with adults but it
can be problematic when more than two people are involved in conversation, in
particular in conversation among peers (Ervin-Tripp 1979; Garvey and Berninger
1981). This delay has been explained by recent research, which has shown that
children acquire turn-timing skills early, but for a certain period of time they have
limitations in planning their response (Casillas et al. 2016).
At around 9–12 months the system for sharing attention develops and pointing
begins. There is evidence that pointing develops in different cultures at almost the
same age and can be considered a universal step in the development of communica-
tive ability (Liszkowski et al. 2012). Pointing is connected with the development of
first speech acts. In fact, some authors have considered that the concept of speech
act can be useful in explaining the transition from preverbal to verbal communica-
tion (Bates et al. 1975; Bruner 1975, 1983). Children learn the communicative fea-
tures of speech acts in the preverbal stage and later these features are transferred to
the corresponding verbal form. The typical example is the act of request, considered
as a proto-imperative. In interactions with adults, children acquire the conditions for

6
It must be noted that all the processes we are examining are supported by the ability that infants
display early in development to acknowledge prosodic differences, e.g. the change of rhythm of
speech. This ability is present even before birth and provides children with cues to identify the
organization of familiar sounds in their native language and then identify boundaries between dif-
ferent units of the speech like words and phrases (Mehler et al. 1988). In later years, prosodic cues
are exploited to facilitate reference processing (Grassmann and Tomasello 2010) and the interpre-
tation of complex communicative acts like irony (Bryant 2010).
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Boarding party
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Boarding party

Author: Robert F. Young

Illustrator: Virgil Finlay

Release date: December 4, 2023 [eBook #72310]

Language: English

Original publication: New York, NY: Ziff-Davis Publishing Company,

1963

Credits: Greg Weeks, Mary Meehan and the Online Distributed

Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BOARDING

PARTY ***
The fey Mr. Young continues his scholarly researches
in the scientific origins of our myth and legend
with this tale of an agile—and avaricious—one-man

BOARDING PARTY

By ROBERT F. YOUNG

Illustrated by FINLAY

[Transcriber's Note: This etext was produced from

Amazing Stories September 1963
Extensive research did not uncover any evidence that
the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
(Translator's note: The original of the following report was recently
acquired by the Terran Industrial Library through the Interstellar
Historical Exchange Society, into whose illustrious fold the member
nations of the Terran Economic Bloc have at last been admitted. The
narrative is of primary interest to the library officials because it
provides unequivocable proof that, long before the Interstellar
Economic Community took official cognizance of our existence,
several articles of Community Commerce found their way into our
culture. To the layman, however, the narrative is of primary interest
because it provides an intriguing parallel to a narrative of an
altogether different nature.)

TO: Interstellar Nurseries, Frimm 4

FROM: Captain of the Greenship Uxurient, Urtz 2
SUBJECT(S): (1) Why the Uxurient put in to an out-of-bounds
system during the Frimm 4-Urtz 2 run; (2) how a boarding party of
one gained the greendeck and made off with a Uterium 5 snirk bird,
a toy friddlefork, and two containers of yellow trading disks; (3) why
the Uxurient's flexible ship-to-ground capillary tube is ten exids
shorter than it used to be.

(1)
Why the Uxurient put in to an Out-of-Bounds System during the
Frimm 4-Urtz 2 Run
Two light-cycles out from Frimm 4, the first shoots of the yumquat
trees broke through the greendeck precisely on schedule. A little
over a light-cycle farther out I noticed during one of my periodic
inspections that the young leaves were beginning to turn yellow, and
subsequent tests of several greendeck soil samples revealed an
acute deficiency of mineral elements D-2 and Z-1, plus an advanced
aridity. I immediately retired to the greenship's subdeck, where I
found the contents of the soil-solution vat to be at a shockingly low
level. An analysis of the contents indicated a near-total absence of
mineral elements D-2 and Z-1.
Further investigations have since convinced me that the
responsibility for this critical shortage rests upon the shoulders of
none other than Ur-Lon-Ho-Lee, Interstellar Nurseries' senior
shipping clerk, but at the time, the yumquat-tree shipment pre-
empted my attention to the exclusion of all other matters. If the trees
were to be allowed to shoot up at the usual accelerated growth rate
and were to be delivered in satisfactory sapling stage to the Urtz 2
customer who had ordered them, I had but one course of action
open to me: to put in to the nearest system, find a planet with a soil
rich in moisture and rich in mineral elements D-2 and Z-1, and
replenish the soil-solution vat by means of the Uxurient's ship-to-
ground capillary tube. Fortunately, there happened to be a system in
the vicinity of the Uxurient's present position, but unfortunately it
happened to be one of the many systems that are out-of-bounds to
Interstellar Economic Community ships. Before coming to a decision,
then, I had to weigh the importance of my mission against the risk of
causing "a substantial interference in the normal evolution of an
extra-Community culture"—a possibility that is always present when
a Community ship is forced to enter an out-of-bounds system. I
decided that it was my responsibility both to the customer and to the
company to run this risk, and proceeded to put in to the system at
once.
I wasted no time on the outer worlds, knowing from experience that
such worlds rarely yield anything in the way of flora and hence could
not possibly possess the kind of soil I needed, but arrowed in to the
orbital regions of the first four. Perceiving at once that Four would not
serve my purpose, I continued on to Three. Three turned out to be a
Frimm 4-type planet in all respects save its slightly smaller size; it
also turned out to be the reason for the system's having been placed
out-of-bounds. I was not surprised: One seldom finds soil of the type
employed by Frimm 4 nurseries without finding intelligent life in the
immediate vicinity. In this instance, I used the term "intelligent life" in
its broadest sense, for the several civilizations I transchecked at
random revealed technologies not far removed from the paleolithic
stage, and in one case, in the very midst of it.

On several of the land masses I detected scattered deposits of the

soil-type I needed, and I could have replenished the Uxurient's soil-
solution vat from any of them. However, I chose an unusually rich
one on a large island near the major land mass, reasoning that the
less time I consumed in the operation, the less chance there would
be of my occasioning "a substantial interference in the normal
evolution of an extra-Community culture". This particular deposit
bordered a small community of scattered, thatch-roofed dwellings,
and abounded in trees similar to the yumquat species. After
activating the Uxurient's ventral camouflage-unit, I brought the
greenship down to about two hundred mirids, gravved it into position
above the edge of the forest, and opened the capillary-tube lock. I
timed my maneuver to coincide with the passing of the dusk belt,
but, reluctant to attract any more attention than was absolutely
necessary, I waited through most of the ensuing night phase before
lowering the capillary tube. Unfortunately, I erred somewhat in my
calculations, and the tube's rhizomorphous feeding system, owing
partially to the rather strong wind that had sprung up during the night
phase, entered the soil much closer to one of the native dwellings
than I had intended should be the case; however, dawn being near
at hand, I lacked sufficient time to recoil and relocate the device, so I
left it where it was. I was not particularly worried: the natives'
superstitious fear of the tube would probably preclude their
approaching it closely enough for them to be able to damage it, and
if their superstitious fear of the tube itself was not strong enough to
make them keep their distance, their fear of the "low-lying cloud"
from which the tube depended should be.
My mind at ease in this respect then, I reduced the opacity of the
hull's upper hemisphere to complete transparency so that the
greendeck would benefit from the rays of the system's sun, after
which I retired to the subdeck to check on the first influx of nutrients
into the soil-solution vat. The length of the capillary tube prohibited
any immediate change in the solution-level, so while I waited, I
busied myself checking the tubes that run down to the vat from the
section of the greendeck where the upper extremities of the capillary
tube are affixed. Next, I checked the outgoing tubes that feed the
greendeck soil. By the time I finished, the level had begun to rise.
I waited till it rose above the halfway mark, then I took a sample and
ran an analysis. The result delighted me: the D-2 and Z-1 mineral
element content had quadrupled! If the rapidity with which the vat
was filling continued, I would be able to disengage the capillary tube,
recoil it, and be on my way before the next night phase.
I lingered for a while longer, watching the level climb. Finally,
remembering that I had not eaten since before my discovery of the
soil deficiency, I left the vat-room, picked up three lliaka hind
quarters in the meat-compartment, attached them to my belt, and
proceeded up the ramp to the greendeck. The thought of the fine
steaks which the quarters would yield made me realize how truly
hungry I was, and I set off across the greendeck toward my distant
living quarters with quickened steps. As I walked, the sight of the arid
soil stretching away in every direction afflicted me with melancholy,
even though I knew that the deplorable condition was well on its way
toward being corrected. The leaves of the baby yumquat trees, I saw
to my dismay, had more than merely yellowed: they had shriveled
too. And so scrawny were the little shoots that, had I not known that
they were there, I might very well have walked in their midst and
have been unaware of their existence. Indeed, the greendeck,
awash now with bright morning sunlight, had more of the aspect of a
desert than it did an aspect of a thriving oasis where plants are
grown during shipment. I submit that my bringing the Uxurient in to
an out-of-bounds system was more than merely justified: it was in
keeping with the highest ideals that govern man in his relationship to
plant-life.
 (2)

How a Boarding Party of One gained the Greendeck and made off
with a Uterium 5 Snirk Bird, a Toy Friddlefork, and Two Containers of
Yellow Trading Disks.
Arriving at my living quarters, I removed my greendeck fatigues and
laid them upon the arms of the rack beside the entrance, wondering
as I always do on such occasions how Ho-Hat-Li-Tum, the
company's morale manager, could have fallen for so blatantly
whimsical an appointment as a clothes rack in the form of a life-size
woman. Granted, greenship pilots lead lonely lives, but tell me this:
how can the mere act of their laying their outer garments upon the
outstretched arms of a brainless, speechless, feelingless mannequin
in the least alleviate their loneliness? If Ho-Hat-Li-Tum were really
concerned about the morale of the greenship pilots, he would spurn
such halfway measures and concentrate his energies on getting the
regulation that forbids pilots to take their wives into space with them
rescinded.
To continue: Once in my living quarters, I proceeded directly to the
galley where I cut two large steaks from one of the lliaka
hindquarters. Placing the steaks upon the grill to sear, I got a loaf of
bread and decanter of wine out of the provision closet, after which I
set the table. When the steaks were done, I placed them on a large
platter and sat down to eat. It was at this point that I received a very
definite impression that I was being watched.
I looked around the galley. Other than myself, of course, no one was
there, and certainly the various cupboards were much too small to
harbor a secret onlooker. A secret onlooker indeed! Angry with
myself, I put the matter from my mind, concluding that the condition
of the yumquat trees had depressed me to a greater extent than I
had realized, and that I had fallen prey to preposterous imaginings. I
wish now that I had been less eager to ascribe what proved to be a
perfectly valid psychosensory perception to my emotional letdown.
I ate ravenously, devouring both of the steaks and the entire loaf of
bread. Afterward, a feeling of peace and good will stole over me, and
on an impulse I called the Uterium 5 snirk bird down from its perch
above the galley doorway and persuaded it by means of a crust of
bread to perch upon my forefinger. Despite the large and ovoid
xanthous droppings which these birds sporadically deposit on chairs,
tables and floors, they make wonderful pets, and I envied the
particular customer who was to receive this one—a tiny, bright-eyed
female—as a partial bonus for his yumquat-tree order. The other
components of his bonus—the toy friddlefork and the two containers
of yellow trading disks—stood on a shelf just behind me, and
reaching around and procuring them, I set them on the table before
me. Such evidence of largess invariably renews my faith in the
company, and on long runs I often get out customer bonuses and
speculate on the munificence of a concern such as ours. Thus I
speculated now—but not for long. I had not slept for nearly two zodal
periods and was far more tired than I realized, and to complicate
matters, the heavy meal which I had just consumed had had a
soporific effect upon me. Almost before I knew it, I dozed off.

I believe that my first apprisal that the previously mentioned

psychosensory perception had not been illusory after all was the
creak of one of the cupboard doors. Unfortunately, this apprisal was
on the unconscious, rather than the conscious, level, and failed to
arouse me from my stupor. It took the hysterical cackling of the
Uterium 5 snirk bird, a few moments later, to bring me back to true
awareness, and by that time, it was too late. The tiny man who had
shinned up the table leg and seized the snirk bird, the two containers
of yellow trading disks, and the toy friddlefork had already regained
the deck and was running toward the doorway. In the process of
climbing back down, he must have bumped the toy friddlefork and
accidentally activated its tonal unit, for it was bleating away
insistently as he bore it away. Indeed, so insistent were its cries that
one would have thought that it expected me to come after it and
succor it.
Incredulously, I got to my feet. I saw then that the thief was not a
man, but a boy—the tiniest boy that I have ever seen in my whole
life. Assuming his stature to be average, it is unlikely that even a full-
grown adult of his species would come any higher than a Frimm 4's
citizen's knee-cap!
I called after him, uttering my name in as gentle a tone of voice as I
could manage and assuring him that if he would return the articles
he had stolen no harm would come to him. He only ran the faster,
and fairly streaked through the galley doorway, down the entrance
corridor, and out onto the greendeck. I had no choice but to set off in
pursuit, and this I did, naively believing that I could overtake him
easily. In this I erred indeed. Never have I ever seen anyone run so
fast. Why, there were times when I could have sworn that his feet
weren't even touching the deck!
As I lumbered along in his wake, I wondered how he could
conceivably have gotten on board. Had he climbed the capillary
tube? This didn't seem possible in view of the Uxurient's altitude and
in view of his diminutiveness, but I could think of no other answer.
There was no need for me to, I saw presently: that he had climbed
up the tube was unequivocably demonstrated by the ease and the
celerity with which he now began to climb down it.
 (3)
Why the Uxurient's Flexible Ship-to-Ground Capillary Tube is now
Ten Exids Shorter than It used to be
Loath to give up the chase, I started climbing down the tube myself.
This is not as difficult as one would at first imagine—as I myself had
imagined, in fact, prior to making the attempt. The branch-like
protuberances that absorb the sunlight and transmute it into the
energy required for the capillary-action provide numerous hand- and
footholds, and had it not been for the almost gale-force wind that had
developed, my descent would have been relatively easy. Even with
the wind, I found myself in no great danger, and I have no doubt but
what I would have reached the ground in due course had I not
underestimated the resourcefulness—and the blood-thirstiness—of
my youthful quarry. He kept calling out repeatedly at the top of his
voice, but I did not suspect what he was up to until, halfway down, I
paused and looked below me. I was just in time to see a woman run
out of the thatch-roofed dwelling near which the tube had rooted
itself and hand him a small object the very moment his feet touched
the ground.
I deduced from the shards of sunlight that the object threw off that it
was a cutting tool of some kind. I was not long left in doubt in any
event, for no sooner did the boy have it in his possession than he
began to wield it. A series of thuds was borne upward by the wind,
and with each thud, the tube gave a convulsive shudder. I had seen
unattached ship-to-ground capillary tubes at the mercy of the wind
before, and I knew the danger that confronted me. Consequently I
began climbing back up toward the Uxurient at once. While I will not
attempt to deny that I was frightened, I would like to point out that it
wasn't so much my predicament that frightened me, but the cold-
blooded attitude of the young savage below me. He thought that by
severing the tube he could bring it crashing to the ground, and the
ferocity and the frequency of his blows testified to the eagerness with
which he awaited my destruction.
It was his very attitude, I believe, that gave me the strength and the
determination to gain the Uxurient after the tube broke free and
began lashing wildly back and forth. For a long while I lay gasping on
the greendeck; then, when my breath came back, I recoiled the tube,
secured the tube-lock, and lifted into space. The soil-solution vat was
not as full as I would have wished, but by careful rationing I knew
that I could make its contents suffice. Whether I could or not, I
wanted no more part of the world I had just left. I never want to see
the place again.
I would like to append a word in my defense. While it is true that I
was instrumental in exposing an extra-Community culture to a
technology far beyond its ken, it must be remembered that all such
cultures are flexible in nature and can absorb the seemingly
inexplicable with the utmost equanimity. They achieve this quite
simply by identifying the unfamiliar with the familiar, and by ascribing
those phenomena which happen to be beyond their experience to
the workings of magic. Far from having an adverse effect, the
present instance will, I am sure, provide the basis for a colorful
legend. No doubt the legend will acquire a more satisfying ending,
and unquestionably the boy's exploits will be exaggerated. As
regards the Uterium 5 snirk bird, the toy friddlefork, and the two
containers of yellow trading disks, you may be sure that the young
rascal had already identified them with objects with which he was
familiar (and which he coveted) before he left the galley cupboard in
which he was hiding. If he had not done so, he would not have stolen
them. In any case, I am not unduly bitter about their loss, even
though I must make that loss good. The measure of a Frimm 4
citizen's true worth is the quantity of his magnanimity; hence I hope
that both the boy and the woman—probably his mother—live happily
ever after.

(signed)
Fee-Fi-Fo-Fum
THE END
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