𝓞𝓶 𝓝𝓪𝓶𝓪𝓱 𝓼𝓱𝓲𝓿𝓪𝔂…

Manufacturing Processes I
19MEE202/21ARE113
 Casting
Casting is a process in which the liquid molten metal is poured into the casting cavity, whose shape is the
same as that of the casting to be produced, allowing it to solidify and after solidification, the casting will be
taken out by breaking the mold.

Casting Steps:

i. Pattern Making
ii. Mold and Core Making
iii. Pouring & Solidification
iv. Fettling
v. Inspection

Source: https://bajrangengineering.in/casting-terminology/
 Casting Cond…
i. Pattern Making:
The pattern is the replica (only the shape is the same) of the casting to be produced.

Pattern size = Casting size ± Allowances

Allowances:
a. Shrinkage allowance
b. Machining allowance
c. Draft allowance
d. Shake allowance
e. Distortion allowance
• First two allowances are mainly influencing the dimension of the pattern considerably, whereas the others
are provided to improve the quality of mould making process.
 Casting Cond…

• The pouring temp. of molten metal

must be greater than the melting
point of the metal to ensure that the
change in the physical state of liquid
molten metal should not occur even
though some amount of heat loss is
taking place.
(a) Temperature as a function of time for the solidification of pure metals.
Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature. (b) Density as a
function of time.
• Pouring temp. = Melting point + (150 to 200°C)
Degree of superheat of molten metal

Pure iron, 1539 + (150 to 200°C) = 1700°C

Aluminium, 660+ (150 to 200°C) = 800°C
 Casting Cond…

• The reduction (shrinkage) in size takes place where the phase change takes place.
• During the casting process the metal is shrinking in all three stages. But the shrinkage taking place in the
first and second stages is named ‘Liquid shrinkage’ while shrinkage that takes place in the third stage is
called ‘Solid shrinkage’.
• Liquids are always measured in terms of volume. So the liquid shrinkages are always specified as a
percentage (%) by volume.

• The highest liquid shrinkage is Aluminum.

• Riser: It is the element used for compensating liquid shrinkages

taking place during solidification.

Change in liquid (𝜕𝐿) = 𝐿 ∝ (𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑟 ) = Solid shrinkage, 𝑓 𝐿, 𝛼, 𝑇𝑓 , 𝑇𝑟

Source: http://nifft.ac.in/WriteReadData/Methoding_FTM_compressed_compressed.pdf
 Casting Cond…
• Out of different commonly used metals, Brass is having highest solid shrinkage because it has the highest
coefficient of linear thermal expansion i.e., 23 µm/ °C.

• In the solid state coefficient of linear thermal expansion is nearly equal to zero in the case of inward
platinum, iridium alloy, etc.

• Gray cast iron is one of the metals that have negative (-ve) shrinkage. During cooling, the dimensions of
gray cast iron will be increasing.
• To compensate for the solid shrinkage taking place during the casting process, the shrinkage allowance
must be provided on the pattern.

a. Shrinkage allowances: It provided on the pattern to compensate for the solid shrinkages taking place
during cooling of the metal from freezing temp. as a solid to room temp.

• Liquid shrinkage highest in Aluminium.

• Solid shrinkage highest in Brass.

During the casting process, the highest total shrinkage is present on the steel.
 Casting Cond…
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
• 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐶𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Question: A casting size of 200×100×50 mm needs to be produced with a shrinkage allowance of 1%.
Calculate the ratio considering the casting material is gray cast iron.
Solution:
0.99×200 × 0.99×100 ×(0.99×50)
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = (200×100×50)
= 0.97

As, Gray cast needs negative allowances. Thus, shrinkage allowance provide on dimension not on volume.
b. Machining allowance: The excess dimension provided on the casting and it will be removed by
machining operation after the casting process called machining allowance.

The machining allowance is provided to account for

o As it is the casted component will have a poor surface finish, to get a good surface finish, it is
necessary to machine the component for which excess material must be available.
o To accommodate the variation in shrinkage taking place due to variation in room temp.
Machining allowance = x mm/side
It depends on the criticality of the component i.e., critical components will be provided with a large machining allowance.
 Casting Cond…
Question: Calculate the dimensions of the pattern for a component having a dimension, diameter of 300 mm,
and length of 500 mm. Take 2% Shrinkage allowance and 2 mm/side machining allowance.

Solution:
Pattern size with shrinkage allowance:
2
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 300 + × 300 = 306
100
2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 500 + × 500 = 510
100

Pattern size with shrinkage allowance + machining allowance:

2
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 306 + 2 + 2 = 310 + × 4 = 310.08
100
2
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 510 + 2 + 2 = 514 + × 4 = 514.08
100
 Casting Cond…
c. Draft allowance: Making a vertical surface of a pattern into an inclined surface is called draft
allowance.
• With the provision of inclination on the vertical walls
of a pattern, as soon as a small amount of pattern
is lifted from the mould immediately the gap is
created between the pattern and the mold. So,
even though some amount of vibrations is taking
place in the human hand it will not damage the
mold wall.

• If the pattern is made by using pattern materials like Wax, Mercury, and Polystyrene as the pattern
materials, no draft allowance is to be provided. (Removed in form of vapour)

• It is used only for a large components like machine tool beds.

• This pattern can be used only one time. This is the drawback of polystyrene but it is preferable for huge
components.

Source: https://www.mech4study.com/2017/04/different-types-of-pattern-allowance-in-
casting.html
 Casting Cond…

d. Shake/rapping allowance: Because of the adhesive properties of molding sand, it gets adhered to the
pattern walls and comes out along with the pattern during removal of the pattern which damages the
mold walls. To avoid this the pattern will be shaken before withdrawal from the mold. Due to this the
size of the mold cavity and casting size increases.
To maintain the size of the cavity and casting size, the pattern must be reduced originally by an
amount called shake allowances.

• All the allowances are taken as positive allowances because they are increasing the dimensions of the
pattern whereas the shake allowances reduce the dimensions of the pattern. Hence, it is called a
negative allowance.

• The amount of shake allowance purely depends on the mold-making person.

• The pattern made with Wax, Mercury, and Polystyrene, no need to provide shake allowance.
 Casting Cond…
e. Distortion allowance: It is provided only during casting of U or V-shaped casting to be produced.

• Always solidification starts at the bottom and proceeds to the top.

• At different locations different amounts of shrinkages are taking place which causes different shrinkage
forces acting on the casting.

• These differential shrinkage forces are bending the legs of U outwards called distortion in the casting
and producing inclined legs of U.

• To produce the vertical legs of U, originally the legs of the pattern will be bent inwards by an amount
called distortion allowance.
𝐿
𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑡

L = Length of leg
t = thickness of leg
𝐿
𝐴𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
𝑡
Source: https://knordslearning.com/types-of-pattern-allowances/
 Casting Cond…
Pattern Materials:
Characterizations:
a. No (or) low moisture absorption
b. Low density
c. Good surface finish
d. Easiness in fabrication
e. Cheap
Materials:
a) Wood: It is possessing all the properties except moisture absorption. Out of the different woods, teak
wood & mahogany woods are the woods that have very low moisture absorption. (0.4 gm/cc)
b) Metals: Metal patterns are used it has higher density & difficult to fabricate i.e., the metal patterns can
be again produced by using the casting process with wood patterns when wood patterns are used.
 Casting Cond…

b) Metals: Metal patterns are used it has higher density & difficult to fabricate i.e., the metal patterns can
be again produced by using the casting process with wood patterns when wood patterns are used.
Double shrinkage allowance must be provided when wooden patterns are used to produce metal
patterns.
Most commonly used metal patterns are made using Aluminium or white metal.
Al – 2.7, White metal – 3.2, and Titanium – 4.3

c) Plastics: It possesses all the good properties required as a pattern material.

• Most commonly plastic materials are Nylon, PVC, Epoxy resin, Cellulose, Polystyrene etc.
• Polystyrene is used for manufacturing very large-size casting.
 Casting Cond…
d) Wax: This pattern is taken into consideration only for the easiness in fabrication into a complex shape
of castings.
• Because of the very high softness of wax, it can be shaped into any complex shape.
• Removal of patterns from the mold is very easy in the form of a liquid.
• Surface finish produced with wax pattern is very good.
• When the wax is used with a green sand mold, the rat tail type of the defects is produced.
• Because of the very high softness of wax mold, the max size of the pattern produced is up to 5 kg
only. If it is more than 5 kg, during handling of the pattern, the pattern will get distorted.
• Wax pattern is used for producing gold and silver ornaments, turbine blades, handicrafts, etc.

e) Mercury (Frozen mercury): It is having most of the disadvantages but is still used in the manufacturing
of very small size components with good or excellent surface finish without machining it.
 Casting Cond…
ii. Mold Making:
Basic elements:
• Silica sand: It is giving sufficient strength to the molding sand.
75 to 80% silica sand particles
• Clay: It is used for the formation of bonds between the sand particles. (15 to 20 % clay is used)
• Water or Sodium silicate: This is used for initiating the bond between the sand particles.

Silica + Clay + Water = Green sand

Silica + Clay + sodium silicate = Dry sand
• Either green or dry sand with 50% of clay is called loam sand.

Additives: Some additives are added to molded sand to improve the properties of molding sand.
 Casting Cond…
Additives Cond…
o Wood powder or saw dust: It is used to improve the porosity properties and collapsibility of molding
sand.
o Coal powder: It is used to improve the refractoriness property.
o Starch or dextrin: This is added to increase the strength or resistance to deformation of the mold.
Each can be added 2% only

Properties to be possessed by molding sand:

1) Porosity: It is the ability to escape air or gases through molding sand. If this property is not present,
the air present inside the cavity is producing blow hole type of defects.
▪ This property can be measured by using the permeability test (AFS/ASTM).
 Casting Cond…
Example: D = H = 5.08 cm, V = 2000 cc, q = gauge pressure in gm/cm2 = 10 gm/cm2
Let T = time taken for bringing the volume ‘v’ from pressure ‘p’ to the atmospheric pressure

𝑉𝐻 2000 ×5.08 501.28

Permeability Number = 𝜌𝐴𝑇 = 𝜋 =
10 × 5.08 2 𝑇 𝑇
4

Porosity – Properties of moulding sand

Permeability – Method of indication of porosity property

• Higher permeability number indicates higher porosity property of molding sand.

• The porosity property of molding sand can be increased by:
a. Increase in silica sand particle size. b. Reducing clay % or clay content
c. By using additives (Wood powder or sawdust)
d. Reducing ramming or compressive force while providing the venting or vent hole
e.
 Casting Cond…
2) Strength of molding sand:
a. Tensile
c. Compressive These strengths can be measured by UTM (Universal Testing Machine)
d. Shear

3) Cohesiveness: The ability to form of bond between the same material particles is called cohesiveness
properties.
• Intralaminar shear strength test used to measure this property.

4) Adhesiveness: The ability to form bonds by the sand particles with other materials called adhesiveness
properties.
• It is also measured by using UTM
 Casting Cond…
5) Refractoriness: The ability to withstand higher temp. without losing its hardness and strength.
• This is measured by using UTM with a controlled temperature chamber.
• In this the load is applied on the grippers based on the strength requirement of molding sand.
• Now raise the temp. of the chamber slowly so that at some temp. the specimen will fail called a
refractoriness property.
6) Collapsibility: The ability to break the mold with the application of a little amount of force is called
collapsibility.
• Measured by using vibratory mesh.
• The frequency of vibrations required for breaking the mold will be used for indicating the
collapsibility of molding sand.
6) Flowability: The ability to flow of molding sand into each and every corner of a mold.
• Fluidity is used for fluids
• Flowability is used for solid
• Orificemeter is used to measure flowability.
• Basic property is the porosity property of molding sand.
 Casting Cond…
Mold-making methods:
1. Hand molding: Whatever the force required for ramming or compressing the molding sand if it is
obtained from a human hand is called hand molding.

Advantages:
• Hand molding is the cheapest method of mold-making process and the molds with complex shapes of
the patterns can be produced easily without damaging the projections or extensions present on the
pattern.

Limitations:
• Because of higher time consumption production rate is low.
• Non-uniform strength and hardness is obtained on the mold.
 Casting Cond…
Mold-making methods:
1. Machine molding: Whatever the ramming or compressive force is required for compressing the
molding sand. If it is obtained for machine called machine molding.
Steps:
a) Jolting
b) Squeezing
c) Jolt and squeezing
d) Sand slinging

a) Jolting: A sand-filled mold is raised to a certain amount of height so that it is possessing potential
energy, when it is allowed to fall freely on the ground, the potential energy is converted into impact
energy and impact load, which is acting on the ground. Whereas the equal and opposite reaction force
produced by the ground will be acting on the molding sand for compressing the mold sand.
 Casting Cond…
• Because the reaction force produced by the ground is not transferring up to the top of the mold, the
top of the mold is attaining lower strength and hardness. While the bottom will be attaining higher
strength and hardness.

b) Squeezing:
• Dimensions of the squeezer plate are the same as the inside plate.
• When the force is applied by using hydraulic or mechanical press onto the plate, which is transferred
to the molding sand. So that the molding sand is getting compressed. Here also because of the
force is not transmitted to the bottom of the mold it attains lower strength and hardness. But the top
of the mold is attaining higher strength and hardness.
 Casting Cond…
c) Jolt and Squeezing:
• In this process, both and bottom of the mold are attaining higher strength and hardness.
• The uniform strength and hardness of the mold can be obtained if the height of the mold is < 200 mm.
• If the height is > 200, the middle part of the mold is again getting the lower strength only.
• To get uniform strength throughout the mold with whatever may be the height of the mold, the best
preferable method is the sand slinging process.

d) Sand slinging process:

• The small quantities of molding sand are thrown into the mold with a certain amount of force by
using the machine. So localized ramming of molding sand will be taking place.
• Uniform strength and hardness of mold can be obtained with any height of the mold.
Limitations of the sand slinging process:
• Sand slinging process equipment is very costly and it cannot be used for making molds with patterns
having projections or extensions.
 Casting Cond…

Core making: Cores are mainly used for producing hollow casting or internal features of a casting.
Properties:
▪ Free from moisture
▪ It should be made by using non-metal
▪ High strength
▪ High collapsibility, hot tearing/cracks
▪ Refractoriness
▪ Hot hardness
▪ Friability and crumbling (Easy to remove from casting)

• The core is always made by using dry sand with CO2 molding.
CO2 + Sodium Silicate = Silica gel (solid)
 Casting Cond…

• The dry sand is filled into a core box and dips a small pipe in the loose sand. Now supply CO2 at very high
pressure into the dry sand through the small pipe. This CO2 chemically reacts with sodium silicate and
produces silica gel, which is paste-like material. Remove the pipe immediately and allow the silica gel to
dry for 1 to 2 min, producing a very high-strength core. Now by opening the core box take out the core and
use it in the casting cavity.

• Whatever the high strength of the core obtained due to the formation of silica gel and drying will not
last for a longer period i.e, 2 to 3 hr of duration the bonding strength is start deteriorating. After 5 hrs it
completely lost its strength and formed loose sand which is removed easily from the casting.
 Casting Cond…

Core print: It is used for locating, supporting, and positioning the core.

• The races provided in the mold for locating, positioning, and supporting of the core is called a core
print.
• Recess has to be placed exactly where we need a hole.
• The core print can be produced by providing extensions on the pattern when the extension is provided
on the pattern. It is difficult to remove the pattern from the mold.
• The pattern will be split into two halves. One half of the pattern is kept in the drag box and another half
of the pattern will be kept in the core box.

• By using the above method half of the cavity will be present in the cope and half of the cavity in drag.
So that the positioning of the core is also easier.
 Casting Cond…

• By removing the core box the core will be positioned and then the cope box will be based.

• Density of core < density of molten metal

Let V = Volume of the core
𝜌 = density of molten metal
d = density of the core

Net 𝐵. 𝐹 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉𝑑𝑔 = 𝑉𝜌𝑔 + 𝑉𝑑𝑔 = Wt. of liquid displaced − Wt. of core = 𝑉𝑔 𝜌 − 𝑑

Net buoyancy force = (Weight of liquid displaced due to projected volume of hole) – (Total weight of hole)

Source: Manufacturing Technology, volume 1, P N Rao

 Casting Cond…
• Whatever the net buoyancy force acting on the core will be supported by using core prints.

• The load which is supported by using core print = 350 A Newtons

• Unsupported load = Net buoyancy force – 350 A ≤ 0
If ≤ 0, No additional support is required
If > 0, Additional support required

𝑉 𝜌−𝑑
𝐴>𝐾
𝜎
where, V = total volume of the core including prints, cm3
K = 0.5 to 0.75
𝜎 = compression strength of the molding sand.
• The additional support required in the casting process can be obtained by using chaplets in the casting
process.
 Casting Cond…

Source: Manufacturing Technology, volume 1, P N Rao

 Casting Cond…
Chaplet: The basic function of the chaplet is to act as additional support for supporting the core to avoid
failure due to buoyancy forces.
• The chaplets are made by using the same materials as that of casting because it is becoming an
integral part of the casting.
• The chaplets must be cleaned before placing into the casting cavity to avoid a weak joint formed
between the chaplet and the solidification metal.
• As the additional function of the chaplet also provides directional solidification.
• For every one Newton of unsupported load, 29 mm2 cross-sectional area chaplet must be used.

Source: https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-2209201b9ebbcf1abdc056109e610944.webp
https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-52353e94d7c06654d79b41df766c4cb8.webp
 Casting Cond…
Location of riser: In the casting process the riser is located based on the
two conditions:
• During the casting of uniform cross-sectioned casting the riser
must be provided at the topmost point of the casting cavity.
• During the non-uniform cross-sectioned casting, the riser must be
provided near the thick section compared to the thin section.

Uniformed vertical L-shaped casting:

• During the casting of vertical L-shaped uniform cross-sectional
casting the zone 3 molten metal is solidifying after zone 1 and zone
2. Because the amount of molten metal present in zone 3 is higher
than the zone 1 and 2. so more amount of heat is removed from
molten metal.
 Casting Cond…
Location of riser cond…
• Because of two-dimensional heat transfer at the corner of the mold, rise in temp. of the mold is higher.
The temperature difference between the molten metal and the mold is reduced, reducing the heat
transfer.

• Because of the above even though two risers are provided in the casting process. It is not possible to
compensate for the liquid shrinkages taking place during the solidification of zone-3 metal and hence
void or shrinkage cavity is produced in zone 3.

• To avoid the voids, in zone 3 molten metal has to be solidified before zone 1 and 2. For this either the
volume of molten metal in zone 3 has to be reduced or heat transfer from the corner of the mold has to
increase. By reducing the volume, the shape and size will change, which is not allowed.
 Casting Cond…

• To increase the heat transfer rate from the corner of the mold the thermal conductivity of the corner of
the mold has to be increased, which is possible by providing a metallic piece at the corner of the mold.
Due to the provision of the metallic piece, the heat transfer is directed in the specified direction so that
the solidification is taking place according to our requirements. This is called as directional solidification
and the metallic piece used in it is called chill.

• The chills are made by using a metal that has higher thermal conductivity and higher melting point
temperature than the casting metal.

• During the casting process the chill will get adhered to the casting. So it has to be removed by
machining after the casting process.
 Casting Cond…

• During the making of the mold with sharp-edged patterns the sand particles present at the corners will
be slipping away and produces loose sand particles at the corner of the mold.
• During the pouring of molten metal into the casting cavity these loose sand particles present at the
corner will get eroded and form as sand inclusion defects in the casting.
• To avoid this, the L-shaped metal pieces are provided at the corner of the pattern during molding. So
that after removing the pattern the L-shaped pieces are left over in the mold.
• During pouring the molten metal into the casting cavity, these L-shaped metal pieces are allowing the
molten metal to come in contact with the loose sand particles present behind. Hence sand erosion is
eliminated.
• During casting they will get adhered by casting and has to be removed by machining afterward.
• The pads are also providing directional solidification as additional functionality.
 Casting Cond…
Pouring: The molten metal is always poured into the casting cavity by using a system called as feed/gating
system.
• Pouring basin
• Sprue
• Runner
• In Gate
Properties or characteristics of ideal gating system:
• The pouring time or filling time of molten metal into the casting cavity by using gating system must be as
minimum as possible.
• This is to ensure that no part of the casting cavity should short solidify before complete filling of the
cavity.
• The velocity of the molten metal in the gating system should be as high as possible within the limits of
laminar flow.
 Casting Cond…
• Gating system should not allow the sand erosion to takes place during filling of the molten metal into
the cavity.
• Any impurities present in the molten metal has to be separated by using gating system.
• The flow of molten metal through the gating system should be always full and no partial flow is allowed.
• Gating system should avoid aspiration effect.
 Casting Cond…
Pouring basin: It is acting as a reservoir for supplying the molten metal to the casting cavity.
• It is trying to separate the impurities present in the molten metal. Because of placing the plate at the end
of pouring basin the molten metal is collected on to the plate and excess heat available in the molten
metal will be absorbed by the plate and the total plate is melted at a time. So that the molten metal
produced by the plate and molten metal collected over the plate are flowing simultaneously through the
gating system which ensure the full flow of molten metal through the gating system.
• The size and shape of pouring basin will not effect the pouring time.

Sprue: It is a connecting passage between the pouring basin and runner. It is always vertical with straight
tapered circular cross-section with big end at the top and small end at the bottom.

𝑉= 2𝑔ℎ
• Height of the sprue is mainly responsible for producing the velocity of molten metal in the gating system.
• The straight tapered sprue is selected to avoid the aspiration effect in the gating system.
 Casting Cond…
• By ensuring the laminar flow of molten metal through the gating system or sprue sand erosion will be
eliminated.

Runner: Runner is a connecting passage between bottom of the sprue and ingate, it is always horizontal
with uniform trapezoidal cross-section.
• Runner is mainly used for minimizing sand erosion.
• Runner is also separating the impurities present in the molten metal.
• Runner is made as trapezoidal cross-section to ensure high coefficient of discharge (Cd).

𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡 = 𝐶𝑑 × 𝑄𝑡ℎ
 Casting Cond…
InGate: It is the last point of gating system from where the molten metal is entering into the casting cavity.
• The first method is used during casting of high density metals and second method is used during
casting of low density metals.
 Casting Cond…
Accessories:

i. Stainer: It is acting as a filter for separating or removing the impurities present in the molten metal.
• Strainer is made by using ceramic material with high porosity.
ii. Splash Core: It is provided to avoid the sand erosion from the bottom of the sprue and this is also
made by using ceramic material with low porosity.
iii. Skim bob: A semi-circular cut given in a runner is called skim bob.

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑢𝑒

𝐴𝑟 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟
𝐴𝑔 = 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒

Gating ratio = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 (𝐴𝑠 : 𝐴𝑟 : 𝐴𝑔 )

 Casting Cond…
Classification of gating system:

i. Based on the pressure above molten metal in pouring basin:

• Non-pressurised gating system.
• Pressurised gating system.
ii. Based on position of Ingate in the gating system:
• Top gating system
• Bottom gating system
• Parting gating system
• Step gating system

• If the pressure above the molten metal in the pouring basin is equal to atmospheric pressure is called
as non-pressurised gating system.
 Casting Cond…
• It is very easy to maintain just by opening the top of the basin to the atmosphere.
Limitation: It cannot be used for casting highly reactive metals like aluminum, magnesium, etc.

• Optimum gating ratio = 1:4:4 or 1:2:2

• If the top of the pouring basin is simply closed and pressure above molten metal in the pouring
basin is greater than the atmospheric pressure called a pressurized gating system.
Use of pressurized gating system:
a) Casting of highly reactive metal, the sprue above molten metal in the pouring basin is filled by using
the inert gas at a pressure greater than atm pressure.
b) Back pressure gating system- Sometimes in the casting process if the top of the pouring basin is
simply closed and partial flow of molten metal is allowed in the gating system the air which is getting
compressing in the casting cavity will be flowing in the backward direction and collected on the top of
molten metal in pouring basin which is having the pressure greater than atmospheric pressure.
 Casting Cond…
c) 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ P = Pa

𝑃−𝑃𝑎
Increase in pressure of molten metal, 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ + , P > Pa
𝜌𝑔

• Whenever the velocity of molten metal in the gating system has to be increase without increasing the
height of the sprue, the only method possible is by increasing the pressure above molten metal in the
pouring basin.

Optimum gating ratio = 1:2:1

 Casting Cond…
a. Top gating system:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 =
𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Flow rate = Amax × Vmin = Amin × Vmax = Ag × Vmax

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2𝑔ℎ𝑡
Flow rate = Amin × Vmax = Ac × Vmax , Ac = Amin = min (As, Ar, Ag)
• From biggening and end of the filling of the end of the casting cavity the velocity of molten metal in
gating system is uniform and is equal to maximum value.
• So time taken for filling the cavity in minute because of ingate is at top most point of the cavity, cutting
or making of top most point of cavity is easier.
Limitations:
• Top gating system should not be used for filling of cavities in loose sand mold because of sand erosion.
• Maximum height of the cavity up to which top gating system can be used is 20 mm only.
 Casting Cond…
b. Bottom gating system:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = , 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝
𝑛 × 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑖 +𝑉𝑓
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
, 𝑉𝑖 = 2𝑔ℎ𝑡 , 𝑉𝑓 = 2𝑔ℎ

Flow rate = Ac × Vavg , Ac = Amin = min (As, Ar, Ag)

• Under similar condition the pouring time in the bottom gating system is > top gating system
hm = ht in top and bottom gating system

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐺𝑆 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
= = =2
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐺𝑆 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝐴𝑐 × 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Advantages:
• Absolutely no sand erosion with whatever may be the height of the cavity.
• Loose sand mold can be easily filled without any sand erosion.
 Casting Cond…
Limitations:
• Pouring time will be higher.
• Cutting of bottom gating system will be difficult.

c. Parting gating system:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒1 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑇 1 + 𝑃𝑇 2 = 𝑛×𝐴 + 𝑛 × 𝐴𝑐 × 𝑉2
𝑐
× 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑣𝑔

• Under the similar conditions the time taken with parting gating system for filling the cavity is > Top GS
and < Bottom GS.
• The features of parting gate is in between the Top GS and Bottom GS.

• For filling large cavities with any of the above GS the time taken will be atleast half an hour to one hour
and it is impossible to restrict the solidification to be started before complete filling of cavity.
 Casting Cond…
• To minimize the pouring time, more than one ingate will be provided in a given horizontal plane so that
the flow rate will become ‘n’ times and pouring time will reduced. This is called step gating system and
it can be any one of the GS.

Aspiration effect or breathing or inhalation effect: [P < Pa]

During casting process whenever the pressure fall below atm. pressure, somewhere along the GS, the
pressure difference is existing between inside and outside of the GS. Due to this pressure difference the
air is started flowing from outside to the inside through porosity property of a molding sand called as
aspiration or breathing or inhalation effect.

• Due to this aspiration effect the chances of formation of blow holes and porosity defects in the casting
are very high.
 Casting Cond…
• P1 ≥ Pa, so no aspiration effect will be taking place at point 1

𝑉22 𝑃2 𝑉32 𝑃
ℎ2 + + = ℎ3 + + 𝜌𝑔3
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃2 𝑃3
ℎ2 + = , 𝑃3 ≥ 𝑃𝑎, 𝑃3 = 𝑃𝑎 = 0 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

𝑃2 = −𝜌𝑔ℎ2(𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒)
 Casting Cond…
• To ensure that the aspiration effect is not taking place, the pressure along the length of GS must be ≥ to
the atm. Pressure or zero gauge pressure.
P2 = P3 = Pa = 0 (gauge)

𝑉22 𝑃2 𝑉32 𝑃
ℎ2 + + = ℎ3 + + 𝜌𝑔3
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉32 −𝑉22
ℎ2 = , 𝑉32 −𝑉22 = 2𝑔ℎ2, 𝑉32 1 − 𝑅2 = 2𝑔ℎ2
2𝑔

2𝑔ℎ2 2𝑔ℎ2 2𝑔ℎ2 ℎ𝑡 − ℎ2

𝑅2 = 1 − , 𝑅= 1− = 1− =
𝑉32 𝑉32 2𝑔ℎ𝑡 ℎ𝑡
 Casting Cond…
III. Solidification:
Heat to be removed for converting liquid to solid = m (S.H + L.H) = 𝑉𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 + 𝐿 (1)
• The heat transfer from molten metal to the surroundings through the mold is considered as a non-
periodic unsteady state heat conduction with infinite wall thickness problem.
𝐴𝑠𝐾∆𝑇
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 = (2)
𝜋𝛼𝜏

where, As = Surface area

K = Thermal conductivity
∆𝑇 = Temperature difference
𝛼 = Thermal diffusivity
𝜏 = Time
1
Time taken for transfer of heat = solidification time =
2
 Casting Cond…

𝑉 × 𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 + 𝐿
𝜏=
𝐴𝑠𝐾∆𝑇
𝜋𝛼𝜏

𝑉 𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 + 𝐿
𝜏= × 𝜋𝛼
𝐴𝑠 𝐾∆𝑇

2 2
𝑉 𝜌 𝐶𝑝 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑓 + 𝐿
𝜏= × 𝜋𝛼
𝐴𝑠 𝐾∆𝑇

𝑉 2
𝜏= 𝐾1 𝐴 Where, K1 = Mold constant = Solidification factor
𝑠

𝑉
= 𝑀 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠
𝐴𝑠
𝜏 = 𝐾1𝑀2
𝜏 ∝ 𝑀2
 Casting Cond…
IV. Fettling:
The method of breaking the mold and taking out the casting is called the fettling operation.
• The mold along with the casting is left over the vibratory mesh and applied the vibrations. Due to the
vibrational forces, the mold is getting broken slowly. The broken pieces of mold are falling into the pit by
leaving the mold box and casting over the mesh. Once it is found that the mold has broken completely,
the mold boxes will be sent for remolding and casting will be sent for inspection.
V. Cleaning: Sandblasting process and tumbling
VI. Inspection:
a. Dimensional inspection: Only the first one or two components will be inspected dimensionally and the
pattern will be qualified and afterward only random inspection will be done.
b. Defective inspection: The defects may be introduced at any point time into the casting. Hence, the
component has to be inspected for defects.
Methods: (a) Coin testing, (b) Ultrasonic testing, and (c) X-Ray radiography
 Casting Cond…
Riser Design:
Riser is acting as a reservoir for supplying molten metal to the casting cavity to compensate the
liquid shrinkage taking place during solidification.
Conditions need to be satisfied:
1. Volume of the riser must be at least equal to three times of the shrinkage volume of the casting.
Vr ≥ 3Vsc (necessary condition)
2. Solidification time of the riser must be equal or greater than the solidification time of casting.
𝜏𝑟 ≥ 𝜏𝑐 (𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
3. Location of the riser (already discussed)

4. Shape of the riser: The shape of the riser is selected such that heat transfer from the surface of riser
must be as minimum as possible so that the time taken for solidifying the molten metal is as maximum
as possible.
 Casting Cond…
4. Shape of the riser cond..
• When we have to consider a cylindrical, cubical and spherical co-ordinates system the ratio of hat
transfer rate are:
Qcubical : Qspherical : Qcylindrical = 1 : 0.71 : 0.439
• From different shapes the best preferable shape of the riser is cylindrical shape because it gives lowest
heat transfer rate and next preferable shape of riser is spherical. But never prefer cubical or
rectangular shape of riser.
• If the shape of the riser is spherical riser, once the volume of riser is known the dimensions of a
spherical riser can be determined easily, whereas if the riser is cylindrical riser, unless relationship
between diameter and height of riser is known it is not possible to determine dimensions of the
cylindrical riser
• For determining the optimum relationship between dimensions of cylindrical riser, there are two types of
risers will be taken into consideration.
 Casting Cond…
a) Top cylindrical riser:
𝜋 2
𝑉= 𝐷𝐻
4
4𝑉
𝐻= (1)
𝜋𝐷2

𝜋 4𝑉 𝜋
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐻 + 4 𝐷2 = + 4 𝐷2
𝐷

For minimum heat transfer

𝑑 𝐴𝑠
=0
𝑑𝐷
4𝑉 𝜋
− 2 + 2𝐷 = 0
𝐷 4
Put the value of V and solve the above equation

𝐷
𝐻=
2
 Casting Cond…
a) Side cylindrical riser:
𝜋 2
𝑉= 𝐷𝐻
4
4𝑉
𝐻= (1)
𝜋𝐷2

𝜋 4𝑉 𝜋
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝐷𝐻 + 2 4 𝐷2 = + 2 𝐷2
𝐷

For minimum heat transfer

𝑑 𝐴𝑠
=0
𝑑𝐷
4𝑉 𝜋
− 2 + 2𝐷 = 0
𝐷 2
Put the value of V and solve the above equation
𝐻=𝐷
 Casting Cond…
Methods of Riser Design: Constant for Caine’s equation
a. Cains method Materials a b c

b. Modulus method Steel 0.10 0.03 1.00

Aluminium 0.10 0.06 1.08
c. Navel research laboratory method
Cast iron, brass 0.04 0.017 1.00
d. Shrinkage volume consideration method
Gray cast iron 0.33 0.030 1.00
Aluminium bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00
a. Cains method Silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.00

𝑉
𝑀𝑟 𝐴𝑠 𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝑋) = = 𝑉 (1)
𝑀𝑐 𝑐
𝐴𝑠

𝑎
𝑋 = 𝑌−𝑏 − 𝑐 (2)

Where, Y = volume ratio of riser and casting (riser volume/casting volume)

a, b, and c are constant and these value are depending on materials.
 Casting_Defects
Casting defects:

Sand blow and Pinholes: defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity or gas cavities caused by
a release of mold gases during pouring. It is present just below the casting top surface. Low
permeability, bad gas venting, and high moisture content of the sand mold are the usual causes.

Sand wash: surface dip that results from erosion of the sand mold during pouring. This contour is
formed on the surface of the final cast part.

Scab: It is caused by portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification and getting
embedded in the casting surface.
 Casting Defects Cond…

Penetration: This surface defect occurs when the liquid penetrates into the sand mold as the fluidity of
liquid metal is high, After solidifying, the casting surface consists of a mixture of sand and metal.
Harder ramming of sand mold minimizes this defect.

Mold shift: This defect is caused by the displacement of the mold cope in a sideward direction relative
to the drag. This results in a step in the cast product at the parting line.

Core shift: Displacement of core vertically. The buoyancy of the molten metal causes core shift and
mold shift.

Mold crack: ‘Fin-like defect in cast part that occurs when mold strength is very less, and a crack
develops, through which liquid metal can seep.
 Casting Defects Cond…

Misruns: Castings that solidify before completely filling the mold cavity. This occurs because of (1) low fluidity of the
molten metal, (2) low pouring temperature, (3) slow pouring, and (4) thinner cross-section of the mold cavity.

Cold Shuts: This defect occurs when two portions of the metal flow together but no fusion occurs between them
due to premature freezing.

Cold shots: Forming of solid globules of metal that are entrapped in the casting. Proper pouring procedures and
gating system designs can prevent this defect.

Shrinkage cavity: Cavity in the surface or an internal void in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts the amount of molten metal present in the last region to freeze. It is sometimes called a ‘pipe’. Proper riser
design can solve this problem.

Microporosity: Network of small voids distributed throughout the casting caused by localized solidification
shrinkage of the final molten metal.
 Casting_Shell Moulding
Shell moulding:

Steps:
Step-1: A match-plate or cope and drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing sand
mixed with a thermosetting resin.
Step-2: The box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture
to partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell.
Step-3: The box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop away.
 Shell Moulding Cond…
Shell molding Cond…

Step-4: The sand shell is heated in the oven for several minutes to complete curing.
Step-5: The shell is stripped from the pattern.
Step-6: Two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished.
Step-7: The finished casting with sprue removed.
 Casting_Investment casting
Investment casting:

Steps:
Step-1: Wax patterns are produced.
Step-2: Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree.
Step-3: The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material.
Step-4: The full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make it
rigid.
 Investment Casting Cond…
Investment casting Cond…

Step-5: The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the
cavity.
Step-6: The mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that all contaminants are eliminated
from the mold; it also permits the liquid metal to flow more easily into the detailed cavity; the molten metal
is poured; it solidifies; and.
Step-7: The mold is broken away from the finishing casting. Parts are separated from the sprue.
 Casting_Die Casting Dies
Die casting:
I. Cold chamber die casting:

Steps:
Step-1: Pour the molten metal into the barrel.
Step-2: Plunger activated and molten metal fed into the cavity through the feed system.
Step-3: Cooling or solidification.
Step-4: Plunger retracted to original position and mold gets open.
Step-5: Ejection of the component.
 Die Casting Cond…
II. Hot chamber die casting:

Steps:
Step-1: Molten metal filled the chamber from the heated pot. At the same time, the plunger was on top, so
that inlet of the chamber should be open.
Step-2: Plunger slides down and applied force to the molten metal in the chamber that causes the flow of
molten metal into the cavity through the gooseneck and feed system.
Step-3: Cooling or solidification.
Step-4: Plunger retracted to original position and mold gets open.
Step-5: Ejection of the component.
 Casting_Centrifugal casting
Centrifugal casting:

The centrifugal casting method is the method to produce pipes by pouring molten metal into a
rapidly spinning cylindrical mold in which centrifugal force from the rotation exerts pressure on
the molten metal.
Casting_Tool and Equipment
Tool and Equipment Cond…
Casting_Assignment 1
Casting Cond…
𝓞𝓶 𝓝𝓪𝓶𝓪𝓱 𝓼𝓱𝓲𝓿𝓪𝔂…

Thank you !!!