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Structural
Engineering
Handbook
The photos on the front cover are courtesy of Thornton Tomasetti (Chicago office) and Jacobs
(New York office). Mustafa Mahamid is grateful to the two firms for their contributions.
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
MUSTAFA MAHAMID
EDWIN H. GAYLORD, JR.
CHARLES N. GAYLORD

Fifth Edition

NewYork Chicago San Francisco Athens London

Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi
Singapore Sydney Toronto
Copyright © 2020, 1997, 1990, 1979, 1968 by McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States
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 About the Editors

Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.E., P.Eng., F.SEI, F.ASCE, F.ACI, is a clinical associate
professor in the Department of Civil and Materials Engineering at the University of Illinois-
Chicago and is a member of the AccessEngineering Faculty Advisory Board. He previously
worked as a practicing structural engineer at GRAEF and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and
currently is a consultant for various structural engineering firms in the United States and
abroad. He is a Fellow of ASCE, a Fellow ofACI, and a Fellow of ASCE's Structural Engineering
Institute (SEI) and is active on various ACI and ASCE/SEI technical committees.

The late Edwin H. Gaylord, Jr. was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Illinois-
Urbana-Champaign.

The late Charles N. Gaylord was a professor of civil engineering at the University of Virginia.
This page intentionally left blank
 Contents

Contributors xv
Prmice xbc

Chapter 1. Structural Loads Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella • •••••• 1

1.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1
1 .2 Dud Loads.................................................................. . 1
1 .3 live Loads ................................................................... . 1
1A Rain Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
1.5 Soll Lat.nil Loads ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8
1 .6 Snow and Ice Loads .......................................................... . 9
1 .7 Wind Loads••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20
1 .8 E.llrthquake Loads ........................................................... . 49
1 .9 Flood and Tsunami Loads .................................................... . 49
1.1O Load Combinations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 57
References .......................................................................... . 60

Chapter 2. Structural Analysis Aly M. Said., Anas S. Issa,,

M. Shohrio Alam •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
PART A FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS TO STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORKS ••••• 61
2.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.2 Fundam911tals of Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 61
2.3 Energy Prlndples ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 63
2A Analysis of Statically Determinate Structures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 67
2.5 Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Stnmctures••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72
2.6 FoKA! Method................................................................ . 74
2.7 Displacement Method ....................................................... . 77
PART B ARCHES AND RIGID FRAMES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.8 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
2.9 Analysis of Arches •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 93
2.1o Design of Arches•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 94
2.11 Design of Fnimas ............................................................ . 101
2.12 Special Topics. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 111
2.13 Construction and Details ..................................................... . 112
References .......................................................................... . 116

Chapter 3. The Finite-Element Method Craig D. Foster,

Sheng-Wei Chi •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.1 0verv1- ofTheory of Flnltti-Element Analysls••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 119
3.2 Outline of Sttlps In a Finite-Element Analysis ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3.3 Types of StNctunil and Mechanical Analyses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122
3A Elements and Nodes ......................................................... . 124
3.5 Meshing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 125
3.6 Applying Loads and Dlspl11ct1ment Boundary Conditions ••••••••••••••••••••••• 126
3.7 Material Models and Other Properties ........................................ . 126
3.8 Solving the Quasi-Static Problem ............................................. . 126

Yll
viii CONTENTS

3.9 Postprocessing-Solving for Strain, Stress, and Other Quantities....... • • • • •• • • 126

3.10 Dynlimlc Flnlte-ElamentAnalysls........ ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 126
3.11 NonllnearFlnlte-ElemmtAnalysls............................................. 128
3.12 Verification and Validation • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.13 Issues and Pitfalls in Finite-Element Analysis..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 128
3.14 lntrodudlon to Finite Elements for Thermal, Thennomechanlcal,
and Other Problems • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 130
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 131

Chapter 4. Computer Applications in Structural Engineering

Raoul Karp, Bulent N. Alemdar, Sam Rubenzer............................ 133
4.1 lntrodudlon...... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 133
4.2 Computer Structural Analysis Simulation •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 133
4.3 Strudural Finite Elements..................................................... 135
4.4 Foundations.................................................................. 139
4.5 Verifying Analysis Results • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.6 Building lnfonnation Modeling and Interoperability •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 142
4.7 Summary..................................................................... 143
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 143

Chapter 5. Earthquake-Resistant Design s. K. Ghosh • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 145

5.1 Overview..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • •• • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.2 Nature of Earthquake Motion •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 145
5.3 Design Phllosophy....... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 146
5.4 Seismic O.slgn Requirements of the 2018 IBC/ASCE 7-16....................... 147
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 162

Chapter 6. Fracture and Fatigue Kedar s. Kirane, Zdenllc P. Bablnt,

J. Emesto lndacochea, Vineeth Kumar Gattu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 165
PART A CONCRETE AND COMPOSITES............................................... 165
6.1 lntrodudlon to Quaslbrlttle Fradure • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 165
6.2 Conaete • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 166
6.3 Flber-Relnforced Composites.................................................. 169
Ref.ranees • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 173
PART B STRUCTURAL STEELS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 175
6.4 Fracture of Structural Steels. • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 175
6.5 Fatigue of Structural Steels.................................................... 182
References • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • 193

Chapter 7. Soil Mechanics and Foundations Joseph w. Schulenberg,

KrishnaR.Reddy.................................................... 195
7.1 Soil Behavior..... •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • •• • • • • •• • • • • •• • • 195
7.2 Shallow Foundation Analyses •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 199
7.3 Deep Foundations •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 204
7.4 Retaining Strudures......... ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 210
7.S Investigations................................................................ 218
7.11 Soil Improvement............................................................. 219
7.7 Monitoring................................................................... 221
Ref.rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 221

Chapter 8. Design of Structural Steel Members Jay Shen,

Bulent Akbas, Onur Seirer, Charlies J. Carter. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 225
8.1 Design of Steel and Composite Memben •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 225
8.2 Seismic Design of Steel Members In Moment and Braced Frames • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 264
8.3 Conduding Remarks..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303
RetWrences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 303

Chapter 9. Design of Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members

Nabil A. Rahman, Helen Chen, Cheng Yu. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 305
9.1 Shapes and Applications. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 305
9.2 Materials..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 306
 CONTENTS Ix

9.3 Co1TOsion Protection ......................................................... . 308

9A Mambar Design Mathodology................................................ . 309
9.5 Structural Stability In Dmrmlnlng M•mbH Foras••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 311
9.6 Member Design ............................................................. . 311
9.7 Assemblies and Systems ..................................................... . 315
9.8 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 317
Referenctis .......................................................................... . 320

Chapter 1o. Aluminum Structural Design J. Randolph Kissell• •••••••• 321

10.1 Introduction ................................................................ . 321
10.2 Dnlgn OVllrvt.w ............................................................ . 322
10.3 Determining Required Forces ................................................ . 322
10A Axial Tension ................................................................ . 323
10.5 Axlal Comprasslon ........................................................... . 324
10.6 Fluu1W ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 325
10.7 Shear and Torsion••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3215
10.a Combined Forces ............................................................ . 328
10.9 Connactlons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 328
10.10 Sarvlcaablllty••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 331
10.11 Fabrication and EIWdion ..................................................... . 331
10.12 Fatigue ..................................................................... . 331
References .......................................................................... . 331

Chapter 11. Design of Reinforced-Concrete Structural Members

Mustafa Mahamid, David A. Fanella •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.1 Concrete .................................................................... . 333
11.2 Reinforcement•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 333
11.3 Spadflcatlons, Codas, and Standards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11 A General Raqulntments for Stntngth and Servlcaablltty ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
11.5 General Prlndplu of the Str9ngth O.slgn Mathod ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 338
11 .6 General Prindples and Requirements......................................... . 339
11 .7 One-Way Slabs. Two-Way Slabs. and Beams .................. .. ......... .. .... . 340
11 .8 Columns••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 352
11 .9 Tension Members ............................................................ . 354
11.1 O Members Subjectecl to Flexure and Axlal l.oitd ................................ . 354
11.11 w.111 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 3515
11.12 Footings•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 360
11.13 'IWo-Way Slab Systems •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 365
11.14 Salsmlc ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 367
References . .. ....................................................................... . 368

Chapter 12. Design of Prestressed-Concrete Structural Members

Sri Srltharan, Maryam Nazari• •••.•.••••••.•.•.••••.•.•.••••••.•.•.••••••.•.• 369
Nal:lltlon .. .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 369
12.1 Introduction ••••••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• • ••••• 370
12.2 Prestress Losses ............................................................. . 371
12.3 Analysis Concepts ........................................................... . 374
12A Design for Flexure ........................................................... . 380
12.5 Dnlgn for Shur, Bond, and Baarfng.......................................... . 3815
12.6 Dnlgn of Continuous Baam .................................................. . 389
12.7 Design for Torsion ........................................................... . 393
12.8 Design for Seismic Loacls ................................... . .......... . ..... . 3!Hi
Rafarancas .. ..................... . ................................. . .......... . ..... . 397

Chapter 13. Masonry Construction Richard Bennett,.

Sam Rubenzer •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 399
Notation ............................................................................ . 399
13.1 Masonry Materials •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 400
13.2 Masonry Analysls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 401
13.3 Unntlnforaicl Muonry •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 402
13A Ralnforad Masonry ......................................................... . 403
x CONTENTS

13.5 Seismic Design • • • •• .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 407

13.6 Specifying Mllsonry and Tasting Mllsonry........ • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 409
13.7 MllsonryFlreW.lls............................................................ 409
References........................................................................... 410

Chapter 14. Timber Structures Thomas Williamson,

Mustafa Mahamld. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 411
14.1
Wood as an Engineering Material.... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 411
14.2 Allowabla Strus Design (ASD) VL Load and Raslstance
Factor D•lgn (LRFD)..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 413
14.3 Structural Wood Products. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 413
14.4 Member Design • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 422
14.5 Connactlon Design • .. • .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •• • .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 425
14.6 Lataral Load Raslstanai .. • • • • •• .. • .. • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • •• .. 430
Rnrene111 • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 435

Chapter 15. Bridge Engineering Soliman Khudeira, Tony Shkurti,

Eric Stone, James Carter Ill, Jamshid Mohammadi, Bora Jang • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 437
PART A STEEL AND CONCRETE BRIDGES • • • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • • • • .. • • • • .. .. • • 437
15.1 General...................................................................... 437
15.2 Loads ............ ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 437
15.3 Stael Bridges • • • • • •.. • • • • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 453
15A Baarlng and Expansion Details................................................ 459
15.5 Beam and Plate-Girder Bridges...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 462
15.6 Truss Bridges................................................................. 469
15.7 Concrete Bridges • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 470
15.8 Slab Bridges.. • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 471
15.9 T-Beam Brfd991... ........... ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 473
15.10 Bax-Girder Bridges........................................................... 483
15.11 Prestressecl-COncrete Bridges .. • • .. • • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 493
15.12 Bridge Ralllngs • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. • • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. .. • • • • • •• .. 505
15.13 Administration of a Bridge System .. • • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• .. .. .. • • • •• • .. • .. • • • • •• .. 506
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 507
PART B STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES.............................................. 508
15.14 Benefits...................................................................... 508
15.15 Internal Elements............................................................. 509
15.16 Limit States and Combinations...... • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 509
15.17 Analysis of Bax Girders .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 511
15.18 Design of Bax-Section Membmn............................................... 512
15.19 Internal Element Design...................................................... 512
15.20 Conduding Remarks.......................................................... 512
References........................................................................... 513
PART C CURVED STEEL I-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • • .. • • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • 514
15.21 General.......................................................................... 514
15.22 Design Considerations... • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 514
15.23 Curved Girder Mechanics...... •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • • •• • •• • •• 517
References ..... ... ... ...... .. ... ...... .. ... ...... .. .. .. ..... ... ... ..... ... ... ...... .. 524
PART D CURVED STEEL BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES..................................... 525
15.24 General • .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. .. 525
15.25 Design Considerations... • • • • .. • • .. • • • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • •.. .. • .. • • • • •.. • 526
15.26 Bax-Girder Mechanics .. •• .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. .. .. • .. •.. .. .. .. • .. .. •.. .. .. •.. .. .. • 529
References ..... .. .... ...... ... .. ...... ... .. ...... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ..... .. .. .. ...... .. 531
PART E CURVED CONCRETE BOX-GIRDER BRIDGES • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • • • .. • • • • • .. .. • • 532
15.27 General.......................................................................... 532
15.28 Concrete Bax-Girder Bridge Types... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 532
15.29 Significance of Structural Configuration and Details. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 533
15.30 Review of Theory................................................................ 535
15.31 Design Considerations... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 539
References........................................................................... 547
 CONTENTS xl

Chapter 16. Railroad Bridge Design Mohsen Issa,

Ahmad Hammad •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 549
16.2 General Requirements ....................................................... . 549
16.3 Loading ..................................................................... . 549
16A Timber ...................................................................... . 550
16.5 Steel ........................................................................ . 551
16.6 Concrete .................................................................... . 552
References .......................................................................... . 557

Chapter 17. Industrial Buildings Jules Van de Pas, John Rolfes •••••••• 559
17.1 Planning Industrial Buildings. ................................................ . 559
17.2 Code Requirements and Industrial Loads ..................................... . 563
17.3 Framing Systems ............................................................ . 566
Refer.nctis .......................................................................... . 573

Chapter 18. Tall Bulldlngs Charles Besjak, Brian McElhatten,

Preetam Blswas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
18.1 Definition ofTall Building..................................................... 575
18.2 General Design Considerations................................................ 575
18.3 Structural Design Considerations.............................................. 576
18A ServlceabllltyConsideratlons ................................................. 577
18.5 Structural Systems for Tall Buildings........................................... 577
18.6 System Conc.eptuallzatlon..................................................... 579
18.7 System Parameters and Cholms............................................... 581
18.8 Analysis Parameters and Technlquu .. • . . . . . . • • • .. . . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . .. • • .. • . . . . . 591
18.9 Performance-Based Design for Wind • • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 595
18.1 O Performance-Based Design for Seismic .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 599
18.11 CrHp and Shrinkage.......................................................... 600
18.12 High-Rise Bulldlng Glossary................................................... 601
18.13 Addltlon11I Credits • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 601
Acknowledgments • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 601
Referenais • • • . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . 601

Chapter 19. Thin-Shell Concrete Structures Edmond Sallklls,

Mustafa Mahamid, David P. Billington, Julian A. Dumitnscu • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 603
19.1 Introduction 11nd Historical Oftrvt.w........ ........... ........... ............ 603
19.2 ShellsofRotlltion............................................................. 609
19.3 Domes . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . 613
19A Cyllndrlcal Barrel Shells....................................................... 626
19.5 Folded P111t.s........ ............ ........... ........... ........... ............ 632
19.6 Translation Shells of Double Curv11ture • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • 638
19.7 Dimensioning .. • • • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. • .. • .. • • • • 647
19.8 Stability and Safety........................................................... 647
19.9 Construction................................................................. 649
19.10 Appear11nm .................................................................. 649
References .. .. • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • •.. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 649

Chapter 20. Cable-Supported Roofs Paul A. Gossen,

Keith M. MacBaln • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 651
20.1 Introduction.................................................................. 651
20.2 Cable Mllttlrials and Construction .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • 651
20.3 Structural Systems • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 656
20A Dynamics .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.5 Analysis and Design • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • 658
20.6 E111ctlon...................................................................... 661
Refer.nctis • .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • •• • .. .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • • .. • • • • •• • • .. .. • • • • 661
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 21. Reinforced-Concrete Silos Ramez B. Gayed,

Mustafa MahamicL Amin Ghali • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 663
21.1 G•n•l'lll •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 663
21.2 DeslgnofWalls ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 676
21.3 DesignofBottoms............................................................ 681
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 695

Chapter 22. Design of Steel Tanks Leslie D. Scott • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 697

22.1 Introduction.................................................................. 697
22.2 Design Considerations... . . . . . • • • • • . . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 701
22.3 Design of Reservoirs and Standpipes . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . • • .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. 707
22A ElaYllted Tanks................................................................ 717
22.5 Acmssorlu................................................................... 723
22.6 Materials..... • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 726
22.7 Commercially Available Computer Programs..... • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 726
22.8 The Engineen Role...... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 727
Refl!ntnces... •••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••• •••••••••••• •••• 727

Chapter 23. Electrical Transmission and Substation

Structures Michael D. Miller, Robert£ Nickerson. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 729
23.1 Introduction.................................................................. 729
23.2 Referenced Standards and Mlinuals of Practice • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 729
23.3 Transmission Lin• Structures. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 729
23A Substation Structures......................................................... 737
References........................................................................... 740

Chapter 24. Chimneys Shu-Jin Fang, Victor Bochicchio • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 741

24..1Introduction.................................................................. 741
24.2 Design Loads................................................................. 741
24.3 SIMI Stacks .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • .. • • • • •.. • • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • • •.. • 745
24A R•lnforc.d-Concrm Chimneys................................................ 750
24.5 Liners and Unlngs .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • .. • • 752
24.6 Foundations.................................................................. 754
Refl!rences • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 754

Chapter 25. Health Monitoring and Nondestructive Testing

Didem Ozevin, Farhad Ansari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 757
25.1 Introduction.................................................................. 757
25.2 Components of NDE Methods................................................. 757
25.3 W.veform-Based NDE Methods and Applications . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 760
25A Th• Appllcatlons ofw.v.fonn-Based NDE M.thods to
Infrastructure Syst.ms... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 765
References • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 767

Chapter 26. Building Information Modellng (BIM) for

Structural Engineering Nawari o. Nawari • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 771
26.1 Introduction.................................................................. 771
26.2 BIM Fundam•ntals..... •. . . . . .. • • • •. . . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . .. .. • • •. . . . . .. • • 771
26.3 BIM Processes In Practice. . . . . .. • • • • . . . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . .. .. .. .. . . . . .. .. 776
26A Structure and Architecture Synergy (SASJ Framework........ . . . . • • • • • • . . . . . . • • • 778
26.5 Condusions .. . . . . . • • • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . .. .. • .. . . . . . .. • 786
Refl!ntnces • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • •• • • • • .. • • • .. • • • • .. • • • •• • • • • .. • • • • .. • • 786

Chapter 27. Structural Fire Engineering v. K. R. Kodur, M. z. Naser..... 789

27.1 G•n•l'lll ...................................................................... 789
27.2 Designing Structures for Fire Safety • • • • • .. • • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 789
27.3 Fire Growth and Development .. • • .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. 789
27A ProP9rtlu of Construction Mat•rlals at Elnat.d TempKBtures •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 791
27.5 Fire R9slstanai Evaluation • • • ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 796
27.6 Prescriptive-Based Approaches............................................... 796
 CONTENTS xiii

27.7 Rational Design Approaches ................................................. . 798

27.8 Summary ................................................................... . 800
Rnr.nct11 .......................................................................... . 800

Chapter 28. Disproportionate Collapse and Blast-Resistant

Design Shalva Marjanishvili, Robert Smilowirz••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
PART A STRUCTURAL ROBUSTNESS AND DISPROPORTIONATE COLLAPSE 801
28.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 801
28.2 Disproportionate Collapse Mitigation Strategies ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28.3 Progressive Collapse Modeling •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 802
28A Progreulva Collap• Anlllysls Example •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 806
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 809
PART B BLAST-RESISTANT DESIGN ............................................... . 809
28.5 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 809
28.6 Blast Phenomena ........................................................... . 810
28.7 Dynamic Design Approach .................................................. . 812
28.8 Struduntl Bahmor .......................................................... . 813
28.9 Primary Structurw: Mlltertal Selection and Design for
Blast Resistance ............................................................. . 814
28.1 O Secondary Structure: Material Selection and Design for
Blast Reslstanct1 ............................................................. . 815
28.11 Concluslon .................................................................. . 815
Rnrmct1s .......................................................................... . 815

Chapter 29. FRP Strengthening of Reinforced-Concrete

Members Hayder A. Rasheed ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.1 FRP Properties for Strengthening Appllcatlons. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 817
29.2 Flexural Strengthening Design for Beams and Slabs•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 818
29.3 Shear Strengthening Design for Beams ....................................... . 822
29A Confinement Strmgth•nlng Design for Orcular Columns••••••••••••••••••••••• 827
Rnr.nct1s .......................................................................... . 831

Chapter 30. Structural Glass and Glazing Rul de 5. Camposlnhos ••••• 833
30.1 Introduction •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 833
30.2 Glass: Produdlon and Propatl• ............................................. . 834
30.3 Glass as a Structural Material ................................................. . 835
JOA Actions .................................................... .. ................ . 839
30.5 Codes and Standards ...................................... ... ......... . ..... . 842
30.6 Plllte Buckling ............................................................... . 850
30.7 Latentl-Torslonal Budding ................................................... . 854
30.8 Glass Columns ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8515
References .......................................................................... . 858

Chapter 31. Machine Foundations O. Salem All• •••••••••••••••••••• 861

31.1 Background ••• ••••••••••• •• •••••••••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31 .2 Classlflcatlon of Machine Based on Machin•~ •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8151
31.3 Classlflcation of Machine Based on Type of Exdtatlon Force •••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 A Classification of Machine Based on Foundation ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31.5 Classification of Machine Load Transfer Mechanism •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8151
31 .6 Design Umlts for Machine Foundations....................................... . 8152
31 .7 Effect of the Supporting Soll ................................................. . 8152
31 .8 Energy Transt.r M•chanlsm ................................. .. ............... . 8153
31.9 Effect of Embedment of Foundation ••• •••••••••• •• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••• •• ••••• 8153
31 .1 O Reduction in Permissible Soil Stnass .. . .......... . .......... ... ......... . ..... . 8154
31.11 Damping In Soll ...................... . .................... .. .......... .. .... . 8154
31.12 Modellng TKhnlques for Machine Foundations •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8155
31.13 Block-Type Foundation ...................................................... . 8155
31.14 Mat Foundations ............................................................ . 8H
31.15 Elevated Machine Foundation ................................................ . 8157
xiv CONTENTS

31.16 Three-Dimensional Finite-Eletnent Mocleling • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 868

31.17 Soll Moclallng..... ••••••••••• ........... ........... ........... ............ .... 868
31.18 Currant Approach of Soll Mocl•llng............................................ 869
31.19 Methods to Compute Dynamk Impedance Functions • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 870
31 .20 Foundations Supported on Piles............................................... 870
31 .21 Pllu Subjactad to Lateral Vibrations........................................... 871
31.22 ElastlcContlnuum ............................................................ 872
31 .23 Pllu Sub)Ktad to Vartkal Vibrations.......................................... 875
31.24 PileGroupEffect.............................................................. 881
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 882

Chapter 32. Value Methodology Muthlah Kasi,

Charles A. Bartlett. • .. • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. • • • • • • .. • • • • .. 885
32.1 Introduction.................................................................. 885
32.2 VM Job Plan .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 885
32.3 The Key Futures ofVM Job Plan: Function Analysis •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 889
32A Exampla 1: Parapat Joint Datall .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. • • .. • • • .. .. • .. • • • • • .. .. 890
32.5 Evaluatlon Phasa • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 893
32.6 Implementation • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894
32.7 Summary..................................................................... 894
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 894

Chapter 33. Stone Cladding Rul de S. Camposlnhos • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 895

33.1 Introduction: Natural Stona Caddlng. • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 895
33.2 Natural Stona Daplctlon • • • • • .. .. • .. • • • • •.. • .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 896
33.3 Mechanical Properties • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 898
33A Cadding Systems and Methods .. • .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 899
33.5 Limit States Design .. .. .. • • • • .. .. .. • • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 901
33.6 Dowtll Anchoraga. •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 905
33.7 Karf Anchoraga............................................................... 909
33.8 Undercut Anchorage..... • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • •• • • 911
References • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. • .. .. • • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • .. .. .. .. • • • • .. .. 915

Index 9'9
 Contributors

Bulent Akbas. Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University. Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8}
M. Shahrla Alam Professor, School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Kelowna,
British Columbia, Canada (Chap. 2}
Bulent N.Alemdar, Ph.D., PE Principal Research Engineer. Bentley Systems, Inc., Carlsbad, California
(Chap.4)
O. Salem All, Ph.D., PEEngineering Manager, Structural Technologies (Chap. 31)
Farhad Ansari Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University of Illinois
at Chicago (Chap. 25}
Charles A. Bartlett, PE, CVS (Chap. 32)
Zdenik P. Balant McCormick Institute Professor and Walter P. Murphy Professor of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Material Science and Engineering,
Northwestern University, Evanston, minois (Chap. 6)
Richard Bennett Professor and Director ofEngineering Fundamentals, University of Tennessee,
Knoxville, Tennessee (Chap. 13)
Charles Bnjak, PE, SE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
David P. Bllllngton Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering, Princeton University (Deceased)
(Chap. 19)
Preetam Blswas. PE Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (Chap. 18)
Victor Bochicchio Executive Vice President, Hamon Custodis, Inc., Somerville, New Jersey (Chap. 24)
Rul de S. Camposlnhos Coordinator Professor with Aggregation, Polytechnic of Porto, Portugal
(Chaps. 30, 33)
American Institute ofSteel Construction, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 8}
CharllesJ.Cartllr, Ph.D., PE, SE
James Carter IllConsulting Engineer, Chicago, nlinois (Chap. 15)
Helen Chen, Ph.D., PE American Iron and Steel Institute, Washington, D.C. (Chap. 9}
Sheng-Wei ChL Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Jullan A. Dumltrucu Consulting Structural Engineer, Raytheon Engineers and Constructors
(Retired) (Chap. 19)
David A. Fanella, Ph.D., SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute (Chaps. l, 11)
Shu-Jin Fang Consultant, and Former Associate and Senior Manager, Sargent & Lundy, Chicago,
nlinois (Chap. 24}
Craig D. Foster, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, University of nlinois at Chicago
(Chap. 3)
Vineeth Kumar Gattu Chemical and Fuel Cycle Technologies, Argonne National Laboratory
(Chap. 6)
Ramez B. Gayed Adjunct Professor, University of Calga~ and Senior Structural Engineer,
thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions (Canada) Inc. (Chap. 21)
llY
xvi CONTRIBUTORS

Amin Ghall Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary {Chap. 21)

s. K. Ghosh S. K. Ghosh Associates LLC, Palatine, minois (Chap. 5)
Paul A. Gossen, PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Ahmad Hammad, Ph.D., PE. SE Assistant Vice President and Senior Engineering Manager, WSP
USA (Chap. 16)
J. Ernesto lndacochu Professor Emeritus, Civil and Materials Engineering, University of
lllinois at Chicago (Chap. 6)
Anas S. Issa Postdoctoral Fellow, Applied Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Structures
(ALAMS), University ofBritish Columbia, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada {Chap. 2)
Mohsen Issa, Ph.D., PE, SE Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago (Chap. 16)
Bora Jang Sharma and Associates, Inc. {Chap. 15)
Raoul Karp. PE, SE Vice President of Design Engineering Analysis, Bentley Systems, Inc.,
Carlsbad, California (Chap. 4)
Muthlah Kasi, PE, SE. CVS-Ufe (Chap. 32)
Soliman Khudeira lllinois Institute of Technology and Chicago DOT {Chap. 15)
Kedar S. Kirane Assistant Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Stony Brook Untversity, Stony
Brook, New York (Chap. 6)
J. Randolph Klssall, PE (Chap. 10)
V. IC. R. Kodur, Ph.D., P.Eng. University Distinguished Professor and Chairperson, Department
of Ctvil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan State University. East Lansing, Michigan
{Chap. 27)
Keith M. MacBaln, Ph.D., PE Geiger Engineers, Suffern, New York (Chap. 20)
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., SE, PE. P.Eng. Clinical Associate Professor, Department of Civil and
Materials Engineering, University ofnlinois at Chicago (Chaps. 1, 11, 14, 19, 21)
Shalva MarJanlshvlll, D.SC:.,. PE, SE Technical Director, Hinman Consulting Engineers, Inc.,
San Francisco, California (Chap. 28)
Brian McElhatten, PE, SE Arup {Chap. 18)
Michael D. Miller, PE. P.Eng.VP Engineering, SAE Towers {Chap. 23)
Jamshid Mohammadi lllinois Institute of Technology {Chap. 15)
M. Z. Naser, Ph.D., PE Assistant Professor, Glenn Department of Civil Engineering, Clemson
University. Clemson, South Carolina {Chap. 27)
Nawarl O. Nawarl, Ph.D., PE School of Architecture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
{Chap. 26)
Maryam Nazari Assistant Professor, Department ofCivil and Geomatics Engineering, California
State University, Fresno, California (Chap. 12)
Robert E. Nickerson, PE Consultant {Chap. 23)
Dldem Ozevln Associate Professor, Department of Civil and Materials Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 25)
Nabll A. Rahman, Ph.D., PE FDR Engineers, Raleigh, North Carolina (Chap. 9)
Hayd9r A. Rasheed, Ph.D., PE Professor, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas (Chap. 29)
Krishna A. Raddy Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago {Chap. 7)
John Rolfes Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Milwaukee, Wisconsin (Chap. 17)
Sam Rubenzer, PE, SE Founder and Structural Engineer, FORSE Consulting, Eau Claire, Wisconsin
{Chaps. 4, 13)
Aly M. Said Associate Professor, Architectural Engineering, Pennsylvania State Untversity.
University Park, Pennsylvania {Chap. 2)
 CONTRIBUTORS :xvll

Edmond Sallklls California Polytechnic State University (Cal Poly), San Luis Obispo (Chap. 19)
Jos•ph W. Schul•nb•rg Assistant Clinical Professor of Civil Engineering, University of minois
at Chicago (Chap. 7)
Lasll• D. Scott Chief Engineer, Tank Industry Consultants, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana (Chap. 22)
Onur Sear, Ph.D. Department of Civil Engineering, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Turkey
(Chap. 8)
Jay Shen, Ph.D., PE. SE Department of Civii Construction and Environmental Engineering,
Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa (Chap. 8)
Tony Shkurtl Consulting Engineer, Chicago, minois (Chap. 15)
RobtirtSmllowltz, Ph.D., PE Senior Principal, Thornton Tomasetti (Chap. 28)
Sri Srltharan Wilkinson Chair of Interdisciplinary Engineering and Professor of Structural
Engineering, Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State
University. Ames, Iowa (Chap. 12)
Eric Ston• Consulting Engineer, Chicago, Illinois (Chap. 15)
Jules Yan de Pu Vice President, CSD Structural Engineers, Greenwood Village, Colomdo (Chap. 17)
Thomas Williamson, PE Retired Vice President of Quality and Technical Services, APA-The
Engineered Wood Association (Chap. 14)
Chang Yu, Ph.D., PE University of North Texas, Denton, Texas (Chap. 9)
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

AB a practicing structural engineer and as an educator, I have always believed that structural
engineers and architects should have knowledge ofthe design of the various types of structures
and of their components, various analysis and design methods, the technologies used in this
analysis, and the design and production of engineering drawings. The Structural Engineering
Handbook provides established engineers, young engineers preparing for license exams, archi-
tects, and civil engineering students a comprehensive reference on the planning and design of
a variety of engineered structures. It also gives the designer the information likely needed for
all design phases.
The handbook covers various types of structures, such as tall buildings, industrial buildings,
bridges including railroad bridges, thin-shell structures, arches, cable-supported roofs, steel
tanks for liquids, retaining structures, blast-resistant structures, bins and silos for granular
material, steel transmission towers and poles, and chimneys. Structural loads for the various
types of structures are also covered, and there is comprehensive coverage of classical structural
analysis methods, finite-element analysis, and computer applications in structural engineering.
Additionally, earthquake-resistant design has been covered based on the most recent codes
and standards. Design of reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete, structural steel, cold-formed
steel, masonry. wood, and aluminium are covered. A chapter on soil mechanics, soil exploration,
and foundation design is also provided. Design against fatigue and fracture is covered for concrete,
composites, and steel
In this fifth edition, all chapters have been rewritten, some chapters in previous versions
of the handbook have been removed due to recent developments in design or construction
practices, and 12 new chapters have been added. The new chapters cover structural loads,
fracture mechanics of concrete and composites, railroad bridges, health monitoring of struc-
tures, building information modeling (BIM), structural fire engineering, progressive collapse
and blast-resistant design, strengthening of concrete using fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP),
structural glass, design of foundations for machines, value engineering, and stone cladding.
The 33 chapters of the handbook have been written by 66 contributors. They have pre-
sented their material in a ready-to-use form with flowcharts to show step-by-step procedures
wherever possible. Therefore, derivations of formulas are omitted in all but a few instances,
and many worked-out examples are given. Background information, descriptive matter, and
explanatory material have been condensed or omitted. Because each chapter treats a subject
that is broad enough to fill a book by itself, the contributors have had to select the material that,
in their judgment, is likely to be the most useful to the greatest number of users. References
and sources of additional material are noted for most of the topics that could not be treated
in sufficient detail.
I am very grateful to the contributors for their tremendous efforts in writing, reviewing,
and editing their work, and for their patience during the time it has taken to complete the
fifth edition.
Mustafa Mahamid, Ph.D., S.E., P.B., P.Bng.
University of Illinois at Chicago
This page intentionally left blank
Structural
Engineering
Handbook
This page intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1
Structural Loads

BY
MUSTAFA MAHAMID, Ph.D., SE. PE. P.Eng. University of Illinois at Chicago
DAVID A. FANELLA. Ph.D~ SE, PE Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute

1.1 INTRODUCTION a building or structure and do not include construction loads, environ-
mental loads (such as wind loads, snow loads, rain loads, earthquake
Applicable nominal loads on a structure are determined from the
loads, and flood loads), or dead loads (IBC 202).
general building code under whic.b the project is to be designed and
IBC Table 1607.1 contains nominal design values of uniformly dis-
constructed. Chapter 16 ofthe IBC (Ref. 1) contains the minimum mag-
tributed and concentrated live loads L 0 as a function of occupancy or
nitudes of some nominal loads and references ASCE/SEI 7 (Ref. 2) fur
use. The occupancy description listed in the table is not necessarily
others. For a specific project, the governing local building code should
group-specific (occupancy groups are defined in IBC Chapter 3). For
be consulted fur any variances from the IBC or ASCE/SEI 7.
example, an office building with a Business Group B classification may
It is common for nominal loads to be referred to as service loads.
These loads are multiplied by load factors in the strength design
method Exceptions are the wind load effect Wand the earthquake load Tllble1.1 Summary of Loads Addl'91Hd In the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7
effect E: Both are defined to be strength-level loads where the load fac-
Notation Load Code •ection
tor is equal to 1.0.
Table 1.1 contains a list of loads from the IBC and ASCE/SEI 7. D Dead load IBC 1606
Comprehensive information on the determination of structural loads n, Weight of ice Chap. 10 of ASCFJSEI 7
can be found in Ref. 3. B Combined effect of horizontal and IBC 1613 and
vertical earthquake-induced forces ASCEJSEI 12.4.2
u de£lned in ASCEISF.I 12.4.2
1.2 DEAD LOADS
E., Maximum seismic load effect of IBC 1613 and
Nominal dead loads D are the actual weights of construction materials horizontal and vertical forces u ASCEJSEI 12.4.3
and fixed service equipment that are attached to or supported by the 1et forth in ASCFJSEI 12.4.3
building or structure. Specific examples of such loads are listed under p Load due to fluids with well-defined
the definition of •dead load" in IBC 202. pressures and mu:imum heights
Dead loads are considered to be permanent loads because their mag- F, Flood load IBC 1612
nitude remains essentially constant over time. H Load due to lateral earth pressure.1, IBC 1610 (soil lateral loads)
Superimposed dead loads are permanent loads other than the weights ground water preasure, or pressure
of the structural members and include the following: floor finishes of bulk tnale!lal1
and/or topping; walls; ceilings; heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning L LiV<! load. tteept roofllV<! load. IBC 1607
(HVAC) and other service equipment; fixed partitions; and cladding. including any permitted liV<!
Minimum design dead loads for various types of common con- load reduction
struction components are provided in ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-la, and L, RoofllV<! load including any IBC 1607
minimum densities for common construction materials are given in permitted live load reduction
ASCE/SEI Table C3.l-2. In cases where information on dead load is R Rain load IBC 1611
unavailable, values of dead loads used in design must be approved by s Snow load IBC 1608 and Chapter 7
the building official (IBC 1606.2). of ASCE/SF.I 7
T Cumula!M effect. of oelf-straining See ASCEISEI 2.3.4 and
forces and effect. 2.4.4
1.3 LIVE LOADS w Load due to wind pressure IBC 1609 and Chapters 26
1.J,1 G•n•..I to 31 of ASCEISEI 7
Live loads are transient in nature and vary in magnitude over the life w, Wind-on-ice load IBC 1614 and Chapter 10
of ASCEISBI 7
of a structure. These loads are produced by the use and occupancy of
:Z CllAl'TH ONE

a1'o have~ areas that may warrant live loads of 125 or 250 J15f (6.0 or InSI Units
12.0 kN/m2) depending 011 the type of storage, which are greater 1han
the preaaibed oJBc:e live loacb. Structural me.mben are designed on the
buis ofthe muimum effects due t.o application of either a uniform load
L•L.(0.25+Jxu.Ar
4.75 )

or a concentrated load and need not be dalgned for the effects of both
loads applied at the U1De time. The building offiGial mu.rt approve live
lOldt that are not 1pecl6cally listed ill the table.
Putltiom that can be relocated (i.e., thoae typef that are not perma-
nently attached t.o the ltrudure) arc conaidered to be live loads In office
and other buildinp. A live load equal 1D at leut 15 psi (0.72 kN/m2)
muat be Included for movable putiliom if the nominal unl.funn floor
Im load la lea than 80 pet (3.8 kN/m2 ).
IBC Table 1607.1 pretaibet a minimum roof live load of 20 psi
(0.96 kN/m2) for typical roof lltnlctures; larger live loads are required
for roofi UJed u garden.1 or plau1 of 111embly.
ASCE Table 4.3-1 abo contain• minimum unl.funn and concentrated
Im load., and IOJlle of thcae value1 diffi:r from those ill IBC Table
1607.1. ASCE Tables CU-land C4.3-2canbe11.ted u a guide in mab-
liahing live load. for some commmily encountered occupancies.
1.3-2 RedllCtlan In Uw! a-.
Bel;aU1e liw loads are tranlient in nature. the probability that a struc;-
tur.d member will be mbjected t.o the full effect. from nominal live
loadt decreuea u the area 1upported by the member illaeaaee. Euept
for uniform llw load. on roofs, the minimum Wliformly distributed liYI:
loadt L, ln me Table 1607.l are permitted t.o be reduced In accordance
with the methodt in IBC 1607.11.1 ar 1607.ll.2. The general method
of live load reduction ill IBC 1607.11.1 ii alto given ill ASCB/SBI 4.7.
Reductlon of roof liYI: loada must confwm t.o IBC 1607.13.2.
In thU equltlon, Ku. la the li'YI: load element factor given In me
fible 1607.11.1, and Ar ii the tributary area mpported by the member
mtquare feet (1quare meters).
The live load element factor Ku. c:onvertl the tributary area Ar Into
an Influence area. which b contldeud to be the adjacent floor area from
which the member cleriva m load. In other wordt,
Ku = .infhience area/tributary area
Figure l.l llluttratahawthereduction multiplier 0.25+15!(.JKuAr )
vvte. wtth respect to the J.nfluence area Ku.Ar. Induded In the figure
are the minimum influence area of 400 lqUUC kct and the limits of O.S
and 0.4, which are the muimum permitted reduction1 for memben
eupportlng one floor and two or more tloors, reapeciively.
ONB-WAY SLABS
Li:9e load reduction on one-way slab. is pennitted provided that the
tributary area. A,.. doea not exceed an area equal to the slab epan timea a
width normal t.othe epan af 1.5 timeathe dab cpan (I.e., u area wtth an
upcct ratio of 1.5). The live load will buomewhat higher for a one-way
slab with an uped ratio of 1.5 than Cm a two-Wlly slab with the same
upect ratio. Thia recognizes the benefits of higher redundancy that
results from two-way actio11..
ASCE/Sfil 4.7.6 lw the aame requirementa for live load reduction on
one-way dab. u that in IBC 1607.11.l.l.

1.J.J Genenl Method of Lin l.eMI ltedudlon Hluyy LIVB LoAl>I

me Bquation (16-23) can be uted to obtain a reduced live load L for
members that support an area KuAr 2: 400 tP (37.2 m1):
L·L.(025+ .jK:Ar )
::! o.sor. rot" member1 mpporting one tloor
2: 0.401-. for members supporting two or more tloon
Accordlng ro IBC 1607.11.1.2, li'YI: loadt that arc greater than 100 psf
mlllt not be .reduced acept for the following:
1. Live load. for memben tupporting two or more t1oors are permit-
ted tc be reduced by a muimum al 20 percent, but L must not be lea
than that calc:ulmd by CBC 1607.11.1.
2. In 0"11p&Dc.ia other than ltorage. additional Im: load reduction
.is permitted if it can be shown by a regbtered design profesm.ona1. that
1uch a reduction i. warranted.

1.0

0.9

0.8

..• 0.7
i.
E 0.8
:I
:Iii I
c 0.5 - ~ ----------------

l '
0 I
I I

0.4 -L------------------'------------------------------
« 0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0 2,000 4,000 6 ,000 8,000 10,000 12,000
KuAr (sq ft)
fllure 1.1 Wuctionmult:iplier for live load in aa:orclanc:e with me 1607.11.l.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS J

In buildings that support relatively large live loads, such as storage
buildings, several adjacent bays may be fully loaded; as such, live loads
should not be reduced in those situations. Data in actual buildings
indicate that the floor in any story is seldom loaded with more than
80 percent of the nominal live load. Thus, a maximum live load reduc-
tion of 20 percent is permitted for members that support two or more
floors, such as columns and walls.
PASSENGER VEHICLE GARAGES
The live load in passenger vehicle garages is not permitted to be reduced,
except for members supporting two or more floors; in such cases, the
maximum reduction is 20 percent, but L must not be less than that
calculated byIBC 1607.11.1(IBC1607.11.1.3). Thus, live load reduction
is not permitted except for members that support two or more floors.
GROUP A (ASSEMBLY) OCCUPANCIES
Due to the nature of assembly occupancies, there is a high probability
that the entire floor is subjected to full uniform live load. According to
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1, live load reduction is not permitted in
assembly areas, CX(:ept for follow spot, projection, and control rooms,
unless specific ~ons ofIBC 1607.11 apply.
Flowchart 1 shown in Fig. 1.2 can be used to determine basic uniform
live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.1.
1.JA Alternirtlvtt Uniform Live l.Olld Reduction
An alternative method of uniform live load reduction, which is based on
provisions in the 1997 Uniform Building Code (Ref. 4), is given in IBC
1607.11.2. IBC Equation 16-24 can be used to obtain a reduction factor

FLOWCHART1

Basic Uniform Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted"

No Yes

AT :s: 1.S(slab span) 2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permittedt

• See IBC 1607.11.1.2 for two exceptions to this requirement.

** Live loads for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be
reduced by a maximum of 20 percent (IBC 1607.11.1.3).
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control
rooms are permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1.2 Basic uniform live load reduction In accordance with IBC 1607.11.1 (Flowchart 1).
4 CHAPTER ONE

FlOWCHART1

Basic Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.1)

(continued)

No Yes

Live load raduction is not permitted

except as specified in IBC 1607.13.2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted

:?: 0.50L0 for members supporting one floor

:i: 0.40L0 for members supporting two or more floors

Figure 1.2 (Continued)

R for members that support an area greater than or equal to 150 square

=l~.2-0.0001.A,
for A, S 200 square feet
feet where the live load is less than or equal to 100 psf.
Flowchart 2 shown in Fig. 1.3 can be used to determine alternative R1 for 200 square feet< A, < 600 square feet
uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2. 0.6 for A, ~ 600 square feet
1.3.5 Roofl.oltd1

In general, roofs are to be designed to resist dead, live, wind, and, where
applicable, rain, snow, and earthquake loads. A minimum rooflive load
of 20 psf is prescribed in IBC Table 1607 .1 for typical roof structures,
while larger live loads are required for roofs used as gardens or places
of assembly.
IBC 1607.13.2 permits nominal roof live loads on flat, pitched, and
curved roofs and awnings and canopies other than fabric construction
supported by a skeleton frame to be reduced in accordance with IBC
Equation 16-26:
where L 0 =unreduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof
projection supported by the member
L, = reduced roof live load per square foot of horizontal roof
projection supported by the member
~ =j~.2-0.0SF
forPS4
for 4<F<l2
0.6 for F~l2
A, = tributary area (span length multiplied by effective width) in
square feet supported by a member
P = the number of inches of rise per foot for a sloped roof
=the rise-to-span ratio multiplied by 32 for an arch
or dome
No live load reduction is permitted for members supporting less than
or equal to 200 square feet as well as for roof slopes less than or equal
to 4: 12. In no case is the reduced roof live load to be taken less than
12 psf. The minimum load determined by this equation accounts for
occasional loading due to the presence of workers and materials during
repair operations.
 STRUCTURAL LOADS 5

FLOWCHART2
Alternative Unifonn Live Load Reduction (IBC 1607.11.2)

Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted*

No Yes

A ~ 0.5(slab span)2

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitted**

No Yes

Live load reduction is not permitte<ft

* Live loads lor members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced
by a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1607.11.2(1); also see exception in that section].
- Live l0&ds for members supporting two or more floors are permitted to be reduced by
a maximum ol 20 percent [IBC 1807.11.2(2)].
t Live loads for members supporting follow spot, projections, and control rooms are
permitted to be reduced (see Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
Figure 1 .3 Alternative uniform live load reduction in accordance with IBC 1607.11.2 (Flowchart 2).

Llve loada are permitted to be reduced on areas of occupiable roofs
using the provisions ofIBC 1607.11 for floor live loada (IBC 1607.13.3).
Llve loads that are greater than or equal to 100 psf at areas of roofs
that are classified as Group A (assembly) occupancies are not permit-
ted to be reduced unless specific exceptions of IBC 1607.11 apply (see
Footnote m in IBC Table 1607.1).
A minimum rooflive load of 20 psf is required in unoccupied land-
scaped areas on roofs (IBC 1607.13.3.1). The weight of landacaping
material is considered a dead load and must be determined based on
the saturation level of the soil
A minimum roof live load of 5 psf is required for awnings and
canopies in accordance with IBC Table 1607.1 (IBC 1607.13.4). Such
elements must also be designed fur the combined effects of snow and
wind loads in accordance with IBC 1608 and 1609.
1.3.6 Crane Loads
Design provisions fur runway beams that support moving bridge cranes
and monorail cranes are given in IBC 1607.14. In general, the sup-
port structure of the crane must be designed fur the maximum wheel
load, vertical impact, and horizontal impact as a simultaneous load
combination.
A typical top-running bridge crane is depicted in Fig. 1.4. The trol-
ley and hoist move along the crane bridge, which is supported by the
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make a mistake on this basis, he will have the recompense of
knowing that he has assisted in a very rare case, in which it was next
to impossible for him to be right. This condition is said to be found
more frequently when the brain lesion and paralysis are on the right
side.

Severe pain in the head, followed by gradually but rapidly deepening

coma and paralysis of one side, becoming more and more complete,
probably means a hemorrhage into or just outside of the great
ganglia and involving a large extent of one of the hemispheres.

If there have been moderate loss of power or complete paralysis

lasting some hours, with, afterward, sudden loss of consciousness
and general muscular relaxation, with sudden fall, soon followed by
rapid rise, of temperature, it is very probable that a hemorrhage has
broken through into the ventricles or beneath the membranes, and is
still going on.

Rapidly-deepening unconsciousness, with general muscular

relaxation and gradual manifestations of more paralysis on one side
than the other, may come from meningeal hemorrhage.

Very sudden and complete hemiplegia without prodromata, with

deep unconsciousness coming on rapidly or suddenly, but a little
after the paralysis, is likely to denote the occlusion of the middle (and
perhaps anterior cerebral) artery of the opposite side at a point
sufficiently low down to produce extensive anæmia of the motor
centres along the fissure of Rolando as well as the underlying great
ganglia.

Aphasia with hemiplegia, often without the slightest disturbance of

consciousness, is in a considerable proportion of cases connected
with a lesion of the third left frontal convolution, and in a somewhat
larger proportion with the frontal lobes in general and the island of
Reil. This lesion is in a great majority of cases occlusion of the
artery. Difficulty of speech, connected with difficulty of swallowing
and associated with a certain amount of amnesic aphasia, has been
found with lesions of the pons. As aphasia, however, may occur
without any fatal lesions at all, it is not certain in all these cases that
the obvious lesion of the pons is a direct cause of all the symptoms.

Word-blindness is associated, according to a case reported by

Skworzoff and a few others,49 with a lesion of the angular gyrus, pli
courbe (P2 of Ecker), and word-deafness with a lesion of the first
temporal (T1). These localizations agree with those experimentally
determined.
49 West, Brit. Med. Journ., June 20, 1885.

Conjugate deviation is of importance as a localizing symptom, chiefly

because it may be manifest when other signs of hemiplegia are
difficult to elicit. I do not find it mentioned in twenty-seven cases of
cerebellar hemorrhage not included in the table of Hillairet, but it is
not infrequent with lesions of the pons; and when the lesion is in the
lower third, it is in the opposite direction to that described as usual
with lesions of the hemispheres.

Hemianæsthesia involving the organs of special sense, unilateral

amblyopia, and color-blindness is supposed to be connected with a
lesion of the posterior third of the internal capsule, or the thalamus in
its immediate vicinity, sometimes also with a lesion of the pons.
Bilateral hemiopia—blindness of the corresponding sides of both
eyes—is apt to be connected with a lesion of the occipital lobe of the
opposite side. Rendu and Gombault remark that hemianæsthesia of
the limbs and face may be met with in certain lesions of the cerebral
peduncles, but in this case the higher special senses (sight, smell)
remain unaltered. Hemichorea points to the same localization as the
more complete hemianæsthesia.

Alternate hemiplegia is due to a lesion of the pons upon the side of

the facial paralysis, and opposed to the paralysis of the limbs and in
the posterior or lower half. Care should be taken not to confound this
with the accidental addition of a facial paralysis to a hemiplegia of
the other side.
Irregular ocular paralyses are very likely to be due to lesion of the
same region. In some of these forms an investigation of the electrical
condition with reference to the presence of the degeneration reaction
may be of great assistance.

With extensive lesions profound coma and relaxation without distinct

hemiplegia are likely to be due to injury of the pons. A thrombus of
the basilar artery may lead not only to rapid, but even to sudden,
death. A phthisical patient died suddenly while eating his supper, and
a thrombosis of the basilar artery, with softening of the pons, was
found. Of course the lesion must have been of older date.50 Bright51
thought that when symptoms pointing to disease of the intracranial
vessels were present the diagnosis was confirmed, and the location
of the lesion in the vertebral arteries rendered highly probable, by a
persistent occipital pain. In the upper part of one side of the pons the
hemiplegia is not alternate, but of the ordinary form.
50 Bull. de Société anatomique, 1875.

51 Guy's Hospital Reports, 1836.

Any extensive lesion of the medulla must cause death so rapidly as

almost to defy diagnosis, but such rarely occurs. The very rapid
termination of certain cases of hemorrhage into the pons and
cerebellum is due to the escape of blood into the fourth ventricle and
consequent compression of the medulla.

Lesions of the lower and inner part of the crus are indicated by
paralysis of the third nerve of the same, and hemiplegia of the
opposite side of the body.

Obstinate vomiting, severe occipital headache, and vertigo, with or

without a distinct paralysis, render a cerebellar hemorrhage
probable, though no one of these symptoms is necessarily present
or pathognomonic. Vomiting is very much more common with
cerebellar hemorrhage than with cerebral. Ocular symptoms, like
nystagmus and strabismus, accompany cerebellar lesions.
A difference in the temperature of the paralyzed and non-paralyzed
sides, when amounting to one and a half to two degrees and lasting
for a long time, is thought by Bastian to indicate a lesion of the optic
thalamus.

The severe and rapid sloughing of the nates sometimes seen in

rapidly-fatal cases is stated by Joffroy to be most frequently
connected with a lesion of the occipital lobes.52
52 Arch. gén., Jan., 1876.

It is plain, from what has been said about the symptoms of the
different kinds of lesion, that a distinction may be often very difficult,
and at times impossible; and in this connection all observers are
agreed, the apoplectiform shock, the hemiplegia, and the slighter
attacks being common to two or three lesions. The diagnosis can be
made, if at all, only by the consideration of more or less secondary
symptoms and the careful weighing of the various probabilities
against each other. Most of the statements of differences of
symptoms are only relatively true.

A glance at the nature of the pathological processes involved may

serve to systematize our observations.

Hemorrhage is a sudden accident, with a severity increasing as the

amount of effusion increases. It has been prepared for by arterial
disease, but this disease is one which may have no previous
symptoms. It is at first an irritative lesion.

Embolism is a sudden attack which may be as severe at first as even

a few minutes afterward. It is also prepared for by disease of other
organs, which may or may not have symptoms according to the
origin of the embolus. As embolism affects especially those regions
where the motor centres are spread out, while hemorrhage attacks
more frequently the conductors in their locality of concentration, the
paralyses arising from the former affection may be more narrowly
limited.
Thrombosis is a gradual affection, which may, however, manifest
itself suddenly, from the obstruction reaching a certain point and
suddenly cutting off the supply of blood. This also depends on
previous disease which has more or less definite symptoms.

The severity of the attack is not conclusive, though the completely

developed apoplectic attack is more frequent with hemorrhage.
Rapidly increasing severity, especially if there have been
prodromata, is in favor of hemorrhage. Convulsions, early rigidity,
and conjugate deviation of the eyes of the spastic form, especially if
afterward becoming paralytic, are strongly in favor of hemorrhage,
and the latter possibly conclusive. Hughlings-Jackson states that he
cannot call to mind a single case of hemiplegia from clot in a young
person in which there were not convulsions.

Sudden paralysis without cerebral prodromata, unconsciousness, or

pain can hardly be anything else than embolism; but, unfortunately
for diagnosis, the initial paralysis from the embolus may be slight,
and afterward added to by the secondary thrombus, so as to put on
the appearance of more gradual approach.

Aphasia, and especially aphasia associated with but little or no

paralysis, is very much more frequent with embolism than with
hemorrhage.

The temperature, if we could always have it recorded from the very

beginning, might be of value, as the initial depression is said to be
less with embolism than with hemorrhage, but Bourneville,53 who
lays down this rule, gives so many cases where no great depression
occurred with hemorrhage that it cannot be considered decisive.
Besides this, we are not likely to get the information at the time it is
of the most value.
53 Op. cit.

Etiological information may have a very practical bearing on this part

of the diagnosis. Age gives a slight amount of predominance to the
chances of hemorrhage, and youth a considerably greater one to the
chances of embolism. Interstitial nephritis with hypertrophy of the
heart, after the exclusion of uræmia, gives a strong probability in
favor of hemorrhage. Valvular disease of the heart, especially a more
or less recent endocarditis, is strongly in favor of embolism. A feeble
action of the heart, slow and irregular pulse, are more likely to be
connected with thrombosis.

Atheroma and calcification, as detected by examination of the visible

and tangible arteries like the radial and temporal, is a condition either
connected with the periarteritis aneurysmatica which gives rise to
hemorrhage, or one which furnishes a suitable spot for the
deposition of a thrombus; hence it can be considered conclusive in
neither direction.

Arcus senilis, even of the fatty variety, can only show some
probability of arterial degeneration.

Retinal hemorrhage, if present, favors the presence of a similar

cerebral lesion, but nothing can be argued from its absence.
Landesberg54 has reported a case in which embolism of the central
artery of the retina, easily diagnosticated by the ophthalmoscope,
preceded by a few days a similar accident in the middle cerebral;
and Gowers55 another in which the two arteries were occluded
simultaneously.
54 Archiv für Ophthalmologie, xv. p. 214.

55 Lancet, Dec. 4, 1875.

If a sudden paralysis arises in connection with a septic process, we

may diagnosticate an embolus with a good deal of confidence; but it
is not unusual to meet with small abscesses of septic origin which
have given rise to no special symptoms whatever, or only to such as
are covered up by the more general constitutional ones.

PROGNOSIS.—The prognosis quoad vitam of cases of apoplexy still in

the unconscious state is based upon the general severity of the
symptoms as indicated by general muscular relaxation, or, at a later
period, the extent of the paralysis, the amount of affection of the
heart and respiration, and especially the progress during the first few
hours. Too much weight should not be placed upon a very slight
improvement at first, since this often takes place in cases soon to
prove fatal.

Stertorous respiration with perfect tolerance of mucus in the throat,

absolute loss of the reflexes, and immobility of the pupils signifies
profound depression of the organic nervous centres, and is
consequently of unfavorable augury.

The temperature is a valuable guide. In proportion as it moves

steadily and rapidly upward is the prospect of an early fatal result. A
person may die during the initial fall of temperature, but in such a
case there would hardly be need of a prognosis.

In general, the prognosis from hemorrhage, supposing the

symptoms to increase in severity for an hour or two, is worse than
that from occlusion.

Age, aside from the fact that it makes hemorrhage more probable
than occlusion, is not of great importance in prognosis, certainly not
out of proportion to the general impairment of vigor in advanced
years.

A renewal of the hemorrhage within a few hours cannot be predicted.

It may be indicated by another fall of the temperature, which, if it
have been previously on the rise, renders, of course, the prognosis
more unfavorable.

After recovery, more or less complete, from the apoplectic condition

the prognosis is favorable, for a time at least, except so far as one
attack may be looked upon as the forerunner of another. After the
temperature has reached a sort of standstill in the neighborhood of
normal, its subsequent rise will furnish among the earliest indications
of an approaching fatal termination.
Urinary trouble, retention, incontinence, or, much more, cystitis, is to
be looked upon as a complication which materially increases the
gravity of the situation. Bed-sores or abrasions may be placed in the
same class, except that the early and extensive sloughing of the
nates described by Charcot is of almost absolutely fatal significance.

After some days or weeks the progress of the paralysis either toward
better or worse may be exceedingly slow, and as time goes on the
danger to be apprehended from the latter becomes less and less.

When paralysis takes place in young persons and the primary attack
is recovered from, it is doubtful if the chances of a long life are
materially diminished. A case has already been referred to in this
article where the consequences of a cerebral hemorrhage occurring
in infancy were found in a woman of eighty-three in the form of
atrophied limbs and an old pigmentary deposit in the brain.

Hemorrhage into the cerebellum would appear, from statistics, to be

exceedingly fatal, but it is certain from old lesions occasionally found
that it is not absolutely so, and its apparent severity is partly caused
by the fact that it is very seldom diagnosticated except at the
autopsy.

The prognosis quoad restitutionem ad integrum cannot be made to

advantage at an early period. After the immediate danger to life has
passed it is safe to say, if pressed for an answer, that it is highly
probable that some recovery from paralysis may take place, but that
it is highly improbable that it will be absolutely complete, and just
how far improvement may go it is impossible to predict with accuracy
at first. Time must be given, in the first place, for pressure to subside,
compressed nerve-fibres to be restored, and for such collateral
circulation as is possible to be established. How recovery takes
place beyond this it is not easy to say. It is hardly supposable that
any considerable portion of nerve-structure is renewed. A certain
amount of substitution, by which one part of the brain takes up the
functions of another part, is among the most plausible suppositions;
but how this is accomplished it is hardly worth while in the present
condition of cerebral physiology to speculate.
Practically, it may be said that physicians are apt to consider a
paralysis absolute at too early a period, while the patient and his
friends continue to hope for a complete restoration after it is evident
that no really useful increase of power is to be looked for. Weeks,
and even months, may elapse before any return of motion can be
perceived in cases which are really susceptible of considerable
improvement, and a year most certainly does not cover the limit of
the time during which it may go on.

The most unfavorable symptom, one which probably precludes all

hope of useful recovery in the limbs affected, is contracture,
heralded for a time by increase of the deep reflexes, indicating
degeneration of the motor tract in the white substance of the cord.
Until this begins, certainly for many weeks, the patient may be fairly
encouraged that some improvement is possible, though after a few
weeks the chances diminish as time goes on. In the rare cases
where the muscles undergo rapid wasting the prognosis is, if
possible, worse still. The localization of the lesion after the early
symptoms are passed does not greatly influence the prognosis.

A rapid recovery taking place in either hand or foot, and especially of

the hand first, without corresponding improvement in the other limb,
is of unfavorable import for the latter, and, in general, the prognosis
is not exactly the same for both limbs involved. In the rare cases of
hemiplegia from acute brain disease occurring in children the
nutritive disturbances in the form of arrest of growth should be taken
into the account in prognosis, since the result may be nearly or quite
the same as is found after infantile paralysis from disease of the
cord.

In regard to the slighter forms of paralysis, it may be said that the

less extensive the original paralysis is, and the sooner improvement
begins, the better is the chance of complete recovery.

TREATMENT, INCLUDING PROPHYLAXIS.—Cerebral Hemorrhage.—As the

condition upon which the usual form of cerebral hemorrhage
depends is so frequently aneurism, and probably nearly always
some arterial disease, the prophylaxis must evidently consist in such
a mode of life as will least tend to this degeneration, or at least put it
off as long as possible. This, of course, means the avoidance of all
the special causes described under the head of Etiology. It is a
disease of old age, but in a pathological sense old age begins in
different persons after a different number of years. Fortunately for
rules of hygiene, there is little that is contradictory in those to be
given for most chronic and degenerative diseases. Abstinence from
alcohol, as an agent tending at once to paralysis and dilatation of the
vessels, is one of the most important rules and insisted upon by
nearly all writers. The avoidance of over-eating, and especially of
nitrogenous food as tending to lithæmia—a generally recognized
cause of arterial degeneration—is perhaps the next. Over-eating is
of course to be understood as a relative term, and to be estimated
with reference to the habits of exercise of each person. Practically, it
will be decided by its effects; that is, if careful thought be given to the
matter and the statements of the gourmand as to his immunity from
all risk of trouble are not accepted as of scientific value. On the other
hand, insufficient food, producing anæmia, may be a factor in arterial
degeneration. Keeping one's self free from anxiety, and getting
through the world with as little experience of its roughnesses as
possible, might be, properly enough, added in a purely theoretical
point of view if any one ever asked a physician's advice in youth as
to avoidance of the diseases of age, or if any one could or would
profit by this advice if it were given.

Intellectual pursuits have been credited with a special tendency to

apoplexy, but there is no good reason to suppose that healthy
exercise of the mind is otherwise than beneficial to its organ. Hurry,
over-anxiety, and mental tension are undoubtedly potent factors in
general breakdown, but do not necessarily lead to this form. They
are certainly not to be found by preference in those persons who
lead an intellectual life.

Syphilis, one of the most important of the causes of organic cerebral

disease, and that too in the form of thrombosis, is not specially
concerned in the etiology of the forms here under consideration.
If symptoms have occurred that justify the apprehension of apoplexy
or paralysis, such as frequent headaches in an elderly person,
hemiopia, temporary aphasia, or slight and temporary paralyses, or if
one have reached a time of life at which the risk of cerebral
hemorrhage becomes considerable, a stricter attention to the rules
laid down above, and even to some to which but little heed would be
given in health, is not out of place. A certain amount of limitation of
diet, moderate and regular but not violent exercise, clothing suitable
to the season, and especially warm enough in winter, and, most of
all, rest if the patient be doing wearing and anxious work, should be
enjoined. Finally, it should be said that the real prophylaxis of
cerebral hemorrhage is to be begun in early life.

Among the exciting causes to be avoided are those which obstruct

the flow of blood from the head, like tight clothing around the neck.
Increase of the arterial pressure by severe or prolonged muscular
effort, as in lifting or straining at stool, is to be avoided, as well as
violent fits of passion. The condition of the bowels should be
regulated by mild laxatives.

When the apoplectic attack has actually occurred, treatment, though

apparently urgently demanded, is really of little avail. If a patient is
about to die in an hour or two from rapidly increasing pressure,
nothing within the reach of medical science can stop him.

There is one danger, however, easily avoided, but probably often

overlooked. A patient may die from suffocation. The stertor is often a
result of the paralysis of the tongue and palate and of the amount of
fluids collecting in the pharynx from the almost invariable position of
the patient on his back; that is, if he have been seen by some one
who wished to do something for him, but did not know what.
Insensibility and paralysis combine to favor this accumulation, which
obstructs the respiration, and which may find its way to the lungs,
together with brandy and milk, and set up an inhalation-pneumonia.
The simple and obvious thing to do is to place the patient sufficiently
on his side, with the face somewhat downward, for the tongue and
palate and secretions to fall forward, instead of backward into the
pharynx. Swabbing out the pharynx may be of some use, but cannot
be so thorough. An easy position and proper ventilation should be
secured in all cases of unconsciousness, even at the risk of treating
a drunkard with undue consideration. Police-stations should be
provided with rooms where these conditions can be secured, and the
necessity avoided of placing persons picked up in the streets in the
narrow, close, and perhaps distant cells provided for malefactors.
The writer recalls the cases of two young men—one who had been
drinking some time before, and the second roaring drunk—who were
locked up in a suburban station-house in the evening, and found the
next morning—one dying and the other dead.

Artificial respiration may be used to prolong life in some cases until

the nervous centres have sufficiently recovered their functions to
carry on the process without assistance. The condition of the bladder
should be ascertained, and the urine drawn if necessary, though it is
more frequently passed involuntarily.

Although it is manifestly impossible to remove the clot from the

interior of the brain, it may appear that the further flow of blood may
be stopped and the amount of damage done limited. For this
purpose two remedies are proposed—namely, bleeding and
purgatives. Both of these act to diminish arterial pressure, which is
forcing the blood out of the rupture. Though the treatment seems
reasonable, it would not be difficult to imagine a condition where
sudden and premature diminution of pressure in the brain, which of
course exists outside of the arteries as well as inside, would tend to
set going again the flow which has ceased from the very force of the
pressure it itself exerts, very much as if a tampon were prematurely
removed from a bleeding cavity elsewhere. As the conditions are
somewhat complicated, and at the same time only remotely to be
estimated, it is safer to be guided by experience in the use of these
remedies than by abstract reasoning. In some of the cases of
temporary aphasia, as notably that of Rostan narrated by Trousseau,
bleeding seems to have given immediate relief. Trousseau, however,
is no advocate of that method of treatment. Most modern authors
speak of venesection as to be used in cases where the pulse is
strong and full and the face red, but not to be thought of in the
opposite class. When a case presents the appearances of plethora
and an attack has come on suddenly, the loss of a few ounces of
blood can certainly do no harm. Other forms of bleeding, such as
cups and leeches, are not rapid enough to be of great value, though
a large number of leeches about the head might be useful. Some
French writers recommend leeches to the anus as revulsives.
Cathartics may be more freely used, although they should be given
cautiously when there is any tendency to cardiac depression. It can
be clearly shown that a brisk purgative lowers the arterial tension
decidedly. In case of cerebral tumor or injury with occasional so-
called congestive attacks, the relief afforded by cathartics is very
great, and, although the conditions are not exactly parallel, it is fair to
assume a similar action in the congestion accompanying cerebral
hemorrhage. From one to three drops of croton oil may be placed far
back on the tongue or it may be diluted with a neutral oil. Ail enema
may be desirable for the unloading of the bowels, but has a much
less marked effect on the tension of the cerebral circulation.

In most cases of apoplectiform cerebral hemorrhage, and probably in

all of simple paralysis, no very active treatment is called for.
Measures directed to the prevention of another hemorrhage, and to
allay any irritation that may supervene during the changes taking
place about the clot and the formation of its capsule, are of the
simplest, and consist in keeping the head high and cool, the clothing
sufficient for warmth, and offering no obstruction to respiration or
circulation, laxatives sufficient to keep the bowels in good order, and
a diet not highly nitrogenous, but sufficient and digestible.

That which will tax most severely, however, the care and patience of
attendants is the scrupulous and minute attention to cleanliness and
pressure over the bony prominences which is necessary when a
patient is helpless and unable to control the discharges from the
rectum and bladder. Frequent change of clothing, bathing, change of
position, and avoidance of wrinkles and roughnesses in the bed may
be successful in keeping the patient free from bed-sores. Bathing
with alcohol hardens the skin and makes it less susceptible to
pressure.

Surgical interference may perhaps be of value in cases where the

portion of the clot outside the brain can be clearly demonstrated; and
this would apply with special force where the hemorrhage arises
from injury.

Trephining and removal of the clot has been done in a few cases of
meningeal hemorrhage, though with indifferent success (3 cases—2
deaths, 1 unknown.)56 An intracerebral clot is obviously a step
beyond, though possibly in some cases not absolutely without, the
reach of the surgeon.
56 Med. Press and Circular, Oct. 14, 1885.

Treatment of Cerebral Embolism.—The prophylaxis is in the

avoidance of such conditions as give rise to the formation of
detachable vegetations or clots. Unfortunately, these are numerous,
not completely known, and not always avoidable. Arterial disease is
to be looked upon as of some importance, but cardiac valvular
lesions of much greater, and the causes of these, like rheumatism,
scarlet fever, and the puerperal condition, are not always to be
escaped. The presence of a detachable piece of fibrin in the
pulmonary veins, heart, or aorta being granted, nobody can possibly
say what will prevent its being loosened and lodging in one of the
cerebral arteries; so that, practically, the prophylaxis of embolism
consists in the judicious treatment of acute rheumatism and the other
conditions just mentioned. The treatment of the first attack must
consist solely in the relief of respiration, bladder, and bowels, if they
have not taken care of themselves. Stimulants may be of use for a
short time, but there cannot be any call for even the slight amount of
depletion suggested for some cases of hemorrhage. Bed-sores are
to be looked out for, just as in hemorrhage, and the subsequent
treatment conducted on the same principles. As regards the primary
lesion, we can do nothing about it either in the way of removal of the
embolus or restoration of the necrosed brain-tissue.
Treatment of Cerebral Thrombosis.—There being two factors in this
affection, both of which are to a certain extent under control,
something may be done toward diminishing the risk of its
occurrence. Arterial disease and its prophylaxis have already been
spoken of. The other condition which is necessary to the production
of thrombosis—namely, an enfeebled circulation—is to some extent
under the control of general hygienic rules: a nutritious, not too
highly nitrogenous, diet, and especially sufficient exercise and the
avoidance of completely sedentary habits. If there is a crasis which
predisposes to the formation of coagula in the vessels, it is not
known that there is any special treatment, medical or otherwise,
which can prevent it. The attack is to be treated exactly on the
principles already laid down. Bleeding is about the last thing to be
thought of. Stimulants, though they cannot dislodge the clot, may be
of use for a time to sustain the heart under the shock. The secretions
and the condition of the skin are to be looked out for.

After a few weeks of waiting the patient and his friends not
unnaturally feel as if something ought to be done to hasten recovery,
and certain measures may be taken, in addition to careful hygiene,
which have this object in view. It is very doubtful, however, whether
anything really shortens the time necessary for such repair as is
possible or diminishes the amount of damage which is to be
permanent. As has already been said, improvement may go on
slowly for months. In the first place, it is sometimes considered
desirable to practise shampooing and massage of the affected
muscles in order to keep them in as good a condition of nutrition as
possible. This, as well as the regular use of the faradic battery if it be
not begun too early, will prevent a certain moderate amount of
atrophy, but could not have any influence in those rare cases where
rapid wasting depends upon secondary degeneration of the anterior
gray columns. It may be doubted, however, whether it is necessary
to pay much attention to the condition of the muscles, as they do not
ordinarily atrophy to the extent of becoming unsusceptible to the
nervous stimulus from the brain so soon as it shall be transmitted to
them. Faradism, like many other agencies, such as magnets, metals,
pieces of wood, and so forth, is said to produce a transfer of
sensibility in cases of hemianæsthesia.

There is no sufficient reason to suppose that any drug is of any value

in the restoration of the nervous structure. Iodide of potassium may
possibly prove to have some effect as a sorbefacient. Very favorable
results have been claimed for ammonia salts in the restoration of
aged persons to a nearly complete use of paralyzed limbs.
Phosphorus has been spoken of as assisting in repair, but the writer
is not aware upon how wide a basis of facts. Silver and gold have
been said to counteract the sclerosing myelitis. Strychnia is certainly
useless, and probably worse. It may make the paralyzed limbs
twitch, but this does just as little good as the involuntary spasmodic
movements, which have never been considered desirable, except as
awakening in the patient false notions of immediate recovery, and
which are frequently a very annoying symptom. The galvanic current
has been applied with a view to a sorbefacient or restorative action
directly to the brain, or rather to the pericranium.

Something can be done for the comfort of such patients: the rubbing
and kneading of the paralyzed limbs, if they do not hasten the
recovery of motion, relieve many of the painful and unpleasant
feelings. Since we do not know how far one part of the brain may
supplement another, attempts at motion after it has once appeared
to ever so slight a degree should not be abandoned by the patient.
He should walk with crutches frequently as soon as he can, though
not to the point of fatigue.

There is one faculty which seems capable of re-education to some

extent: that is of speech in cases of ataxic aphasia, and even in
others the attempt should be made to teach the patient the names of
things. A very interesting case has been reported by Bristowe57 of a
man who came under his observation after an attack which may
have been anterior poliomyelitis with extensive paralysis, able to
write well and intelligently, but unable to say anything. By gradual
education, first in the sound and formation of letters and afterward of
words, he reacquired the use of language. It is obvious that in this
case there could have been no loss of memory for the words
themselves, but simply the loss of the knowledge of how to produce
them. When his speech returned he spoke with his original American
accent.
57 Clin. Soc. Trans., iii. p. 92.

In short, the therapeutics of hemiplegia from arterial disease in the

brain is good nursing and attention to symptoms, with a moderate
amount of care of the paralyzed muscles.

Capillary Embolism.

It may be remarked, in the first place, that the lesions known by this
name are not necessarily strictly capillary, but are situated in the very
small arteries. The microscope marks the transition from the larger to
these smaller embolisms.

More is known about very small embolisms experimentally than

clinically, since they have been produced by the injection of small
seeds and insoluble particles of various kinds. Embolisms arising
from natural causes and deposited in the minutest arteries may have
very similar origin to the larger ones already described, but there are
also other conditions which give rise to particles which pass through
larger arteries without any disturbance, and are arrested in smaller
ones. The softening of thrombi is undoubtedly one source. The same
thrombus which, if detached en masse, would block the carotid
artery, may, if broken up into a number of minute fragments of fibrin
and fat, pass into the ultimate distribution of the cerebrals. The same
thing may of course happen if the thrombus have already undergone
one transportation.

Cases of localized softening are seen where no cause has been

found, except perhaps a thrombus in the heart, which has
discharged its softened and puriform contents; and it is probable that
the connecting links exist in the form of embolisms so minute as to
escape ordinary observation.

The consequences of capillary emboli if they block every minute

ramification of an arterial branch must be essentially the same as if
the branch itself were stopped; but if only a part are thus affected,
the resulting anæmia is not so complete, since the zones of capillary
congestion surrounding the part the supply of which is cut off may be
sufficient entirely to cover it and make more or less complete
compensation. The experimental emboli, in the form of tobacco-seed
and other insoluble substances, which have been traced into the
brain in considerable numbers, often give rise to no distinct lesions in
the cases where the immediate effects are recovered from.

Among the other sources, ulcerative endocarditis may be mentioned

as of special importance, not from the size but the character of
detached emboli, which will give rise, not to simple anæmia, nor, on
the other hand, to merely negative results, but to septic changes at
the place of lodgment.

Aside from these conditions, which are almost the same on a small
scale as we find with the large emboli, we have several peculiar
substances formed in the body and floating in the blood which lodge
in the capillaries of the brain. These are pigment, fat, lime salts, and
white corpuscles. Every one of these, however, is much better
known anatomically than clinically.

Pigment scales, flakes, granules, or cells containing them, are

formed in the course of severe malarial fever, and deposits
consisting of this pigment are found in the spleen, liver, kidneys,
heart, lungs, and lymphatic glands, as well as the brain and spinal
cord. The brain, when a deposit of pigment has taken place, is of a
slaty-grayish or chocolate color, which is marked only in the cortical
substance, the white being unaffected. The pigment is found in the
capillaries, and, according to Frerichs, fibrinous coagula are often
associated. Punctiform hemorrhages in the brain have been seen, as
well as meningeal hemorrhages, in connection with this
degeneration.
The point at which these masses are formed is still a matter of
theory. If the liver, as has been supposed, is one of the places of
formation, or if they originate in the blood, it is of course easy to see
how they reach the brain. If in the spleen, they must pass through
the wide portal capillaries before they are arrested in the narrower
ones of the brain.

It is by no means certain, however, that pigment reaches the brain in

the form of emboli. It is quite as probable that it is found in many
organs which undergo repeated congestions from the local
destruction of blood-corpuscles and changes in their pigment. The
very general deposition seems to point to a process of this kind
rather than to a local origin and a distribution through the blood. The
punctiform extravasations which may be found with deposits of
pigment are also found without it.

Minute particles of fat have been found in cerebral capillaries, but

are much less common here than in the lungs. They may be derived
from the decomposition of a thrombus, as described above, or they
may come from a fractured bone, when, of course, only particles fine
enough to pass through the pulmonary capillaries can reach the
brain. This form of embolism has an interest in connection with
diabetic coma.

Collections of white corpuscles in considerable number have been

observed to form an embolus. These cannot be considered to differ
very widely in character from the ordinary fibrinous embolus, which
contains white corpuscles. It is, however, not certain that such
emboli are deposited during life.

Calcareous masses formed from the decomposition of bone have

been seen in cerebral arteries.

About the symptomatology of such emboli little is known. An array of

minute emboli from the breaking up of a thrombus in the left auricle,
carotid, or even aorta, might possibly so block up large numbers of
arterial twigs as to give rise to the ordinary symptoms of embolism;
but considering the possibility of the re-establishment of circulation,
provided a certain proportion of the minutest vessels escape,
complete anæmia of a large tract produced in this way must be rare.
It is possible that some of the slighter and more transitory attacks of
hemiplegia or of more or less vague cerebral symptoms may be
referred to a lesion of this kind, the first action of a large number of
emboli being to cause an anæmia, which is compensated for much
more rapidly and thoroughly than would be the case if a single
considerable vessel were obliterated.

Various attempts have been made to connect definite and peculiar

diseases with capillary embolisms. Chorea in particular has been
said to depend upon a lesion of this kind, but, although cases have
been observed where the symptoms and lesion coexisted, yet they
are very far from being the rule, or even from constituting a
respectable minority of cases. The lesion of chorea in the great
majority of cases is not known, although attention has been directed
to this theory long enough to have established its truth.

The same may be said of the relationship between pernicious

attacks of intermittent and pigment embolism. There is occasional
coexistence, but far from invariable. Cerebral symptoms of the same
kind and severity occur without as with the pigment deposit. If
pigment embolism is the cause of coma, delirium, etc. in pernicious
fever, it is difficult to see why such cases can recover so rapidly, and
why no symptoms referable to a localized cerebral lesion are
observed after the primary unconsciousness.

Even less proof can be adduced as to any connection between

leukæmic embolisms and the cerebral symptoms occurring toward
the end of severe acute disease.

Calcareous embolism is a pathological curiosity.

DIAGNOSIS.—In the case of multiple capillary embolism it would be

impossible, if it were complete, to distinguish it from a blocking of the
main branch.