Infection and Disease

BIO101
LECTURE 10
 What is infection?
Infection is the invasion of a host organism’s bodily tissues by
pathogens or infectious agents ,multiplication of pathogens and the
reaction of host tissue against them.
Chain of infection
Pathogens
▪ A pathogen is a living
thing that causes
disease.
▪ Pathogenicity refers to
the ability of a
pathogenic agent to
cause disease.
 Reservoir
It refers to any human being, animal, plant, soil, or inanimate matter in which a parasite lives,
multiplies, and depends for its survival.
Sources of infection:
1. Endogenous sources:
Organisms of normal flora that are usually non-pathogenic but occasionally behave as
pathogens outside their habitat.
2. Exogenous sources:
a. Human cases and carriers: The Commonest source of infection is man.
i. Healthy carrier: harbors the pathogen but never suffered from the disease caused by a
particular pathogen.
ii. Convalescent carrier: one who has recovered from the disease but continues to
harbor the pathogen in his body.
 Reservoir

iv. Temporary carrier: this carrier state lasts for about 6 months.

v. Chronic carrier: harbors the pathogen for several years and sometimes for the
rest of one’s life.
vi. Paradoxical carrier: A person who acquires the pathogen from another
carrier.
vii. Contact carrier: one who acquires the pathogen from a patient.
 Reservoir
b. Animals
Infectious diseases transmitted from animals to man are called zoonoses.
•Zoonotic diseases may be:
•Bacterial – bovine tuberculosis Viral- rabies from dogs
•Protozoal – Toxoplasmosis from cats
•Helminthic – Taeniasis from cattle
•Fungal- dermatophytes from dogs
 Reservoir
c. Insects
Diseases transmitted by insects are called arthropod-borne diseases.
Insects transmitting diseases are called vectors.
• Mechanical vectors: carry the organisms on their wings, legs, and body. Eg transmission of typhoid
bacilli to man through food by domestic flies.
• Biological vectors: the pathogen multiplies in the body of the vector. E.g. female anopheles
mosquito in malarial parasite.
• Extrinsic incubation period: after the entry of the pathogen in the vector the time required for the
vector to become infective.
d. Soil and Water
• Some pathogens survive in the soil for long periods. E.g. spores of tetanus and gas gangrene bacilli,
the fungus causing histoplasmosis, and parasites such as roundworm and hookworm.
• Contamination of water with vibrio cholera and hepatitis virus act as the source of infection.
 Reservoir
e. Food
Contaminated food acts as a source of infection in the case of food poisoning, gastroenteritis,
diarrhea, and dysentery.
 Modes Of Transmission
i. Contact
a. Direct contact – directly through physical contact. STDs such as syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes simplex
type 2, and AIDS.

b. Indirect contact- indirectly acquired through fomites.

ii. Airborne transmission:

a. Droplets of respiratory infection are spread by inhalation.

b. Droplet nuclei (1-10 micron diameter) remain airborne as aerosols act as a source of infection.

iii. Ingestion
Intestinal infections like cholera, dysentery, food poisoning, etc are acquired by ingestion of food or
drink contaminated by pathogens.
Occurs mostly through carriers engaged in food handling or contaminated water supply.
 Modes of Transmission
iv. Inoculation
Direct inoculation in the tissues e.g. rabies virus inoculation through dog bite or spores of Cl. tetani
leading to tetanus.
v. Transplacental
Transmission of the pathogen from mother to fetus via placenta. Eg rubella virus, toxoplasma, CMV.
Also known as vertical transmission.
vi. Iatrogenic infection
Infections like AIDS and Hepatitis B are transmitted during lab and surgical procedures such as
lumbar puncture, blood transfusion, dialysis, and surgery.
What if you can fight against
disease-causing organisms ?
Immune system

• Organs and tissues

important to the
proper functioning of
the immune system
include the thymus
and bone marrow,
lymph nodes and
lymphatic vessels,
spleen, and skin.
 Immune system
• White blood cells circulate in the blood and lymphatic vessels.
• The lymphatic system forms a network similar to the blood
circulation. It carries a substance called lymph instead of blood.
Lymph is a fluid that carries immune-related cells to areas that need
them.
• White blood cells work as a guard against pathogens. When they find
germs, they begin to multiply and send signals to other cell types for
defending.
• The body stores white blood cells in different places which are known
as lymphoid organs.
Major organs of
immune system
Thymus: The thymus is an
organ located in the upper
chest where T cells mature.
First, lymphocytes (a type
of white blood cell) that are
destined to become T cells
leave the bone marrow and
find their way to the
thymus where they are
then “educated” to become
mature T cells.
 Major organs of immune system

• Liver: The liver is the major organ responsible for producing proteins of the
complement system. In addition, it contains large numbers of phagocytic cells (a
specific type of white blood cell) that ingest bacteria in the blood as it passes through
the liver.
• Bone Marrow: The bone marrow is the location where all cells of the immune system
begin their development from stem cells.
• Tonsils: Tonsils are collections of lymphocytes in the throat.
• Lymph Nodes: Lymph nodes are collections of B cells and T cells throughout the body.
Cells congregate in lymph nodes to communicate with each other. Lymph nodes can
become swollen when they are fighting an infection.
• Spleen: The spleen is a collection of B cells, T cells, and monocytes. It serves to filter
the blood and provide a site for invaders/germs and cells of the immune system to
interact.
• Blood: Blood is contained within the circulatory system that carries cells and proteins
of the immune system from one part of the body to another.
Origins of cells of
immune system
All cells shown here arise from the
hematopoietic stem cell. Platelets –
cellular fragments produced by
megakaryocytes – are released into
the circulation. Polymorphonuclear
granulocytes and monocytes pass
from the circulation into the tissues.
Mast cells are identifiable in all
tissues. B cells mature in the fetal
liver and bone marrow in mammals,
whereas T cells mature in the thymus.
The origin of the large granular
lymphocytes with natural killer (NK)
activity is probably the bone marrow.
Lymphocytes recirculate through
secondary lymphoid tissues.
Interdigitating cells and dendritic cells
act as antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
in secondary lymphoid tissues.
In general, cells of the immune system
can be divided into two broad
functional categories, which work
together to provide innate immunity
and the adaptive immune response.
Innate immunity represents an
ancient defense system that has
evolved to recognize conserved
patterns characteristic of a variety of
pathogens and often serves as the
first line of defense.
Adaptive immunity, a more recent
evolutionary innovation, recognizes
novel molecules produced by
pathogens by virtue of a large
repertoire of specific antigen
receptors.
 Cellular components of the mammalian immune system
The mammalian immune system consists of two distinct
parts, innate and adaptive immunity.
Basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells, natural killer
cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells mediate innate
immunity. They provide the first line of defense against
bacteria, viruses, and cancer.
The adaptive immune system refers to an antigen-specific
defense mechanism that takes several days to develop but
provides long-lasting protection. The adaptive immune
system includes B-cell-mediated humoral immunity and
T-cell-mediated cellular immunity, both of which are directed
toward specific antigens.
Macrophages and dendritic cells are unique subsets that have
both innate and adaptive immune cell traits. As professional
antigen-presenting cells, macrophages and dendritic cells are
critical in the induction of adaptive immunity by presenting
the antigens to antigen-specific T and B lymphocytes.
How does immune system work particularly?
How does immune system work particularly?
Complement system
How does immune system work particularly?
Lymphocytes
 How do antibodies work?
• An antigen is unwanted
foreign substance that enters
our body. Foreign substances
can include bacteria, viruses,
fungi, allergens, venom, and
other various toxins and
disease-causing organisms.
• An antibody is a protein
produced by our immune
system to attack and fight off
these antigens.
Immunoglobulin is used as
another word for antibody.
 How does immune system work particularly?
Cytokines
Cytokines are proteins produced by cells,
and they serve as molecular messengers
between cells.
• Functions
• Stimulate the production of blood cells
• Aid in the development, maintenance, and
repair of tissues
• Regulate the immune system
• Drive inflammation through interferons,
interleukins, and tumor necrosis
factor-alpha (TNF-α)
Cytokine types and their functions
 Inflammation
The cells of the immune system are
widely distributed throughout the
body. But if an infection occurs it is
necessary to concentrate them and
their products to the site of
infection. This process is called
inflammation.
• Changes in blood flow,
• An increase in permeability of
blood vessels,
• The migration of fluid, proteins,
and white blood cells (leukocytes)
from the circulation to the site of
tissue damage.
What if inflammation keeps going?
 Vaccination

Two key elements: Specificity and

memory.

Immunization with tetanus toxoid. Chemical modification of

tetanus toxin produces a toxoid which has lost toxicity but
retains it’s epitopes.
Diagnosis
 ELISA
• ELISA (which stands for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)
is a technique to detect the presence of antigens in biological
samples. An ELISA, like other types of immunoassays, relies on
antibodies to detect a target antigen using highly specific
antibody-antigen interactions.
• Disease detected by ELISA
▪ HIV
▪ Lyme disease
▪ COVID-19
▪ Pernicious anemia
▪ Rocky Mountain spotted fever
▪ Squamous cell carcinoma
▪ Syphilis The basic setup of an ELISA assay. A capture antibody on
a multi-well plate will immobilize the antigen of interest.
This antigen will be recognized and bound by a detection
antibody conjugated to biotin and streptavidin-HRP.
Another advanced technology: Biosensor

A biosensor is a device that converts biological

phenomena into a recordable signal.