SAQs Biological approach

Explain one technique used to study the brain in relationship to behaviour, making
use of one research study.
A technique used to study the brain in relationship to behaviour is magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), which allows psychologists to look at the structure of the
brain. MRIs produce a static image of the brain using a magnetic field and pulses of
radio wave energy to map the activity of hydrogen molecules, which are present in
different brain tissues to different degrees. The image can be viewed as a slice of the
brain from any angle, or it can be used to create a three dimensional image of the
brain. They are used to find problems such as tumours, bleeding, injuries, blood
vessel diseases or infections. Physicians also use MRIs to detect structural brain
abnormalities in patients. MRI scans are noted for their relatively high level of detail
and resolution and non-invasive characteristics. However, images produced with
MRI give an indication of the structure of the brain but do not provide any indication
of function.

The MRI was used in Maguire (2000) in order to demonstrate how cognitive
processes may lead to neuroplasticity in the hippocampus. In particular, she wanted
to investigate whether London taxi drivers’ training and extensive use of spatial
memory is associated with changes in the brain’s structure. Maguire compared MRI
scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi drivers with those of 50 right-handed non
taxi drivers males from a database. To participate in the study participants were
required to take a “knowledge” test and to have been licensed for at least 1.5 years.
The data was measured using VBM, which was used to determine the density of
grey matter in the brain, and pixel counting, which instead was used to calculate the
size of the hippocampus. Results showed that taxi drivers had significantly larger
posterior hippocampi compared to the control group. They also revealed that the
volume of the right posterior hippocampi correlated to the length of time that the taxi
drivers had been engaging in this profession. This supports the theory of
neuroplasticity, as the brain appeared to change as a response to external stimuli.
Psychologists also believe that the right posterior hippocampi is localised with spatial
memory and the navigation of environmental layouts.

Therefore, by using MRI scans, Maguire was able to observe the structures in the
brain and find a correlation between environmental enrichment and neuroplasticity, a
physiological process occurring in the brain, particularly around the hippocampi
region which then affects behaviour in terms of memory.

Describe neuroplasticity with reference to one relevant study.

Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within
the body or in the external environment. When something new is learned from
environmental stimuli, the brain reorganise itself and forms new connections
between neurons. Neurons send electrochemical messages to the brain, enabling
mental processes. Billions of neurons connect together to form a neural network
through dendritic branching. However, the less frequently used synaptic connections
- connections between two dendrites - are lost through a process called neural
pruning. Repeated interactions within a certain stimulus overtime can lead to an
increase in the density of the neural connections, and a decrease in the unused
synapses. Synapses appear as part of the grey matter in the brain. Therefore,
measuring changes in the grey matter can show the synaptic pruning process.

One study investigating neuroplasticity is Maguire (2000). Maguire wanted to

demonstrate how cognitive processes may lead to neuroplasticity in the
hippocampus. In particular, she wanted to investigate whether London taxi drivers’
training and extensive use of spatial memory is associated with changes in the
brain’s structure. Maguire compared MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi
drivers with those of 50 right-handed non taxi drivers males from a database. To
participate in the study participants were required to take a “knowledge” test and to
have been licensed for at least 1.5 years. The data was measured using VBM, which
was used to determine the density of grey matter in the brain, and pixel counting,
which instead was used to calculate the size of the hippocampus. Results showed
that taxi drivers had significantly larger posterior hippocampi compared to the control
group. They also revealed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi
correlated to the length of time that the taxi drivers had been engaging in this
profession. This supports the theory of neuroplasticity, as the brain appeared to
change as a response to external stimuli. Psychologists also believe that the right
posterior hippocampi is localised with spatial memory and the navigation of
environmental layouts.

Therefore, Maguire’s study into taxi drivers serves as an example of neuroplasticity

as it demonstrates a correlation between environmental enrichment and
neuroplasticity, in the form of an increased grey matter, which facilitates spatial
memory.

Explain the formation of neural networks with reference to one relevant study.
Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within
the body or in the external environment. When something new is learned from
environmental stimuli, the brain reorganises itself and forms new connections
between neurons. Neurons send electrochemical messages to the brain, enabling
mental processes. Billions of neurons connect together to form a neural network
through dendritic branching. However, the less frequently used synaptic connections
- connections between two dendrites - are lost through a process called neural
pruning. Repeated interactions within a certain stimulus overtime can lead to an
increase in the density of the neural connections (dendritic branching), and a
decrease in the unused synapses. Synapses appear as part of the grey matter in the
brain. Therefore, measuring changes in the grey matter can show the synaptic
pruning process.

One study investigating neuroplasticity is Maguire (2000). Maguire wanted to

demonstrate how cognitive processes may lead to neuroplasticity in the
hippocampus. In particular, she wanted to investigate whether London taxi drivers’
training and extensive use of spatial memory is associated with changes in the
brain’s structure. Maguire compared MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi
drivers with those of 50 right-handed non taxi drivers males from a database. To
participate in the study participants were required to take a “knowledge” test and to
have been licensed for at least 1.5 years. The data was measured using VBM, which
was used to determine the density of grey matter in the brain, and pixel counting,
which instead was used to calculate the size of the hippocampus. Results showed
that taxi drivers had significantly larger posterior hippocampi compared to the control
group. They also revealed that the volume of the right posterior hippocampi
correlated to the length of time that the taxi drivers had been engaging in this
profession. This supports the theory of neuroplasticity, as the brain appeared to
change as a response to external stimuli. Psychologists also believe that the right
posterior hippocampi is localised with spatial memory and the navigation of
environmental layouts.

Therefore, Maguire’s study into taxi drivers serves as an example of neuroplasticity

and explains the formation of neural networks, as repeatedly firing neurons required
to remember the spatial layout of London increased the number of synapses creating
a new neural network.

Explain neural pruning with reference to one relevant study.

Neural pruning refers to the process during which unused synapses fade away while
the relationship between synapses of neurons that communicate frequently with
each other strengthens, thus increasing functionality. This process occurs between
early childhood and adulthood. Synapses are the gaps between neurons, which help
electrochemical messages travel around the brain.
Neural pruning is a key function of neuroplasticity - the brain’s ability to alter its own
structure following changes within the body or in the external environment - as it
increases the effectiveness of the more commonly used synapses. Synapses appear
as part of the grey matter in the brain. Therefore, measuring changes in the grey
matter can show the synaptic pruning process.

One study investigating neural pruning is Dragaski et al (2004). Draganski wanted to

investigate the relationship between learning a new skill and the structure of the
brain. All 24 participants were non-jugglers at the start of the study. They had an MRI
scan at the beginning to serve as a base rate for grey matter and brain structure.
Participants were divided into two groups: condition 1 - jugglers, and condition 2 -
non-jugglers (control group). Participants in the juggling condition were taught a
juggling routine and were told to practise it until master. At that point they had a
second MRI scan. They were then told to not practise the skill anymore, and, after
three months, a final MRI scan was carried out. To analyse the MRI scans,
researchers used voxel-based morphometry to determine if there were any
significant changes in the amount of grey matter in the brain of jugglers and
non-jugglers. They found that the jugglers showed a significantly larger amount of
grey matter in the mid-temporal area - area of the brain associated with visual
memory - in both hemispheres. Three months after participants had stopped juggling
the amount of grey matter in these parts of the brain decreased. This finding
demonstrates neural pruning. It shows that the less used neural connections are
pruned to ensure efficiency in other areas of the brain performing other tasks.

Explain/Describe the effect of one neurotransmitter on behaviour with reference to

one relevant study.
Neurotransmitters are the body’s natural chemical messengers which transmit
information from one neuron to another in the brain and the body. They are released
from terminal buttons of neurons and bind onto receptors sites on the postsynaptic
membrane. Neurotransmitters are endogenous agonists, meaning they are made
within us. They can either excite a neuron (excitatory) or they can inhibit it
(inhibitory). Some can be both excitatory and inhibitory depending on the neural
network which they are interacting with. Serotonin, dopamine and acetylcholine are
all examples of neurotransmitters.

Antonova (2011) carried out a study on the effects of acetylcholine, which is

responsible for the encoding of some memories, specifically in the hippocampus. In
particular, they aimed to determine how blocking acetylcholine receptors with
scopolamine affected spatial memory. 20 healthy male adult subjects were injected
with either Scopolamine or a placebo (double-blind procedure). They were then put
into an fMRI scan and were scanned while playing the “Arena task” - a complex
virtual reality game with the goal of navigating the arena and reaching a pole. The
game allowed researchers to observe how well participants could form spatial
memories. Participants returned between 3-4 weeks later and redid the test receiving
the opposite treatment to the original study (repeated measures design).

Results showed a significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus when

injected with scopolamine. This finding demonstrated how acetylcholine could play a
key role in the encoding of spatial memory in humans, as well as rats (Rogers and
Kesner, 2003). Therefore, the excitatory acetylcholine promotes the firing of an
action potential to allow neurons to make such connections (encoding memories).
This increases memory formation, leading to a better navigational behaviour.
Explain how excitatory and/or inhibitory neurons affect behaviour.
Explain the role of excitatory synapses in one behaviour.
Neurotransmitters are the body’s natural chemical messengers which transmit
information from one neuron to another in the brain and the body. They are released
from terminal buttons of neurons and bind onto receptors sites on the postsynaptic
membrane. Neurotransmitters are endogenous agonists, meaning they are made
within us. They can either excite a neuron (excitatory) or they can inhibit it
(inhibitory). Some can be both excitatory and inhibitory depending on the neural
network which they are interacting with. Acetylcholine is an example of excitatory
neurotransmitters. Excitatory neurotransmitters increase the likelihood of a neuron
firing by stimulating the neuron.

Antonova (2011) carried out a study on the effects of acetylcholine, which is

responsible for the encoding of some memories, specifically in the hippocampus. In
particular, they aimed to determine how blocking acetylcholine receptors with
scopolamine affected spatial memory. 20 healthy male adult subjects were injected
with either Scopolamine or a placebo (double-blind procedure). They were then put
into an fMRI scan and were scanned while playing the “Arena task” - a complex
virtual reality game with the goal of navigating the arena and reaching a pole. The
game allowed researchers to observe how well participants could form spatial
memories. Participants returned between 3-4 weeks later and redid the test receiving
the opposite treatment to the original study (repeated measures design).

Results showed a significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus when

injected with scopolamine. This finding demonstrated how acetylcholine could play a
key role in the encoding of spatial memory in humans, as well as rats (Rogers and
Kesner, 2003). Therefore, the excitatory acetylcholine promotes the firing of an
action potential to allow neurons to make such connections (encoding memories).
This increases memory formation, leading to a better navigational behaviour.

With reference to one study, outline the effect of one agonist or one antagonist on
human behaviour.
Explain the role of agonists with reference to one study.
Neurotransmitters are the body’s natural chemical messengers which transmit
information from one neuron to another in the brain and the body. They are released
from terminal buttons of neurons and bind onto receptors sites on the postsynaptic
membrane. Chemicals can be agonists or antagonists depending on what they do at
the pre or post synaptic receptor site. All neurotransmitters are endogenous
agonists, meaning they are made within us, and are agonists for receptor sites. For
instance, acetylcholine is an agonist for ACh receptor sites.

Antonova (2011) carried out a study on the effects of acetylcholine, which is

responsible for the encoding of some memories, specifically in the hippocampus. In
particular, they aimed to determine how blocking acetylcholine receptors with
scopolamine affected spatial memory. 20 healthy male adult subjects were injected
with either Scopolamine or a placebo (double-blind procedure). They were then put
into an fMRI scan and were scanned while playing the “Arena task” - a complex
virtual reality game with the goal of navigating the arena and reaching a pole. The
game allowed researchers to observe how well participants could form spatial
memories. Participants returned between 3-4 weeks later and redid the test receiving
the opposite treatment to the original study (repeated measures design).

Results showed a significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus when

injected with scopolamine, hence why it is used for the treatment of nausea, vomiting
and motion sickness. This finding demonstrated how acetylcholine could play a key
role in the encoding of spatial memory in humans, as well as rats (Rogers and
Kesner, 2003). Therefore, the excitatory acetylcholine promotes the firing of an
action potential to allow neurons to make such connections (encoding memories).
This increases memory formation, leading to a better navigational behaviour.

Explain the role of antagonists with reference to one study.

Neurotransmitters are the body’s natural chemical messengers which transmit
information from one neuron to another in the brain and the body. They are released
from terminal buttons of neurons and bind onto receptors sites on the postsynaptic
membrane. Chemicals can be agonists or antagonists depending on what they do at
the pre or post synaptic receptor site. Antagonists are drugs that block receptor sites
and do not allow the neurotransmitter to do its job, so no action potential is sent
down the neuron. For instance, scopolamine is an antagonist for ACh receptors.

Antonova (2011) carried out a study on the effects of acetylcholine, which is

responsible for the encoding of some memories, specifically in the hippocampus. In
particular, they aimed to determine how blocking acetylcholine receptors with
scopolamine affected spatial memory. 20 healthy male adult subjects were injected
with either Scopolamine or a placebo (double-blind procedure). They were then put
into an fMRI scan and were scanned while playing the “Arena task” - a complex
virtual reality game with the goal of navigating the arena and reaching a pole. The
game allowed researchers to observe how well participants could form spatial
memories. Participants returned between 3-4 weeks later and redid the test receiving
the opposite treatment to the original study (repeated measures design).

Results showed a significant reduction in the activation of the hippocampus when

injected with scopolamine. This finding demonstrated how acetylcholine could play a
key role in the encoding of spatial memory in humans, as well as rats (Rogers and
Kesner, 2003). Therefore, the excitatory acetylcholine promotes the firing of an
action potential to allow neurons to make such connections (encoding memories).
This increases memory formation, leading to a better navigational behaviour.
Explain/Describe localisation with reference to one study.
Localisation refers to the theory that different parts of the brain are responsible for
different aspects of human functioning, such as behaviours. Localisation of function
assumes that there is a biological basis to behaviour and that thoughts, actions and
other behaviours are linked to biological function. Psychologists investigating
localization of brain function from the biological approach use brain-imaging
techniques to investigate the correlation (relationship) between brain processes and
structures and human behaviour. Before these were available, psychologists used
post-mortem examination of the brains of people with certain problems, in order to
try and find damage that correlated with the problem, such as lack of speech or
amnesia.

One study demonstrating localisation of function is Maguire (2000). Maguire wanted

to demonstrate how cognitive processes may lead to neuroplasticity in the
hippocampus. In particular, she wanted to investigate whether London taxi drivers’
training and extensive use of spatial memory is associated with changes in the
brain’s structure. Maguire compared MRI scans of 16 right-handed male London taxi
drivers with those of 50 right-handed non taxi drivers males from a database. To
participate in the study participants were required to take a “knowledge” test and to
have been licensed for at least 1.5 years. The data was measured using VBM, which
was used to determine the density of grey matter in the brain, and pixel counting,
which instead was used to calculate the size of the hippocampus.

Results showed that taxi drivers had significantly larger posterior hippocampi
compared to the control group. They also revealed that the volume of the right
posterior hippocampi correlated to the length of time that the taxi drivers had been
engaging in this profession. This supports the theory of neuroplasticity, as the brain
appeared to change as a response to external stimuli. This is also evidence of
localisation of function as it suggests that the right posterior hippocampi is localised
with spatial memory and the navigation of environmental layouts.

Explain how damage to the brain can influence behaviour.

- Localisation - the theory that a given function is localised in specific areas of
the brain.
- Example
- Psychologists can conclude that damage to an area of the brain is linked to
the individual’s behaviour.
- HM, Corkin (1997): to cure his epilepsy, doctors removed tissues from his
temporal lobe, including his hippocampus.
- Hippocampus plays a key role in the transfer of information from short
term memory to long term memory.
 - Corkin’s study effectively demonstrates long term memory formation as being
localised in the hippocampus and the parahippocampal gyrus.

Explain the effects of one hormone on human behaviour.

Describe one study of the effect of one hormone on behaviour.
Hormones are chemical substances that travel through the bloodstream when
released by specialised endocrine glands and regulate long term ongoing processes,
such as growth and metabolism. Hormones can only produce reactions in certain
cells – known as target cells - that have an appropriate receptor site for the hormone.
When the hormone binds to the target cell, it either increases or decreases its
function. Some hormones can act both as hormones and neurotransmitters, such as
adrenaline and noradrenaline. Both examples are secreted as hormones by the
adrenal glands and by neurons in the nervous system. On the other hand, an
example of a hormone that only acts as one is cortisol. Cortisol is secreted by the
adrenal glands and helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce
inflammation, and assist with memory formation. It is also the body’s main stress
hormone, helping regulate the body’s response to stress.

Newcomer et al (1999) aimed to investigate whether high levels of cortisol would

interfere with memory. All participants in the study were given a clinical interview with
a physician. They were then assigned to one of three conditions. Condition 1: high
level of cortisol - participants in this condition were given a tablet containing 160mg
of cortisol on each day of the four-day experiment. Condition 2: low level of cortisol -
participants in this condition were given a table containing 40mg of cortisol per day.
Condition 3: placebo group. All participants were asked to listen and recall a different
prose paragraph each day and were tested three times. All participants were also
tested before taking any cortisol, one day after taking the pill, four days after and six
days after to ensure there were no long term effects of the treatment on the
participants.

Results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performance in the memory task.
The researchers were also able to verify that the effect was not permanent.
Therefore these results demonstrate a clear link between levels of cortisol and
remembering.

Explain one example of how human behaviour may be influenced by pheromones.

A pheromone is a chemical substance produced and released into the environment
by an animal affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its own species.
It is debated whether pheromones exist in humans or not. According to Grammer et
al (2015) pheromones exist in humans and are produced in the apocrine glands
found in the armpits of both males and females.
An example of pheromone is the MHC (major histocompatibility complex) which is a
set of genes responsible for our immune system. It produces molecules that enable
the immune system to recognise pathogens. The more diverse the MHC genes of
the parents the stronger the immune system of the offspring. MHC genes are
expressed co-dominantly. Therefore it would be beneficial to have evolved systems
of recognising individuals with different MHC genes, and preferentially selecting
them as sexual partners. Evolutionary psychologists argue that our “smell” is a sign
of our MHC.

A study carried out by Wedekind et al (1995) aimed to investigate whether one’s

MHC would affect mating choice. The sample consisted of male and female
individuals with a wide range of MHC. The men were asked to wear a clean t-shirt for
two nights in a row. They were asked to remain as “odour neutral” as possible - so
no spicy food, no perfumes or scented soaps, no smoking or drinking + no sex. Once
all t-shirts were returned they were each put in a plastic-lined cardboard box with a
sniffing hole on top. When the women were at the midpoint of their menstrual cycle
(when a woman’s sense of smell is at its best), they were asked to rank the smell of
7 t-shirts for intensity, for pleasantness and for sexiness.

Results showed that women scored male body odours as more pleasant when they
differed from their own MHC than when they were more similar. This suggests that
the MHC may influence human mate choice. Therefore, this study supports the
theory that pheromones exist in humans, and that the odour associated with
pheromones of MHC influences mate choice in humans.

Explain how genetics may influence one behaviour.

Outline one link between genes and behaviour with reference to one relevant study.
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent, and are
considered responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics, such as
depression. Depression is a psychological disorder characterized by internal or
external factors of the individual resulting in general depressed moods, mood swings
and physical symptoms such as suicidal ideation that lasts for more than weeks. Due
to the complex nature of depression, it cannot be said that a single gene is
responsible for a specific behaviour – it is rather a building block. Epigenetics is the
study of chemical reactions that influence gene expression, and has been used to
investigate the role of genes on depression by identifying which genes are
expressed.

The Diathesis-stress theories of depression predict that an individual's reaction to

stressful events depends on their genetic makeup. If an individual has a specific
genetic predisposition toward a disorder (genotype), then interaction with stressors in
the environment may cause these genes to be expressed.
One study which supports the role of genes in depression is Caspi et al (2003). This
study was done to investigate the role of the 5-HTT gene in depression. The 5-HTT
gene plays a role in the serotonin pathways that scientists believe are involved in
controlling mood, emotions, aggression, sleep and anxiety. Caspi hypothesised that
people who inherit two short versions of the 5-HTT gene are more likely to develop
major depressive disorder after a stressful life event. The study was a prospective
longitudinal study. Researchers looked at a sample of 847 New Zealand
26-year-olds. All were members of a cohort that had been assessed for mental
health on an every-other-year basis until they were 21. Participants were divided into
three groups based on their 5-HTT alleles (the mutation of the 5-HTT gene has
shorter alleles): Group 1: two short alleles, Group 2: one short and one long allele,
and Group 3: two long alleles. They were asked to complete a “stressful life events”
questionnaire which asked them about the frequency of 14 different events -
including financial, employment, health and relationship stressors - between the
ages of 21 and 26. They were also assessed for depression.
Results showed that people who had inherited one or more short versions of the
allele demonstrated more symptoms of depression and suicidal ideation in response
to stressful life events. The effect was strongest for those with three or more stressful
life events.
Caspi et al concluded that simply inheriting the gene was not enough to lead to
depression, but the genes' interaction with stressful life events increased one's
likelihood of developing depression. This study demonstrates one link between
genes and behaviour (depression).

Describe one study related to genetics and behaviour.

Explain how genetic similarities are used in studies on genes and behaviour.
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent, and are
considered responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics. Humans
share a degree of genetic similarity with related family members. For example,
siblings on average share 50% of their genotype with each other, and monozygotic
(MZ) twins share 100% of their genotype with each other. Some methods of research
that are based on genetic similarities are twin, family and adoption studies. The
possible correlation of genetic inheritance and behaviour is mostly studied through
twin research.
Collecting the data on similarity and differences in behaviour with known genetic
similarity can be used to calculate the degree of heritability. Heritability is a statistic
used to measure how much of a variation in a trait is due to a variation in genes. This
is done by looking at and comparing concordance rates - this refers to the extent to
which a given trait is shared by a pair of individuals in percentage. As twin studies
have 100% similarity, psychologists compare behaviour of twins with each other to
determine the degree of similarity and the extent of effects genes have. The
Falconer Model is a method to determine heritability of a trait from the observed
similarities between MZ and DZ twins by taking in consideration of heredity, shared
environment and individual environment. MZ twins especially share 100% genetic
similarity which allows researchers to work under the assumption that any major
difference in behaviour is due to environmental factors. Psychologists can compare
behaviour of MZ twins to determine the degree of similarity.

An example of a twin study is one conducted by Bailey and Pillard (1991). The study
aims to investigate the role genetics may play in sexuality. The researchers recruited
monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins as well as adoptive brothers through gay
publications. All of the sample was voluntary and male. All twins in the study were
raised together - which means that we can reasonably assume that the environment
was highly similar. Sexual orientation of relatives was assessed either by asking
relatives directly, or when this was impossible, asking the gay participant who had
volunteered for the study. In addition, the researchers used questionnaires to assess
participants’ level of Childhood Gender Non-conformity (CGN) - this is a
phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected
gender-related patterns, and/or identify with the opposite gender.

Researchers found that 52% of MZ twins were both self-identified homosexuals,

22% of DZ twins were so, and 11% of non-related adopted brothers were so. A later
study showed that non-twin brothers had a rate of 9.2% this evidence shows that the
more closely genetically linked a pair is, the more likely they both are to exhibit gay
or straight tendencies. This study demonstrates how psychologists use genetic
similarities in known familiar relationships, while also comparing differences in traits
(like sexuality) to determine the extent to which a gene determines a certain trait.

Explain how twin and/or kinship studies are used to understand the effects of genes
on behaviour.
Describe one twin or kinship study.
Genes are segments of DNA inherited by the offspring from the parent, and are
considered responsible for the development of behavioural characteristics. Twin and
kinship studies are used to understand the effect of genes on behaviour as there is a
degree of genetic similarity among family members. For example, siblings on
average share 50% of their genotype with each other, and monozygotic (MZ) twins
share 100% of their genotype with each other. Collecting the data on similarity and
differences in behaviour with known genetic similarity can be used to calculate the
degree of heritability. Heritability is a statistic used to measure how much of a
variation in a trait is due to a variation in genes. This is done by looking at and
comparing concordance rates - this refers to the extent to which a given trait is
shared by a pair of individuals in percentage. As twin studies have 100% similarity,
psychologists compare behaviour of twins with each other to determine the degree of
similarity and the extent of effects genes have. The Falconer Model is a method to
determine heritability of a trait from the observed similarities between MZ and DZ
twins by taking in consideration of heredity, shared environment and individual
environment. MZ twins especially share 100% genetic similarity which allows
researchers to work under the assumption that any major difference in behaviour is
due to environmental factors. Psychologists can compare behaviour of MZ twins to
determine the degree of similarity.

An example of a twin study is one conducted by Bailey and Pillard (1991). The study
aims to investigate the role genetics may play in sexuality. The researchers recruited
monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins as well as adoptive brothers through gay
publications. All of the sample was voluntary and male. All twins in the study were
raised together - which means that we can reasonably assume that the environment
was highly similar. Sexual orientation of relatives was assessed either by asking
relatives directly, or when this was impossible, asking the gay participant who had
volunteered for the study. In addition, the researchers used questionnaires to assess
participants’ level of Childhood Gender Non-conformity (CGN) - this is a
phenomenon in which prepubescent children do not conform to expected
gender-related patterns, and/or identify with the opposite gender.

Researchers found that 52% of MZ twins were both self-identified homosexuals,

22% of DZ twins were so, and 11% of non-related adopted brothers were so. A later
study showed that non-twin brothers had a rate of 9.2% this evidence shows that the
more closely genetically linked a pair is, the more likely they both are to exhibit gay
or straight tendencies. This study demonstrates how psychologists use familiar
relationships to establish similarity in genes and compare differences in traits (like
sexuality), determining the extent to which a gene determines a certain trait.

Explain one evolutionary explanation of behaviour.

Evolution refers to the gradual changes in an inherited characteristic of a species
over many generations. Evolutionary psychologists, Charles Darwin in particular,
argue that our behaviours are the result of natural selection. The theory of natural
selection suggests that any characteristic or behaviour that increases the chance
that an individual will survive and reproduce, would be passed onto future
generations. Psychologists believe that if a behaviour exists in today’s society, then it
must be a useful adaptation that helps humans reproduce in order for the species to
survive. Therefore, it is suggested that human mating behaviour can be explained by
the principles of natural selection. According to Wedekind (1995), human mating
behaviour is influenced by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes.
The MHC is a group of genes that play a significant role in the immune system. The
more diverse the MHC genes of the parents the stronger the immune system of the
offspring. Therefore, it would be beneficial to have systems to recognise individuals
with different MHC genes to potentially breed the best offspring possible.
Evolutionary psychologists argue that our smell is a sign of our MHC. Wedekind
aimed to find out if women are attracted to a man because of his MHC.
Consequently, he carried out the “Smally T-shirt Study”.
He used male and female students in his study. Each participant was tested for their
MHC. Male participants were asked to wear a clean T-shirt for two nights and keep it
in a plastic bag during the day. They were also asked not to use any perfume or
deodorant, smoke, drink alcohol, eat spicy food or have sex.
Women were then asked to rate the smell of 7 T-shirts which were kept in a
cardboard box with a “smelling hole”. 3 boxes contained T-shirts from men with the
same MHC as the woman, 3 were different and one was a clean T-shirt. Additionally,
women were tested during the fertile window of their menstrual cycle, which is
believed to be the time when they are most odour-sensitive. Every woman rated the
shirts for their “pleasantness”.
Results showed that women scored the T-shirts as more pleasant when the MHC
was different from their own. This suggests that MHC influences human mate
selection. If a woman mates with a man with a different MHC, then both their MHCs
profiles will be inherited and expressed by a child, enhancing its immune system and
chances of survival. This preference aligns with the principle of natural selection,
where traits that increase reproductive success are favoured and passed on to
subsequent generations. Moreover, it appears from other research that when a
couple share a similar MHC, it is more likely to experience a miscarriage. Therefore,
the ability to detect MHC could play an important role in a woman’s choice of the
“best male” (unconscious decision).

Explain the use/contribution of one research method used in the biological approach
to understanding genetics and human behaviour.
One research method used in the biological approach is an experiment. The
biological approach is based on the assumption that all conditions, emotions and
behaviours have a physiological basis, arising from physiological processes such as
hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetics.
Experiments are used to determine cause and effect relationships between two
variables - independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). researchers
manipulate the IV and measure the DV. Experiments are based on hypothesis
testing - that is, coming up with a testable and measurable hypothesis and then
examining whether the results of the study are statistically significant so that the null
hypothesis can be rejected. Experiments usually involve at least one control group -
a group that doesn’t receive the treatment - and at least one experimental group - a
group that receives the treatment (manipulation of independent variables). There are
different types of experiments which can be employed based on the circumstances.
One of the most commonly used is lab experiments which allow for the control for
extraneous variables - undesirable variables that may influence the results of the
study.

An example of a study using an experimental design is one conducted by Bailey and

Pillard (1991). The study aims to investigate the role genetics may play in sexuality.
The researchers recruited monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins as well as
adoptive brothers through gay publications. All of the sample was voluntary and
male. All twins in the study were raised together - which means that we can
reasonably assume that the environment was highly similar. Sexual orientation of
relatives was assessed either by asking relatives directly, or when this was
impossible, asking the gay participant who had volunteered for the study. In addition,
the researchers used questionnaires to assess participants’ level of Childhood
Gender Non-conformity (CGN) - this is a phenomenon in which prepubescent
children do not conform to expected gender-related patterns, and/or identify with the
opposite gender.

Researchers found that 52% of MZ twins were both self-identified homosexuals,

22% of DZ twins were so, and 11% of non-related adopted brothers were so. A later
study showed that non-twin brothers had a rate of 9.2% this evidence shows that the
more closely genetically linked a pair is, the more likely they both are to exhibit gay
or straight tendencies. This study demonstrates how psychologists use familiar
relationships to establish similarity in genes and compare differences in traits (like
sexuality), determining the extent to which a gene determines a certain trait.

A laboratory experiment was used for this study as it allowed researchers to control
for confounding variables, increasing the validity of the study and leading to the
establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship. Researchers were able to use
familiar relationships to establish similarity in genes and compare differences in traits
(like sexuality), determining the extent to which a gene determines a certain trait.
Laboratory experiments are highly standardised allowing other researchers to
replicate studies and determine the level of reliability of the finfinings

Explain the use/contribution of one research method used in the biological approach
to understanding hormones/pheromones and behaviour.
One research method used in the biological approach is an experiment. The
biological approach is based on the assumption that all conditions, emotions and
behaviours have a physiological basis, arising from physiological processes such as
hormones, neurotransmitters, and genetics.
Experiments are used to determine cause and effect relationships between two
variables - independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV). researchers
manipulate the IV and measure the DV. Experiments are based on hypothesis
testing - that is, coming up with a testable and measurable hypothesis and then
examining whether the results of the study are statistically significant so that the null
hypothesis can be rejected. Experiments usually involve at least one control group -
a group that doesn’t receive the treatment - and at least one experimental group - a
group that receives the treatment (manipulation of independent variables). There are
different types of experiments which can be employed based on the circumstances.
One of the most commonly used is lab experiments which allow for the control for
extraneous variables - undesirable variables that may influence the results of the
study.

A study using laboratory experiments is Newcomer et al (1999). Newcomer et al

(1999) aimed to investigate whether high levels of cortisol would interfere with
memory. All participants in the study were given a clinical interview with a physician.
They were then assigned to one of three conditions. Condition 1: high level of
cortisol - participants in this condition were given a tablet containing 160mg of
cortisol on each day of the four-day experiment. Condition 2: low level of cortisol -
participants in this condition were given a table containing 40mg of cortisol per day.
Condition 3: placebo group. All participants were asked to listen and recall a different
prose paragraph each day and were tested three times. All participants were also
tested before taking any cortisol, one day after taking the pill, four days after and six
days after to ensure there were no long term effects of the treatment on the
participants.

Results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performance in the memory task.
The researchers were also able to verify that the effect was not permanent.
Therefore these results demonstrate a clear link between levels of cortisol and
remembering.

A laboratory experiment was used for this study as it allowed researchers to control
for confounding variables, increasing the validity of the study and leading to the
establishment of a cause-and-effect relationship. Researchers were able to see how
high cortisol levels impair memory performance. Laboratory experiments are highly
standardised allowing other researchers to replicate studies and determine the level
of reliability of the finfinings.

● Brain and behaviour: Antonova (2011)

● Hormones/pheromones and behaviour: Newcomer et al (1999) or Wedekind
et al (1995).
● Genetics and behaviour: Bailey and Pillard (1991)

Explain one ethical consideration in the study of the brain and behaviour.
One ethical consideration in the study of the brain and behaviour is protection from
undue stress or harm. Ethical considerations refer to the set of rules and guidelines
set by psychological associations such as the APA which researchers need to abide
by when conducting studies in psychology. Protection of participants from harm is
the requirement that participants should not be subjected to any long-term or undue
physical and mental harm.
One study which demonstrated this ethical consideration is Newcomer et al (1999).
Newcomer et al (1999) aimed to investigate whether high levels of cortisol would
interfere with memory. All participants in the study were given a clinical interview with
a physician. They were then assigned to one of three conditions. Condition 1: high
level of cortisol - participants in this condition were given a tablet containing 160mg
of cortisol on each day of the four-day experiment. Condition 2: low level of cortisol -
participants in this condition were given a table containing 40mg of cortisol per day.
Condition 3: placebo group. All participants were asked to listen and recall a different
prose paragraph each day and were tested three times. All participants were also
tested before taking any cortisol, one day after taking the pill, four days after and six
days after to ensure there were no long term effects of the treatment on the
participants.

Results indicated that high cortisol levels impaired performance in the memory task.
The researchers were also able to verify that the effect was not permanent.
Therefore these results demonstrate a clear link between levels of cortisol and
remembering.

This study is an example of undue stress as it causes harm to the participants as the
study used ingestions of cortisol into the participants, which negatively affected their
memory. The damage was however not permanent. Additionally, participants signed
a consent form therefore, in this case, a lack of temporary protection from harm is
considered acceptable.