MACHINES---> MOTORS & GENERATORS

DC MOTOR -:

What is a DC Motor?

A direct current (DC) motor is a type of electric machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. DC motors take electrical power through direct current, and convert this energy into mechanical
rotation.

How DC motors work--

DC motors include two key components: a stator and an armature. The stator is the stationary part of a
motor, while the armature rotates. In a DC motor, the stator provides a rotating magnetic field that
drives the armature to rotate.

A simple DC motor uses a stationary set of magnets in the stator, and a coil of wire with a current
running through it to generate an electromagnetic field aligned with the centre of the coil. One or more
windings of insulated wire are wrapped around the core of the motor to concentrate the magnetic field.

The windings of insulated wire are connected to a commutator (a rotary electrical switch), that applies
an electrical current to the windings. The commutator allows each armature coil to be energised in turn,
creating a steady rotating force (known as torque).

When the coils are turned on and off in sequence, a rotating magnetic field is created that interacts with
the differing fields of the stationary magnets in the stator to create torque, which causes it to rotate.
These key operating principles of DC motors allow them to convert the electrical energy from direct
current into mechanical energy through the rotating movement, which can then be used for the
propulsion of objects.

Types of DC Motors---the four main types of DC motor - brushless, brushed, shunt, and series

What is a brushless DC motor?

Brushless DC motors are also known as electronically commutated motors, or synchronous DC motors,
and differ to the brushed motor, thanks to the development of solid state electronics.

The key differences between brushless DC motors and other varieties is that they do not have a
commutator, which is replaced by an electronic servomechanism that is able to detect and adjust the
angle of the rotor.

The brushless DC motor has several advantages. Commutators use soft contacts called ‘brushes’ which
wear down over time. A brushless DC motor is therefore more durable, and also safer than the more
classical design.
How does a brushless DC motor work?

All electric motors develop torque by alternating the polarity of rotating magnets attached to the rotor
and stationary magnets on the surrounding stator. At least one of these set of magnets is an
electromagnet, made from a coil of wire around an iron core.

In a DC motor, DC running through the wire winding creates the magnetic field. Each time the armature
rotates by 180°, the position of the north and south poles are reversed. If the magnetic field of the poles
remained the same, the rotor would not turn. To create torque in one direction in a DC motor, the
direction of the electric current must be reversed with every 180° turn of the armature.

In a traditional brushed motor, this would be done by a commutator, but in a brushless DC motor, an
electronic sensor instead detects the angle of the rotor, with controlled semiconductor switches either
reversing the direction of the current or turning it off at the correct time in the rotation to create torque
in one direction.

What is a brushed DC motor?

The brushed DC motor is the original DC motor, dating back to Sprague’s initial design. As we have
discussed already in this guide, the classic brushed motor features a commutator, to reverse the current
every half cycle and create single direction torque.

While brushed DC motors remain popular for electrical propulsion, cranes, paper machines, and steel
rolling mills, many have been phased out for the more efficient brushless model in recent years.

How does a brushed DC motor work?

As has been explained in this guide already, brushed DC motors utilise soft contacts known as ‘brushes’
to ensure the motor rotates in one direction. Brushed motors’ speed can be varied by the operating
voltage or the strength of the magnetic field.

There are a few different varieties of brushed DC motors, which differ depending on the connection to
the armature, which will be discussed in the following sections.

What is a shunt DC motor?

A DC shunt motor is a variety of brushed motor that has field windings connected in parallel with the
armature. Shunt wound DC motors have a lower current because of the parallel windings.

A shunt motor is used for applications that require a constant torque, where the load is not significantly
altered by speed, such as conveyor belts, mixers and hoists.

The specific field windings provide unique shunt motor characteristics that make it such an effective
choice for constant torque applications. Many shunt DC motors feature constant speed characteristics,
with the small difference between no-load and full-load speed the main benefit of this type of motor.
What is a series DC motor?

Series wound DC motors are the final variety of brushed motors in this guide. The key difference
between this variety and the shunt motors discussed previously is that field windings are connected in a
series. This means that the entire armature current passes to the field winding, creating much faster
speeds.

As the supply voltage can’t be adjusted, series DC motors can’t regulate their speed particularly well.

While this is a problem for some applications, it makes them particularly useful for tasks that require
high starting torque, such as power tools and sewing machines.

The specific characteristics of DC series motors offers a clear and distinct purpose. The Aulhaber Brushed
DC Geared motor is a good example of the benefits of series wound motors, having high starting torque
that is ideal for appliances.

Applications of DC motors

there are various uses of a DC motor. At home, small DC motors are used in tools, toys and various
household appliances. while in an industrial setting, large DC motor uses also include braking and
reversing applications.

Here are a few more specific uses for DC motors:DC motors for electric cars, DC motors for bikes, DC
motors for fans, DC motors for pumps

DC Motor Advantages & Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Inexpensive controls for speed regulation Cogging at speeds of less than 300 rpm

Generally a low-cost motor option Significant power loss on full wave rectified voltage

Easily pairs with gear reducers High starting torque can damage reducers
DC GENERATOR--->

What Is a DC Generator?

A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy into
electricity. When the conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on the
electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a flow of
current when the conductor circuit is closed.

How Does a DC Generator Work?

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that when a current-carrying

conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor. According to
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced current changes whenever the direction of
motion of the conductor changes. Let us consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the
left moving upwards. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of the motion of the
conductor will be reversed downward. Hence, the direction of the current in every armature will be
alternating. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors get reversed when
a current reversal occurs. Therefore, we get a unidirectional current at the terminals.

E.M.F Equation of DC generator

The emf equation of the DC generator is given by the equation:

Eg = PӨZN / 60A

where

Z is the total number of armature conductor

P is the number of poles in a generator

A is the number of parallel lanes within the armature

N is the rotation of armature in r.p.m

E is the induced e.m.f in any parallel lane within the armature

Eg is the generated e.m.f in any one of the parallel lane

N/60 is the number of turns per second

Losses in DC Generator

The input power is not fully transformed into the output power in a DC machine. Some part of input
power gets wasted in various forms. In a DC machine, the losses are broadly classified into four types:
Copper Loss -Copper loss takes place when the current flows through the winding. These losses occur
due to the resistance in the winding. The copper loss is categorized into three forms armature loss, the
field winding loss and brush contact resistance loss.

Core Losses or Iron Losses

Some losses in the iron core occur when the armature rotates in the magnetic field. These losses are
known as core losses. These losses are categorized into two losses as Hysteresis loss and Eddy current
loss.

Types of DC generator

The DC generator can be classified into two main categories as separately excited and self-excited.

Separately Excited

The field coils are energized from an independent exterior DC source in a separately excited type
generator.

Self Excited

In a self-excited type, the field coils are energized from the generated current within the generator.
These types of generators can further be classified into a series of wounds, shunt-wound, and compound
wound.

What is series wound generator?

The series-wound generator is used principally to supply a constant current at variable voltage. If a
motor or generator is series-wound, it has the field and armature circuits connected in series.

What is the shunt wound generator?

A shunt generator is a type of electric generator in which field winding and armature winding are
connected in parallel, and in which the armature supplies both the load current and the field current for
the excitation (generator is therefore self excited).

What is a compound wound generator?

In other words, the generator which has both shunt and series fields is called the compound wound
generators. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt
winding, then the machine is said to be cumulative compounded.
INDUCTION MOTOR------→

What’s an induction motor?

Induction motors are electric motors that use alternating current (AC), propelled by a magnetic field that
rotates. They are made up of a rotor, a stator and coils that convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy using electromagnetic induction. AC induction motors are highly efficient and flexible, and
relatively simple in design, which allows them to match the load demand for almost any electrical
application.

A stator is an outer, non-moving chamber in which the rotor spins. It is formed by a ring of
electromagnets designed as a cylinder to produce a rotating magnetic field. Copper wire wound
throughout the cylinder’s interior creates magnetic poles, with one pole of each magnet facing towards
the center. When alternating current flows through these wire coils, they form a pair of alternating poles.
The alternating poles create an alternating magnetic field that rotates with unified strength.

A rotor also consists of a group of electromagnets arranged around a cylinder, and it is housed inside the
stator. The magnet fields activated within the rotor are attracted to the magnetic field produced by the
stator. Hence why the magnetic field induced in the stator induces a magnetic field in the rotor.

Types of induction motors and their applications

Induction motors are categorized into two main types: single-phase and three-phase induction motors.
And there are further classifications based on their way of starting.

Single-phase induction motors

The single-phase induction motor is not self-starting. A single-phase AC current supplies the primary
winding and produces a pulsating magnetic field. These motors are designed to operate from single-
phase supply and are manufactured in large quantities for use in homes, offices, factories, etc. There are
four types of single-phase induction motors:

Split phase induction motor->A split-phase induction motor is a type of single-phase induction motor in
which the stator is provided with a starting or auxiliary winding (S) and a main or running winding (M).
The starting winding is displaced by 90° from the main winding

Capacitor-start induction motor->A Capacitor Start Motors is a single phase Induction Motor that
employs a capacitor in the auxiliary winding circuit to produce a greater phase difference between the
current in the main and the auxiliary windings

Capacitor-run induction motor->The capacitor-run motor is a representative example of the rotating-field

single-phase AC induction motor.

Shaded pole induction motor->The shaded pole induction motor is simply a self-starting single-phase
induction motor whose one of the poles is shaded by the copper ring.
Advantages

(1) It has high efficiency

(2) Reasonably good power factor.

(3) It has self starting torque.

(4) absence of commutator

Disadvantages

(i) Its speed is not constant, when load is varied.

(ii) Low starting torque compared to DC shunt motor.

Applications of single-phase induction motors

Single-phase induction motors are used more widely than the three-phase system for domestic,
commercial, and sometimes industrial purposes. Single-phase induction motors are favoured because
the single-phase system is more economical, and the power demand load is lower in these
environments.

Pumps

Compressors

Small fans

Mixers

Toys

High-speed vacuums

Electric shavers

Drilling machines

Three-phase induction motors

Three-phase induction motors are self-starting, so they require no starting device like single-phase
motors. In a three-phase system, three wires provide the same voltage, but each phase is ramped up.
The three-phase induction motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The two types of
three-phase induction motors are:
Squirrel cage motors- Squirrel cage induction motors are used in printing equipment for continuous
speed work such as guillotines, moving platens, and other small devices.

Slip ring motors->A wound-rotor motor, also known as slip ring-rotor motor, is a type of induction motor
where the rotor windings are connected through slip rings to external resistance

Applications of three-phase induction motors

Three-phase induction motors are used for commercial and industrial purposes, ideal for higher-power
applications.

Lifts

Cranes

Commercial electric and hybrid vehicles

INDUCTION GENERATORS---ASYNCHRONUS GENERATORS

Induction Generator

The induction Generator is also known as Asynchronous Generator. An Induction Machine sometimes is
used as a generator. Initially, an induction generator or machine is started as a motor. At the starting, the
machine draws the lagging reactive volt-amperes from the supply mains. The speed of the machine is
increased above the synchronous speed by an external prime mover. The speed is increased in the same
direction as that of the rotating field produced by the stator windings.

The induction machine will operate as an induction generator and will start producing a generating
torque. This generating torque is opposite to the direction of the rotation of the rotor. At this condition,
the slip is negative and the induction generator starts delivering energy to the supply mains.
The torque-speed characteristics of a 3 phase induction machine for all ranges of speed is shown below:

In an equivalent circuit of an induction motor, the mechanical shaft load has been replaced by a resistor
of the value given below:

In an induction generator, the slip (s) is negative, and therefore, the load resistance Rmech is also
negative. This shows that the load resistance does not absorb the power, but starts acting as a source of
power. It starts supplying the electrical energy to the supply mains to which it is connected.

The output of the induction generator depends upon the following factors given below:

The magnitude of the negative slip.

The speed of the rotor or how fast the motor drives above the synchronous speed in the same direction.

Rotation of the motor when it operates as an induction motor.

It is clear from the torque-speed characteristic of the induction motor that the maximum possible
induced torque occurs in the generating mode. This torque is known as Pushover Torque. If the torque
becomes greater than the pushover torque, the generator will over speed.

The induction generator is not a self-excited generator. It is necessary to excite the stator with an
external polyphase source to produce the rotating magnetic field. This is achieved at the rated voltage
and frequency, and the machine is made to operate above the synchronous speed. Since the speed of
the induction generator is different from the synchronous speed, it is known as an Asynchronous
generator.
From the characteristic curve, it is seen that the operating range of the induction generator is limited to
the maximum value of the pushover torque corresponding to slip at a speed OM as shown in the torque-
speed characteristic curve.

What is synchronous motor working principle?

A synchronous motor is one in which the rotor normally rotates at the same speed as the revolving field
in the machine.

What is the working principle of PMSM?

A permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) uses permanent magnets embedded in the rotor to
create a constant magnetic field

What is a Servo Motor?

A servo motor is a type of electric motor that can rotate or move to a specific position, speed, or torque
based on an input signal from a controller.

A servo motor consists of three main components:

A motor: This can be either a DC motor or an AC motor depending on the power source and the
application requirements. The motor provides the mechanical power to rotate or move the output shaft.

A sensor: This can be either a potentiometer, an encoder, a resolver, or another device that measures
the position, speed, or torque of the output shaft and sends feedback signals to the controller.

A controller: This can be either an analog or a digital circuit that compares the feedback signals from the
sensor with the desired setpoint signals from an external source (such as a computer or a joystick) and
generates control signals to adjust the motor’s voltage or current accordingly.

Advantages

Higher Output Power. A servo motor produces a high output power. ...

Efficient & Accurate.

Accelerated Torque. ...

Short Period Management.

Disadvantages Of Servo Motor

Servos Motors require tuning to stabilize the feedback loop.

Servo Motor will become unpredictable when something breaks. ...

Complex controller requires encoder and electronic support.

Peak torque is limited to a 1% duty cycle. ...

How Does a Servo Motor Work?

The basic working principle of a servo motor involves the controller receiving two types of input signals:

A setpoint signal: This is an analog or digital signal that represents the desired position, speed, or torque
of the output shaft.

A feedback signal: This is an analog or digital signal that represents the actual position, speed, or torque
of the output shaft measured by the sensor.

The controller compares these two signals and calculates an error signal that represents the difference
between them.

The error signal is then processed by a control algorithm (such as PID) that generates a control signal
that determines how much voltage or current should be applied to the motor.

The control signal is sent to a power amplifier (such as an H-bridge) that converts it into an appropriate
voltage or current level for driving the motor.

The motor then rotates or moves according to the control signal and changes its position, speed, or
torque, and sends a new feedback signal to the controller.

The process repeats until the error signal becomes zero or negligible, indicating that the output shaft has
reached the desired setpoint.

Types of Servo Motors

Servo motors can be classified into different types based on their power source, construction, feedback
mechanism, and application.

AC Servo Motors

AC servo motors are electric motors that operate on alternating current (AC). They have a stator that
generates a rotating magnetic field and a rotor that follows the field.

DC Servo Motors

DC servo motors are electric motors that operate on direct current (DC). They have a permanent magnet
stator that generates a fixed magnetic field and a wound rotor that rotates when a current is applied.

Linear Servo Motors

Linear servo motors are electric motors that produce linear motion instead of rotary motion. They have a
stationary part called a forcer or primary that contains coils or magnets, and a moving part called a
platen or secondary that contains magnets or iron cores.

How to Control a Servo Motor?

The controller of a servo motor can be either an external device or an integrated circuit within the
motor. The controller receives the control signals from an external source (such as a computer or a
joystick), and the feedback signals from the sensor and generates the appropriate control signals for
driving the motor.

Applications of Servo Motors

CNC machinery, Automated manufacturing, Medical equipment

What Is a Universal Motor?

A universal motor is a special type of motor that runs on both AC and DC power supplies. Universal
motors are series-wound (the armature and field windings are in series). The series connection allows
them to generate high torque; hence the universal motors are generally built into the device they are
meant to drive.

Most of the universal motors are meant to operate at speeds as high as 3500 RPM. These motors run at
a higher speed on DC supply than they run on AC supply of the same voltage. This is due to the
reactance voltage drop that is present only in AC and not in DC.

How does a Universal Motor run on both AC and DC supply?

The construction of a universal motor is similar to that of a series-wound DC motor. A universal motor
incorporates some modification that allows it to operate either on AC or DC supply.

A universal motor consists of a stator on which the field poles are mounted. Field coils are wound around
the field poles. Both the stator field circuit and armature of a universal motor are laminated. Laminations
are necessary to reduce the eddy currents that are produced while operating on AC power.

The universal motor’s rotary armature is made of straight or skewed slots on which the commutator and
brushes rest. The commutation on AC is poorer than that for DC because of the current induced in the
armature coils. For this reason, the brushes used have high resistance.

Operation of Universal Motor

When fed with a DC supply

When the universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. In this case, when the
current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same current also flows in
the armature conductors. When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. This mechanical force causes the rotor to rotate. Fleming’s Left-hand
rule gives us the direction of this force.

When fed with an AC supply

A unidirectional torque is produced when the universal motor is supplied with AC power. This is because
the armature winding and the field winding are connected in series and are in the same phase.
Therefore, whenever the polarity of the AC changes, the direction of the current in the armature and the
field winding changes simultaneously. The direction of the magnetic field and the direction of armature
current reverse so that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors remains the same.
Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motors work on the same principle that DC series motors
work on.

Properties of Universal Motors

Following are the distinctive properties of the universal motor:

They run at high speed.

They have high starting torque.

Compact size and are lightweight.

Speed Load Characteristics of Universal Motor

Applications of Universal Motor

Universal motors are used in applications where high speed and good speed control is necessary.
Following are the various applications of universal motor:

Universal Motors are used in table fans, hairdryers and grinders.

They are used in portable drill machines.

They are used in polishers, blowers and kitchen appliances.

A stepper mottor is a brushless, synchronous electric motor that converts digital pulses into mechanical
shaft rotation. Every revolution of the stepper motor is divided into a discrete number of steps, in many
cases 200 steps, and the motor must be sent a separate pulse for each step.

Multiple advantages of stepper motors:

Lower cost.

The stepping motor itself is the phase sensor, which reduces the operating cost.

The moving parts of the motor are frictionless, have a longer life and low maintenance costs.
Disadvantages

1)efficiency is not high, it will consume a lot of output power irrelevant to the load.

2) The torque will decrease rapidly with the speed.

3) Relative to the AC servo motor system software, the precision is lower.

4) The load cannot be accelerated very quickly.