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Radiation Therapy Dosimetry

A Practical Handbook
Radiation Therapy Dosimetry
A Practical Handbook

Edited By

Arash Darafsheh
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Darafsheh, Arash, editor. Title: Radiation therapy dosimetry : a

practical handbook / edited by Arash Darafsheh. Description: First
edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2021. | Includes bibliographical
references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020040810 (print) | LCCN
2020040811 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138543973 (hardback) | ISBN
9781351005388 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Radiotherapy. |
Radiation dosimetry. Classification: LCC RM849 .R325 2021 (print) | LCC RM849
(ebook) | DDC 615.8/42--dc23 LC record available at https://
lccn.loc.gov/2020040810LC ebook record available at https://
lccn.loc.gov/2020040811

ISBN: 9781138543973 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781351005388 (ebk)

Typeset in Minion
by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd
Contents

Preface ix
About the Editor, xi
Contributors, xiii

Part I Radiation Dosimeters and Dosimetry Techniques

Chapter 1   ◾   Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Dosimetry 3

Blake R. Smith and Larry A. DeWerd

Chapter 2   ◾   Ionization Chamber Instrumentation 19

Larry A. DeWerd and Blake R. Smith

Chapter 3   ◾   Calorimetry 31
Larry A. DeWerd and Blake R. Smith

Chapter 4   ◾   Semiconductor Dosimeters 39

Giordano Biasi, Nicholas Hardcastle and Anatoly B. Rosenfeld

Chapter 5   ◾   Film Dosimetry 61

Sina Mossahebi, Nazanin Hoshyar, R ao Khan and Arash Darafsheh

Chapter 6   ◾   Thermoluminescence Dosimetry 75

Tomas Kron and Peta Lonski

Chapter 7   ◾   Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeters in Clinical Practice 97

Stephen F. Kry and Jennifer O’Daniel

Chapter 8   ◾   EPID-Based Dosimetry 109

Brayden Schott, Thomas Dvergsten, R aman Caleb and Baozhou Sun

Chapter 9   ◾   Scintillation Fiber Optic Dosimetry 123

Arash Darafsheh

v
vi   ◾    Contents

Chapter 10   ◾   Cherenkov and Scintillation Imaging Dosimetry 139

R achael L. Hachadorian, Irwin I. Tendler and Brian W. Pogue

Chapter 11   ◾   Clinical Considerations and Dosimeters for In Vivo Dosimetry 151

Douglas Bollinger and Arash Darafsheh

Chapter 12   ◾   Dosimeters and Devices for IMRT QA 173

Nesrin Dogan, Matthew T. Studenski and Perry B. Johnson

Chapter 13   ◾   Area and Individual Radiation Monitoring 185

Nisy Elizabeth Ipe

Chapter 14   ◾   Monte Carlo Techniques in Medical Physics 211

Ruirui Liu, Tianyu Zhao and Milad Baradaran-Ghahfarokhi

Part II Brachytherapy

Chapter 15   ◾   Brachytherapy Dosimetry 231

Christopher L. Deufel, Wesley S. Culberson, Mark J. Rivard and Firas Mourtada

Part III External Beam Radiation Therapy

Chapter 16   ◾   Photon Beam Dosimetry of Conventional Medical Linear Accelerators 255

Francisco J. Reynoso

Chapter 17   ◾   Dosimetric Considerations with Flattening Filter-Free Beams 267

Jessica Lye, Stephen F. Kry and Joerg Lehmann

Chapter 18   ◾   Linac-Based SRS/SBRT Dosimetry 277

K aren Chin Snyder, Ning Wen and Manju Liu

Chapter 19   ◾   CyberKnife and ZAP-X Dosimetry 305

Sonja Dieterich, Georg Weidlich and Christoph Fuerweger

Chapter 20   ◾   Dosimetry in the Presence of Magnetic Fields 315

Carri Glide-Hurst, Hermann Fuchs, Dietmar Georg and Dongsu Du

Chapter 21   ◾   Helical Tomotherapy Treatment and Dosimetry 325

Reza Taleei and Sarah Boswell

Chapter 22   ◾   Gamma Knife Dosimetry 343

Nels C. Knutson

Chapter 23   ◾   Kilovoltage X-Ray Beam Dosimetry 355

C. M. Charlie Ma
 Contents   ◾    vii

Chapter 24   ◾   Electron Dosimetry 375

John A. Antolak

Chapter 25   ◾   Proton Therapy Dosimetry 393

Michele M. Kim and Eric S. Diffenderfer

Chapter 26   ◾   Ion Range and Dose Monitoring with Positron Emission Tomography 413
K atia Parodi

Chapter 27   ◾   Prompt Gamma Detection for Proton Range Verification 427

Paulo Magalhaes Martins, Riccardo Dal Bello and Joao Seco

Chapter 28   ◾   Acoustic-Based Proton Range Verification 443

Kevin C. Jones

Chapter 29   ◾   Proton Radiography and Proton Computed Tomography 457

Xinyuan Chen and Tianyu Zhao

Part IV Imaging Modalities

Chapter 30   ◾   Dosimetry of Imaging Modalities in Radiotherapy 467

George X. Ding

INDEX, 479
Preface

This book is intended to cover the everyday use and underlying principles of radiation dosimeters used in radiation
oncology clinics. It provides an up-to-date reference spanning the full range of current modalities with emphasis
on practical know-how. The main audience is medical physicists, radiation oncology physics residents, and medical
physics graduate students.
This book contains 30 chapters in four main parts. The chapters in Part I deal with the fundamentals of radiation
dosimetry, basic physics of various dosimeters, practical dosimetry considerations, and Monte Carlo applications in
medical physics. Part II covers the brachytherapy dosimetry. The chapters in Part III deal with external beam radia-
tion therapy dosimetry; dosimetry of cutting edge techniques from radiosurgery to MR-guided systems to small
fields and proton therapy as well as advanced range verification techniques in proton therapy are addressed in Part
III. Part IV is on the dosimetry of imaging modalities in radiotherapy.
I sincerely thank all of the authors for their outstanding contributions to this book; their efforts have brought
all of the chapters to a very high standard. I am grateful to my mentors, mentees, and colleagues in Washington
University in St. Louis and University of Pennsylvania. I am also grateful to the publishing team for their assistance,
guidance, and advice throughout the project.

Arash Darafsheh
Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri

ix
About the Editor

Arash Darafsheh, Ph.D., is an associate professor of Radiation Oncology, a certified medical physicist by the
American Board of Radiology (ABR), and the PI of the Optical Imaging and Dosimetry Lab at the Department of
Radiation Oncology at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis. He holds Ph.D. and M.Sc. in
Optical Science and Engineering, and an M.Sc. in Radiation Medicine Engineering. His current research interests
include optical methods in medical physics, detector development for radiotherapy, ultra-high dose rate FLASH
radiotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and super-resolution microscopy. He has served as a mentor for many gradu-
ate students, postdoctoral research fellows, and clinical residents. He has published over 90 journal and conference
papers, six book chapters, and one patent. He has been awarded research grants from the National Institutes of
Health (NIH) and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine (AAPM). He is a member of AAPM and
senior member of the Optical Society of America (OSA) and SPIE-the international society for optics and photon-
ics. He has served as an associate editor for Medical Physics and as a reviewer for numerous scientific journals.

xi
Contributors

John A. Antolak Xinyuan Chen

Mayo Clinic Department of Radiation Oncology
Rochester, Minnesota Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri
Milad Baradaran-Ghahfarokhi
Department of Radiation Oncology Wesley S. Culberson
Vanderbilt University Medical Center Department of Medical Physics
Nashville, Tennessee School of Medicine and Public Health
University of Wisconsin – Madison
Riccardo Dal Bello Madison, Wisconsin
German Cancer Research Center - DKFZ
Division of Biomedical Physics in Radiation Oncology Arash Darafsheh
University of Heidelberg Department of Radiation Oncology
Department of Physics and Astronomy Washington University School of Medicine
Heidelberg, Germany St. Louis, Missouri

Giordano Biasi Christopher L. Deufel

Centre for Medical Radiation Physics Radiation Oncology Department
School of Physics Mayo Clinic
University of Wollongong Rochester, Minnesota
Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre Larry A. DeWerd
Melbourne, VIC, Australia Department of Medical Physics
School of Medicine and Public Health
Douglas Bollinger University of Wisconsin-Madison
Department of Radiation Oncology Madison, Wisconsin
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Sonja Dieterich
University of California Davis
Sarah Boswell Department of Radiation Oncology
Accuray Incorporated Sacramento, California
Madison, Wisconsin
Eric Diffenderfer
Raman Caleb Department of Radiation Oncology
Department of Radiation Oncology University of Pennsylvania
Washington University School of Medicine Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
St. Louis, Missouri

xiii
xiv   ◾    Contributors
George X. Ding
Department of Radiation Oncology
Vanderbilt University School of Medicine
Nashville, Tennessee
Nesrin Dogan
Department of Radiation Oncology
University of Miami
Miami, Florida
Dongsu Du
Department of Radiation Oncology
City of Hope Medical Center
Duarte, California
Thomas Dvergsten
Department of Radiation Oncology
Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri
Hermann Fuchs
Department of Radiation Oncology
Division of Medical Radiation Physics
Medical University Vienna
Wien, Austria
Christoph Fuerweger
European Cyberknife Center Munich
Munich, Germany
Dietmar Georg
Department of Radiation Oncology
Division of Medical Radiation Physics
Medical University Vienna
Wien, Austria
Carri Glide-Hurst
Department of Human Oncology
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Madison, Wisconsin
Rachael L. Hachadorian
Thayer School of Engineering
Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire
Nicholas Hardcastle
Centre for Medical Radiation Physics
University of Wollongong
Wollongong, NSW, Australia
and
Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Nazanin Hoshyar
New York-Presbyterian/Queens Department of
Radiation Oncology
Flushing, New York
Nisy Elizabeth Ipe
Consultant, Shielding Design, Dosimetry and
Radiation Protection
San Carlos, California
Perry B. Johnson
University of Florida Health Proton
Therapy Institute
Jacksonville, Florida
Kevin Jones
Department of Radiation Oncology
Rush University Medical Center
Chicago, Illinois
Rao Khan
Department of Radiation Oncology
Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri
Michele Kim
Department of Radiation Oncology
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Nels Knutson
Department of Radiation Oncology
Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri
 Contributors   ◾    xv

Tomas Kron Jessica Lye

Department of Physical Sciences Australian Clinical Dosimetry Service
Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety
Melbourne, VIC, Australia Agency
and Olivia Newton-John Cancer Wellness and Research
Sir Peter MacCallum Depatment of Oncology Centre, Austin Health
University of Melbourne Melbourne, Australia
Parkville, VIC, Australia
and C.-M. Charlie Ma
Centre for Medical Radiation Physics Department of Radiation Oncology
University of Wollongong Fox Chase Cancer Center
Wollongong, NSW, Australia Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Stephen F. Kry Paulo Magalhaes Martins

Department of Radiation Physics German Cancer Research Center - DKFZ
The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center Division of Biomedical Physics in Radiation Oncology
Houston, Texas Heidelberg, Germany
and
Instituto de Biofísica e Engenharia Biomédica - IBEB
Joerg Lehmann
Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon
Department of Radiation Oncology
Lisbon, Portugal
Calvary Mater Newcastle
Waratah, NSW, Australia
Sina Mossahebi
and
Department of Radiation Oncology
Institute of Medical Physics
University of Maryland School of Medicine
University of Sydney
Baltimore, Maryland
Sydney, NSW, Australia
and
Firas Mourtada
School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences
Radiation Oncology
University of Newcastle
Helen F. Graham Cancer Center and Research Institute
Newcastle, NSW, Australia
Christiana Care Health System
Newark, Delaware
Manju Liu
Department of Radiation Oncology Jennifer O’Daniel
William Beaumont Hospital Department of Radiation Oncology
Royal Oak, Michigan Duke University School of Medicine
Durham, North Carolina
Ruirui Liu
Department of Radiation Oncology Katia Parodi
Washington University School of Medicine Department of Experimental Medical Physics
St. Louis, Missouri Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München
Garching b. München, Germany
Peta Lonski
Brian W. Pogue
Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre
Thayer School of Engineering
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Dartmouth College
Hanover, New Hampshire
xvi   ◾    Contributors

Francisco J. Reynoso Matthew T. Studenski

Department of Radiation Oncology Department of Radiation Oncology
Washington University School of Medicine University of Miami
St. Louis, Missouri Miami, Florida

Mark J. Rivard Baozhou Sun

Brown Medical School Department of Radiation Oncology
Rhode Island Hospital Washington University School of Medicine
Providence, Rhode Island St. Louis, Missouri

Anatoly B. Rosenfeld Reza Taleei

Centre for Medical Radiation Physics Department of Radiation Oncology
School of Physics Sidney Kimmel Medical College at Thomas Jefferson
University of Wollongong University
Wollongong, NSW, Australia Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Joao Seco Irwin I. Tendler

German Cancer Research Center - DKFZ Thayer School of Engineering
Division of Biomedical Physics in Radiation Dartmouth College
Oncology Hanover, New Hampshire
University of Heidelberg
Department of Physics and Astronomy Georg Weidlich
Heidelberg, Germany Zap Surgical
San Carlos, California
Brayden Schott
Department of Radiation Oncology Ning Wen
Washington University School of Medicine Department of Radiation Oncology
St. Louis, Missouri Henry Ford Health System
Detroit, Michigan
Blake R. Smith
Department of Radiation Oncology Tianyu Zhao
University of Iowa Department of Radiation Oncology
Iowa City, Iowa Washington University School of Medicine
St. Louis, Missouri
Karen Chin Snyder
Department of Radiation Oncology
Henry Ford Health System
Detroit, Michigan
 I
Radiation Dosimeters and Dosimetry Techniques

1
 Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Radiation
Physics and Dosimetry
Blake R. Smith
University of Iowa
Iowa City, Iowa

Larry A. DeWerd
University of Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin

CONTENTS
1.1 Absorbed Dose 3
1.2 Charged Particle Transport 5
1.3 Photon Interactions 7
1.4 Quantities Used to Describe Ionizing Radiation 8
1.5 Radiation Dosimetry 10
1.5.1 Cavity Theory 11
1.5.2 Overview of TG-21 13
1.5.3 Overview of TG-51 15
1.6 Conclusion 16
References 17

1.1 ABSORBED DOSE In a theoretical sense, this point quantity refers to the
One of the most important quantities that concerns the energy deposited within an infinitesimal amount of mass
practice of medical physics is dose. This quantity is pre- (and thus volume). Realistically, energy deposition from
scribed by physicians to treat tumors, set by radiation atomic and subatomic events is discrete with respect to
safety officers as exposure limits to workers, and refer- an infinitesimal volume for which the definition of dose
enced by radiobiologists while performing cell irradia- is better represented as an average over a specified space
tion studies. This quantity, however, is rather arbitrary leading to the adjacent expression in Equation 1.1. For
and ill-defined by itself. Dose, D, is defined as a point example, a whole-body dose of 4 Gy has about a 50%
quantity from the fundamental quantities of energy and chance of killing an adult human in 60 days [1]. On
mass as: the other hand, patients undergoing radiation therapy
often receive 40 Gy or more to their tumors, but in this
dE ∆E  J  context the dose is fairly localized with a large amount
D= → , (1.1)
dm ∆m  kg  of energy deposited within a smaller volume.

3
4   ◾    Radiation Therapy Dosimetry
It is also important to specify the medium that the
dose is referred to. Dose to water versus dose to air
imply subtle, but extremely important, differences in
the amount of energy expended in the medium as well
as how the energy was transferred. While different, both
quantities are reported using the same units of Gray (Gy)
which is defined as 1 Gy = 1 J kg−1 = 6.24 × 109 MeV g−1. The
subject of absorbed dose differences and dependences is
paramount to the understanding of detector response,
which will be a subject of further discussion later on.
Calculating dose during discrete particle transport
through a medium can be difficult where only a hand-
ful of scenarios exist that can be solved analytically.
However, more complicated problems can be solved
using Monte Carlo methods where the path a particle
experiences is simulated discretely. Dose is only deliv-
ered to matter through charged particles. Uncharged
particles, such as photons and neutrons, will traverse
through a medium unimpeded until either an elastic
or inelastic interaction occurs. During inelastic interac-
tions, energy is released from the uncharged particles
to the medium potentially transferring kinetic energy
to charged particles. Those liberated charged particles
expend their kinetic energy to the surrounding medium
putting other charged particles into motion or produc-
ing uncharged particles and the process repeats. Solving
these radiation transport problems requires an in-depth
understanding of the types of interaction that can occur,
the probability of their occurrence, and the kinematics
following these interactions.
Let us consider the definition of dose a little more
closely. Of concern is the transfer of energy to matter
within a medium from charged particles. Following the
definition of dose provided in Equation 1.1, dose to a frag-
ment of matter within the medium can be determined
from the kinetic energy loss, ∆E, that a particle experiences
across a fragment of the medium with mass, m. If we model
the kinetic energy loss of the particle in discrete, straight-
line steps of length ∆x , then we can relate the total path, s,
that the particle travels within the fragment of matter to
the kinetic energy lost by that particle and imparted to the
medium. This is referred to as the stopping power of the
medium, ( ∆∆Ex ) , which is fundamentally related to the force
acted on by the medium to slow the particle down. This
loss of energy is then related to dose by
s  ∆E  s  ∆E 
D= ⋅ = ⋅ (1.2)
m  ∆x  V  ρ∆x 
1  ∆E   ∆E 
→D= ⋅  = φ⋅  for multiparticle scenario
A  ρ∆x   ρ∆x 
(1.3)
where the normalization of the particle’s stopping power
to the density of the medium, ρ, is referred to as the mass
stopping power. Dose is rarely defined or calculated from a
single particle as a single particle’s trajectory can vary sub-
stantially if the particle were to travel from the same initial
conditions. The energy loss on this scale is largely stochas-
tic in nature. The progression of Equation 1.3 illustrates
how the calculation and definition of dose change from
the single-particle scenario to a more familiar scenario of
an incident fluence of charged particles, φ, upon an inci-
dent area, A, and volume, V , of the medium. The above
example is referred to as the thin-film approximation,
which subtly assumes no changes in the rate of energy loss
of the particle as it traverses through the medium. While
fine for our conceptual discussion of dose, more consider-
ation is necessary to comprehensively describe the energy
loss of charged particles. For further discussion, consider a
general relation between dose and the transport of charged
particles,
Emax
 dE 
D=
∫ φ′( E ) ρdx  dE
0 c
(1.4)
For the calculation of dose, φ′ ( E ) in Equation 1.4 is used
for the differential fluence with respect to the energy
( )
of the charged particles and ρdEdx is the portion of the
c
stopping power responsible for collisional energy losses
from the incident charged particle undergoing multiple
Coulombic scattering with the surrounding orbital elec-
trons in the medium. Another assumption necessary
to allow us to calculate dose accurately is to limit our
energy fluence spectrum from energetic, knock-on elec-
trons, known as δ-rays, which are produced within our
region of interest and deposit their energy elsewhere.
This restriction is also referred to as charged particle
equilibrium (CPE) and is necessary for the calculation
of dose. Simply, CPE requires that the charged particle
fluence which enters our region of interest also leaves
the region. In a sense, CPE is a spatial assumption that
the charged particle fluence remains constant through-
out the region of interest and the point that dose is
defined at. The problem becomes more complicated to
determine the differential fluence spectrum at a point,

requiring a more complete understanding of charged
particle transport through matter.
1.2 CHARGED PARTICLE TRANSPORT
Elastic and inelastic collisions are the two fundamental
types of interactions that occur in a two-body system
consisting of an incident projectile and target particle.
While the products and participants can vary widely
among all atomic and subatomic particles, the general
trends are consistent. Elastic collisions are character-
ized by a preservation of the total kinetic energy and
momentum of the system before and after the collision.
A corollary to this assumption is that the products after
the collision must remain identical to the constituents
before the collision. Inelastic collisions do not preserve
the equality of products before and after the collision.
This often leads to the loss of kinetic energy of the sys-
tem to the form of intrinsic energy, which includes the
production of daughter particles, excitation of atomic
or subatomic particles, and the emission of bremsstrah-
lung. Inelastic interactions can be further categorized by
their distance from the central atom from which they
occur, known as their impact parameter, b. Soft colli-
sions, when b  atomic radius, result in small energy
losses of the primary particle traversing through the
medium. The majority of these energy losses are a result
of the atomic excitation or ionization of valence electrons
from the atoms within the medium. Hard collisions
occur near the atom’s atomic radius, b ≈ atomic radius,
and result in the liberation of inner-shell orbiting elec-
trons. Nuclear electric field interactions are the least
common of the three and occur when the incident
charged particle is within the nuclear radius of the atom,
b  atomic radius. The production of bremsstrahlung is
classified as a nuclear electric field interaction.
The mass stopping power, initially utilized in
Equation 1.2, can be divided into soft and hard colli-
sional losses in addition to a radiative loss component
dE  dE   dE 
= +
ρdx  ρdx  c  ρdx  r
(1.5)
 dE   dE    dE 
=   +   +  all excitation and ionization potentials in the medium.
 ρdx  s  ρdx  h c  ρdx  r
where the subscripts s, h, and r correspond to the
soft, hard, and radiative components of the stopping
Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Dosimetry   ◾    5
power, respectively. The mass stopping powers defined
in Equation 1.5 are conventionally given in units of
MeV cm2 g−1. The portion of radiative energy loss is
carried away from the region of interest in the form of
photons. Therefore, in our calculation of dose, we are
primarily concerned with the contributions of soft and
hard collisional stopping powers. Derived by Bethe [2],
assuming that the kinetic energy is much greater than
the electrons orbital energy of an atom (referred to as
the Born approximation), the soft collisional stopping
power of an incident charged particle with charge ze
and the surrounding medium with an effective atomic
number of Z is:
 dE  2
N A Z   z 2    2me c 2β 2  
 ρdx  = 2πr0 me c  A   β 2   ln  I 2 (1 − β 2 ) H  − β 
2 2
s  
(1.6)
( )
where NAA Z is effectively the number of electrons per
unit mass in the medium defined from Avogadro’s con-
stant, N A , and the mass number of the medium, A. The
( )
2
quantity βz 2 describes the ratio of the atomic number of
the incident charged particle, z , and the Lorentz factor,
β = v /c, associated with the incident charged particle’s
velocity, v, relative to the speed of light, c. The product
of the classical electron radius, mass of an electron, me ,
and Avogadro’s constant is sometimes condensed as a
single constant where 2πr02me c 2 N A ≈ 0.1535 MeV cm2 g−1.
The variable H is an arbitrary cutoff used to separate
the evaluation of hard and soft collisions. The right
portion of the equation, contained in square brackets,
is an approximation of the change in kinetic energy
experienced by the traversing particle from the force
acted upon it from the electric field of nearby orbital
electrons. This is classically integrated as a function of
distance from the electrons, assuming they are popu-
lated uniformly from the traversing particle. An over-
view of the derivation of this approximation is beyond
the scope of this discussion but can be found in most
modern graduate physics textbooks [2–4]. An important
term that arises within this component of Equation 1.6
is the mean excitation potential, I , which is the mean of
A rule of thumb is that I ∼ 10 Z , except in cases for
mediums with low atomic number. The component of
the collisional stopping power resulting from hard col-
lisions is given by
6   ◾    Radiation Therapy Dosimetry

 dE  Z z 2   Emax  2  and 15, respectively. Note that the above expression is

 ρdx  = 2πr0 me c N A A β 2  ln  H  − β  (1.7)
2 2
only valid for electrons and positrons. The generation
h
of Bremsstrahlung from heavy charges particles is neg-
where Emax in the hard collision portion of the total mass ligible as the intensity of the emitted Bremsstrahlung
collisional stopping power is the maximum energy that varies inversely with the square of the incident particle’s
can be transferred in a head-on collision with an atomic mass. For instance, while a carbon ion would have a
electron. It can be approximated for a heavy charged charge number 12 times that of an electron, the amount
particle (mparticle  me ) traversing the medium as of Bremsstrahlung produced is still minuscule relative
to an electron since the mass of a carbon nucleus is over
 β2  22,000 times larger than the electron’s mass.
Emax = 2me c 2  (1.8) Our current treatment of stopping power has ignored
 1 − β 2 
the presence of δ-rays produced from hard collisions. If
Accounting for hard collisions, the mass collisional we have δ-ray CPE, then this is not an issue. However,
stopping power for a heavy charged particle is given by since the condition of δ-ray CPE is not commonly sat-
isfied, our treatment and calculation of dose to small
 dE  NAZ   z 2  volumes must account for the energy carried away from
2
 ρdx  = 2πr0 me c  A   β 2 
2
the region of interest. The restricted stopping power is
c
the portion of the total collision stopping power which
   2m c 2β 2   includes all of the soft collision energy losses but only
×   ln  2 e 2 H  − β 2  hard collision losses resulting in delta rays of kinetic
   I (1 − β )   energy less than ∆. This assumes that any δ-rays pro-
duced below this threshold deposit their energy locally
 E   within the defined region of interest and are related to
+  ln  max  − β 2  ,
  H   the unrestricted collisional stopping power as
and simplifying,
 dE   dE 
lim ∆→ EK0  = (1.11)
 ρdx  ∆  ρdx  c

 dE  2
N A Z   z    2me c β  2 
2 2 2

 ρdx  = 4 πr0 me c  A   β 2   ln  I (1 − β 2 )  − β 
2

c   Restructuring Equation 1.9 to accommodate a

(1.9) restricted stopping power prohibits expressing Emax
using Equation 1.8 as it must be replaced with the
While not shown above, there are further corrections which energy cutoff, ∆
have been derived for this expression of stopping power to
account for relativistic scaling, shell correction to account for  dE  N A Z   z 2    2me c 2β 2 ∆  
2
 ρdx  = 2πr0 me c  A   β 2   ln  I 2 (1 − β 2 )  − 2β 
2 2
decreased interaction with K-shell electrons at lower particle
∆  
velocities, and polarization effects of dense media.
The final component of the total stopping power is the (1.12)
mass radiative stopping power. According to Podgorsak A direct application of stopping powers outside of deter-
[4], this expression for electrons or positrons is mining dose is predicting range. An estimate of a par-
ticle’s range, in terms of mass thickness (ρ× l in units of
 dE  1 2 2 NA
(
 ρdx  = 137 r0 Z A EK0 + me c Brad
2
) (1.10) g cm−2), in matter can be determined from
r
EK0 −1
 dE 
where Brad is a slow-changing function slightly depen-
dent on the atomic number, and EK0 is the initial total
CSDA =
∫0
 ρdx  dE (1.13)

kinetic energy of the light charged particle. For an ini-

tial kinetic energy of 1 MeV, 10 MeV, and 100 MeV, the Equation 1.13 is referred to as the continuous slowing
corresponding values of Brad are approximately 6, 10, down approximation (CSDA) of a particle’s range, which

is the average length traveled by a charged particle when
it slows down from its initial total kinetic energy to a
final kinetic energy close to zero. This is often taken as
a conservative estimate which overpredicts the range.
For heavy charged particles, CSDA is a fairly indicative
and close approximation. However, this metric fails to
adequately predict the observed range for lighter ions,
such as electrons and positrons, since the particle’s path
is assumed straight and CSDA does not take into account
the influence of scatter on the particle’s range.
1.3 PHOTON INTERACTIONS
Our treatment of dose to this point has focused upon
the kinetic energy loss of charged particles traversing
through a medium. However, the question remains on
how these charged particles were initially set in motion.
Some medical applications require the use of a beam of
charged particles, namely, electrons or protons, although
some heaver ion beams have been used albeit less fre-
quently. For calculations of dose from these directly
ionizing beams of charged particle radiation, our pre-
vious discussion of dose is sufficient. However, a large
majority of radiation applications in medicine rely upon
the use of indirectly ionizing radiation, namely, photons
produced from Bremsstrahlung, called x-rays, or from
the radioactive decay of nuclei, denoted as γ -rays. The
calculation of dose from indirectly ionizing radiation is
a two-step process: a photon must first interact within
a medium and then impart kinetic energy to a charged
particle placing it in motion. The kinetic energy is then
transferred from the charged particle to the surround-
ing medium following the mechanics discussed in the
previous section. For the purposes of this discussion, we
will focus solely on photon–electron interactions as they
are the most prominent interactions concerned within
the practice of medical physics dosimetry.
There are four primary photon–electron interactions
that our discussion of dose is concerned with and they
are Rayleigh, photoelectric, Compton, and pair and
triplet production interactions. However, only the latter
three emit charged particles after the interaction takes
place and dominate within the ranges of photon energies
encountered in the practice of medical physics. Each of
these interactions contributes to a loss of incident pho-
ton fluence through a medium. The occurrence of an
interaction taking place can be thought of as a dart hit-
ting a binary dart board – either the dart hits the bull’s
eye or it misses. The probability that the bull’s eye is hit
Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Dosimetry   ◾    7
is related to the size of the dart and the size of the bull’s
eye relative to the dart board. This is analogous to a flu-
ence of uncharged radiation, ψ (cm−2), of particles inci-
dent upon a slab of matter composed of many potential
atomic “targets” each with a little cross-sectional area,
σ a (cm2). The number of targets within a unit volume of
the matter can be estimated as N A ⋅ρ/A from the mass
density, ρ, and mass number of the substance, A. The
rate that the initial fluence reduces in depth due to the
number of interactions that occur is
dψ σ a ψN A ρ
− = = µψ (1.14)
dl A
If the target for the reaction is instead an electron bound
(or loosely bound) to an atom, the atomic cross section is
replaced with the combined cross section of all the elec-
trons bound to the atom, σ e ⋅ Z = σ a . The reduction of
fluence, or attenuation, can be modeled as a single vari-
able, µ, the total attenuation coefficient in units of cm−1
or the unit probability per depth an interaction occurs.
This quantity is also expressed as the mass attenua-
tion coefficient by normalizing µ to the density of the
medium. This simple differential equation can be solved
to obtain the uncollided fluence at a distance l in the
medium
ψ ( l ) = ψ 0e −µl = ψ 0e −µ /ρ⋅Σ (1.15)
where ψ 0 is the initial fluence and Σ is used to define the
mass thickness through a material. The total mass atten-
uation coefficient can be broken down into components
for each of the three aforementioned interaction types
µ τ σ κ
= + + (1.16)
ρ ρ ρ ρ
where ρτ , σρ , and κρ represent the mass attenuation coef-
ficients for photoelectric, Compton, and pair and triplet
production, respectively.
The photoelectric effect absorption coefficient is
dominant at low energies, around the rest mass of an
electron. As such, this particular interaction is respon-
sible for much of the contrast observed in radiological
imaging systems. For this interaction to occur, the inci-
dent photon must coherently interact with the entire
atom and impart enough energy to an orbital election
to overcome its binding energy to the atom. The interac-
tion results in a fluorescence photon in addition to at
8   ◾    Radiation Therapy Dosimetry

least one electron, possibly more if an Auger electron incidents energies, a form factor function is employed to
is emitted. The work of Heitler [5] approximated the account for the binding energy of the electron. However,
K-shell component to the photoelectric effect absorption the impact that this correction factor has upon our esti-
coefficient as mate of dose is not very large since the photoelectric
effect dominates at such low energies.
7/2
8πr02  Z 5   me c 2  Pair production is a manifestation of Einstein’s mass–
τK = 4 2 (1.17)
3  137 4   hv  energy relationship where a positron and an electron are
produced from a photon interaction within an atom’s
As indicated from Equation 1.17, the interaction cross electric field. In the event of triplet production, two
section is largest at the binding energy of the k-shell, electrons and a positron are produced. The minimum
2
EB =  nth Z=1 ⋅137  ⋅ me2c . This implies that the cross section threshold photon energy for this interaction to occur is
2

 ( level ) 
spikes at the shell-binding energies and also suggests  2me c 2 if pair production
that the medium is transparent to its own fluorescence hν ≥  (1.22)
4me c 2 if triplet production
photons. 
The Compton scattering effect occurs between an
incident photon of energy, hν, and an unbound, station- Bethe and Heitler [7] initially derived the atomic cross
ary electron resulting in a scatter photon at angle θ γ , section assuming that the interaction is far from the
and energy nucleus, thereby ignoring the effects of the nuclear elec-
tric field.
hν
hν′ = (1.18) r02 Z 2
1+
hν
me c 2
( ( ))
1 − cos θ γ κ pair =
137
P (1.23)

The scattered electron is then emitted with an energy of where P ≈ 28

9 ln ( )−
2 hυ
me c 2
218
27
. The cross section for triplet
Ee = hν − hν′ at an angle of production is similar to that of pair production but
requires an extra term, C, to account for election exchange
1
tan ( θe ) = (1.19) effects of the form
(
(1 + α 0 ) tan θγ /2 )
κ pair
where α 0 = mheνc 2 . The interaction cross section for the κ triplet = (1.24)
C ⋅Z
Compton effect was initially derived by Klein and
Nishina [6] where C is a slowly changing value ranging between
1.6 for 5 MeV < hυ < 20 MeV and 1.1 for 20 MeV < hυ <
 1 + α 0   2 (1 + α 0 ) ln (1 + 2α 0 )  100 MeV. The total triplet and pair production cross sec-
σ e = 2πr02  2 
−  tion is
 α 0   1 + 2α 0 α0
r02  1
ln (1 + 2α 0 ) 1 + 3α 0  κ = κ pair + κ triplet = ZP  Z + 

(1.25)
+ −  (1.20) 137 C
2α 0 (1 + 2α 0 )2 
1.4 QUANTITIES USED TO DESCRIBE
and IONIZING RADIATION
N A Zρ Up until this point, we have treated the interaction of
σ = σe (1.21) indirectly ionizing radiation stochastically. The inter-
A
action cross sections recently discussed describe the
For incident photon energies larger than 1 MeV, the probability of one particular event occurring and the
assumption of an unbound electron is very good, espe- consequential attenuation of the primary beam. While
cially since the scattered electron tends to receive most these quantities are useful for the understanding of radi-
of the incident photon’s energy. However, for lower ation transport through matter, they are not so useful
 Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Dosimetry   ◾    9

to practically calculate dose. In our previous discus-
sion, the emphasis was placed primarily on attenuation
of the primary beam. However, as we progress through
our understanding of dose, it is practical to define non-
stochastic quantities to predict the expectation value of
energy loss in the indirectly ionizing beam of radiation.
For the purposes of this discussion, we will discuss these
quantities with respect to photons representing the
energy fluence of the beam as Ψ ( E ) = ψ ( E ) ⋅ E . However,
analogs exist for other indirectly ionizing radiations
such as neutron beams.
The first nonstochastic quantity that describes the
interaction of indirectly ionizing radiation with mat-
ter is Terma, T , which is defined as the quantity of total
energy transferred to matter. This quantity reflects the
first stage of energy deposition from indirectly ionizing
radiation with the surrounding medium and describes
the rate of attenuation of the primary beam. Using our
definitions of the interaction cross sections in the pre-
vious section, we can define Terma from the incident
energy spectrum, up to the maximum energy, Emax
mathematically as
Emax
 µ µ τ tr τ  hυ − PKYK hυK − (1 − PK ) PLYL hυL 
T=
∫
0
 ρ  ⋅ Ψ ′ ( E ) dE → T ≡ ρ Ψ , if monoenergetic
E
(1.26)
which has units of J kg−1. Following an interaction
between the beam of indirectly ionizing radiation and
matter, a portion of energy from the primary beam may
be transferred to charge particles in the medium. This
quantity is referred to as kerma, K, and is defined for-
mally as
Emax
 µ tr  µ tr
K=
0
∫  ρ  ⋅ Ψ ′ ( E ) dE → K ≡ ρ Ψ , if monoenergetic Equation 1.20 while normalizing to the integral of the
E
(1.27)
Once an interaction occurs, the amount of energy trans-
ferred to the medium’s charged particles is stochastic
in nature. The equations we used to specify the mass
coefficient is also defined by the constituents of each
interaction.
µ tr τ tr σ tr κ tr
= + + (1.28)
ρ ρ ρ ρ
Since the energy transfer coefficient is defined as the
expected portion of energy initially transferred to
charged particles, we can also define it as
µ tr µ Etr
= ⋅ (1.29)
ρ ρ hυ
where Etr is the average energy transferred to charged
particles from an incident photon of energy, hυ.
Let’s consider photoelectric interactions. Upon an event’s
occurrence, we know that the incident photon’s energy will
be divided among an ionized L- or K-shell electron, a fluo-
rescent photon, and potentially an Auger electron. Thus,
the fraction of the energy imparted to the electrons is the
difference between the incident photon energy and the
portion lost due to fluorescence. The mass energy transfer
coefficient can then be determined by
=
ρ ρ  hυ  (1.30)
where PKYK hυK describes the expected fraction of energy
loss from K-shell fluorescence of photon energy hυK with
a yield of YK occurring with a probability of PK in addition
to the energy losses should the interaction take place with
an L-shell electron instead of a K-shell electron.
For the case of Compton interactions, the mean energy
transferred to an electron can be determined from weight-
ing the scattered electron energy following Equation 1.18
with the respective cross section value calculated using
cross section over all scattered electron energies.
Emax
dσ e E
σ e, tr =
∫
0
⋅ dE
dE hυ
(1.31)

attenuation cross sections for the three types of photon

interactions with matter, Equations 1.17, 1.20, and 1.25, It follows that the Compton mass energy transfer coef-
can be adjusted to reflect the portion of energy loss from ficient is
the primary beam and are referred to as the respec-
tive mass energy transfer coefficients. Analogous to the σ tr N Z E σ
= σ e ,tr A = tr ⋅ . (1.32)
total attenuation coefficient, the mass energy transfer ρ A hν ρ
10   ◾    Radiation Therapy Dosimetry
Pair and triplet production mass energy transfer coef-
ficient is fairly straightforward as the energy initially
transferred to the charged particles is the residual
amount of energy left after the creation of the electron(s)
and positron
κ tr κ  hν − 2me c 
2
=   (1.33)
ρ ρ hν
Kerma should not be confused with dose. While the
two quantities are similar, even defined by the same
unit of Gy, dose maintains an element of locality where
energy must be deposited, whereas kerma simply states
the initial kinetic energy transferred to charge particles
at an interaction point. As the charge particle traverses
through the medium, a portion of its transferred kinetic
energy is expended by both collisional and radiative loss
K = Kc + Kr (1.34)
The portion of the energy not radiated away is defined as
the collision kerma, K c ,
Emax
 µ en  µ en
Kc =
∫  ρ  Ψ ′ ( E ) dE → K c ≡ ρ Ψ if monoenergetic
E
0 clinics using a precise instrument that can be easily cali-
(1.35)
The mass energy absorption coefficient, ( ) , can be
µen
ρ has been used to transfer the standard of absorbed dose
stated generally as
µ en τen σ en κ en µ
= + + = (1 − g ) tr (1.36)
ρ ρ ρ ρ ρ quantity used to calibrate the output of medical linear
where the term 1 − g denotes the fraction of the initial
charged particle’s kinetic energy that wasn’t radiated
away by photons. By the definition of collision kerma,
we know the amount of energy transferred and kept by
the charged particles from the incident uncharged radi-
ation until they come to rest. Conceptually, if CPE exists
within a defined volume, then we would know that any
particle that left the specified volume with some kinetic
energy would be replaced with another particle with the
same kinetic energy that the first particle left with. Thus,
in this special set of circumstances, we can state that
dose is equivalent to the collision kerma. Much of the
practice in modern dosimetry rests upon the application
and understanding of these quantities. Rarely does CPE
exist outside of well-controlled experiments. However,
this is the basis from which modern dosimetry protocols
rely on to provide accurate, traceable standards of radia-
tion dose and kerma.
1.5 RADIATION DOSIMETRY
Dose is arguably one of the most important radiologi-
cal metrics utilized in the treatment of cancer. It is also
used to benchmark the constancy of the output from a
medical linear accelerator. Intercomparisons of clinical
radiation treatment outcomes reference delivered dose
and dose rates. Radiation safety limits are set from stud-
ies that have reported in analogs of dose. Most pertinent
to the practice of therapy physics is the measurement
of absorbed dose to water from a medical linear accel-
erator. A direct measurement of dose to a medium from
fundamental quantities, while possible, is very difficult
and susceptible to large uncertainty unless great care is
taken to minimize errors in setup and fully characterize
the assumptions made within the measurement. If every
clinic was responsible for this measurement, large dis-
crepancies could arise between departments. Instead, it
is safer and more practical for one entity to maintain
the standard device, which measures a reference quan-
tity. This standard can then be disseminated to several
brated with the standard. For example, an ionization
chamber is both a practical and precise instrument that
to water measured from a calorimeter to a clinic.
Ionization chambers are the most common instru-
ment to measure dose to water, which is the standard
accelerators. However, depending on the primary quan-
tity used for chamber calibration, the determination of
dose to water by the physicist changes. Over the years,
this primary quantity has changed historically from air
kerma to absorbed dose to water from a 60Co beam of
radiation with a near-monoenergetic photon spectrum
center around an average energy of 1.25 MeV. Ionization
chambers are conceptually simple consisting of an air-
filled cavity that collects the charge from ionizing radia-
tion interacting with the gas molecules residing in the
cavity. Further discussion of ionization chambers and
their applications are discussed elsewhere [8], but for the
context of this chapter, most portable chambers consist of
a wall encapsulating a collection volume that is charged
to establish a voltage potential with a collection electrode.
 Fundamentals of Radiation Physics and Dosimetry   ◾    11

The current challenge at hand is to relate the measured  dE 

signal in the chamber to the dose to water at the center of ∫
Dp in a = φa′ ( E ) 
 ρdx  E ,a
dE (1.38)
the chamber as if the chamber was not present to begin
with. This exact problem has been the primary focus of
Let’s assume now the following:
several published reports. Today, the United States rec-
ognizes the task group report numbers 21 (TG-21) [9]
1. The thickness, t, of the layer is much smaller than
and 51 (TG-51) [10] from the American Association of
the range of charge particles traversing the layer.
Physicists in Medicine (AAPM) as the primary proto-
Therefore, no particles either start or stop in the
cols to determine the dose to water using an ionization
layer.
chamber that was either calibrated to a known air kerma
or absorbed dose to water, respectively. 2. The change in the layer’s material from the sur-
rounding medium does not substantially change
1.5.1 Cavity Theory the fluence at p.
The determination of dose within one medium as if it
were occupied by a different material relies on the use These assumptions are commonly referred to as the
of cavity theory, and the basis of much of the TG-21 and Bragg–Gray conditions and imply that
TG-51 formalisms is grounded in these applications.
The foundations of cavity theory are based on Bragg– φ′a ( E ) = φ′w ( E ) = φ′ ( E ) (1.39)
Gray theory [11]. Consider a plane-parallel field of pho-
ton radiation as shown in Figure 1.1. The final result provides a general relation that relates
If the spectrum of charged particles, φ, was known, the dose in the two media
the dose at a point, p, in the medium, w, can be deter-
mined from the spectrum’s differential fluence, φ′  dE 
Dp in a ∫ φ′( E ) ρdx  E ,a
dE
 dE  = (1.40)
∫
Dp in w = φ′w ( E ) 
 ρdx  E ,w
dE (1.37) Dp in w
∫
 dE 
φ′ ( E ) 
 ρdx  E ,w
dE

If now the region surrounding point p was changed to and upon normalizing, the result with the total fluence
air, the dose at p is then equivalent to in both the numerator and denominator

 dE 
Dp in a ∫ φ′ ( E ) 
 ρdx  E ,a ∫
dE / φ′ ( E ) dE
= (1.41)
Dp in w  dE 
∫ φ′ ( E ) 
 ρdx  E ,w ∫
dE / φ′ ( E ) dE

reveals that the doses in the two media are related by the
ratio of their mean stopping powers, S, denoted by both
a superscript and a subscript nomenclature

Dp in a ( dE /ρdx )a Sa
= = = Swa (1.42)
Dp in w ( dE /ρdx )w Sw
FIGURE 1.1 Simple slab geometry illustrating the principles
of Bragg–Gray cavity theory. A uniform fluence of charged
particles, φ, within an area, A, traverses a thin slab of mate- While great as a first-order approximation, Bragg–Gray
rial, a, sandwiched between material slabs composed of w . theory falls short for large discrepancies in the atomic
The dose at point, p, can be evaluated for both materials a and numbers and density between the two media. This sug-
w assuming the Bragg–Gray conditions. gests that the two Bragg–Gray assumptions were not
12   ◾    Radiation Therapy Dosimetry
well satisfied. The work of Spencer and Attix [3, 12]
sought to improve upon the basis of Bragg–Gray theory
by accounting for the generation and influence of δ-rays
by including restricted stopping powers in the absorbed
dose determination at a point
E0
∫
D = φe ,δ ⋅ S ( E , ∆ ) dE
∆
(1.43)
where φe ,δ is the equilibrium fluence accounting for the
existence of delta rays and the restricted stopping pow-
ers, S ( E , ∆ ), are evaluated from an energy ∆, which is
just large enough for the charged particles to traverse
the cavity. Any particles with energy less than ∆ are
assumed to neither be able to enter the cavity nor trans-
port energy. Using the Spencer–Attix cavity theory, the
relationship between the doses in two media is therefore
simply the ratio of the mean restricted mass stopping
powers, L∆.
Dp in a L∆ ,a
= = La∆ ,w (1.44)
Dp in w L∆ ,w
Bragg–Gray and Spencer–Attix cavity theories build
from assumptions on the charge particle fluence
between contiguous media. The relationship of dose
between materials reflects the change in energy loss
from the charged particle field traversing through the
medium. However, a similar relation can be made with
respect to the uncharged radiation field from our defini-
tions of collision kerma. Similar to CPE, radiation equi-
librium (RE) is used to describe a spatial quality of point
where the radiation fluence entering a specified volume
is the same as the radiation fluence exiting the volume.
Because the charged particle fluence is a direct conse-
quence of the incident uncharged radiation field, it is
conceptually simple to understand that if RE exists, then
CPE exists. However, the inverse of this statement is not
true. It follows from our earlier discussion of collision
kerma that if RE exists within a volume of space, then
the relationship in absorbed dose between two media is
Dp in a K c,p in a ( µ en /ρ)a  µ en 
a
= = = (1.45)
Dp in w K c,p in w ( µ en /ρ)w  ρ  w
The relation shown in Equation 1.45 reflects the
uncharged radiation field under the conditions of RE
FIGURE 1.2 Burlin cavity theory discriminates charges pro-
duced within the wall (w) and cavity air (g) as they contrib-
ute to the total dose within the chamber. Considering each
of these contributions separately bridges the gap between the
assumptions made between very small chambers, which uti-
lize the Bragg–Gray assumptions, and very large cavity vol-
umes where the influence of the wall is negligible.
most commonly achieved with large-cavity chambers
using the subscript–superscript ratio notation presented
in Equation 1.42. A subtle but important note to take
away is the difference between large-cavity and Bragg–
Gray/Spencer–Attix theory: one relates the expected
conditions of energy transfer with respect to the charged
particle field verses the incident uncharged radiation
field. The merger of these two theories can be extended
to our chamber measurement as shown in Figure 1.2
since most chambers do not behave completely within
the confines of one of these theories due to the presence
of a wall.
This merger is known as Burlin cavity theory. If the
volume of the cavity is very large in comparison to the
wall thickness, then the fluence of electrons from the wall
material will exponentially decrease as they are attenu-
ated in the gas volume. However, the fluence of elec-
trons generated within the gas volume will exponentially
increase leading to the conditions governing large cavity
theory. On the other hand, if the chamber volume is very
small, the majority of electrons traversing the cavity orig-
inate from the wall material. The Burlin cavity relation
can be expressed as
g
Dg µ 
= d ⋅ Swg + (1 − d ) ⋅  en  (1.46)
Dw  ρ w
where d is the portion of electrons generated from the
wall that contribute to the equilibrium fluence in the
cavity, and 1 − d is the portion of electrons from the cav-
ity that contribute to the equilibrium fluence in the cav-
ity. These four theories build the foundation from which
Another random document with
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 to be that the industrial value of the island is fast
diminishing, and that unless there is a speedy and radical
change in existing conditions, it will soon disappear
altogether. …

{174}

"The spectacle of the utter ruin of an adjoining country, by

nature one of the most fertile and charming on the globe,
would engage the serious attention of the Government and
people of the United States in any circumstances. In point of
fact, they have a concern with it which is by no means of a
wholly sentimental or philanthropic character. It lies so near
to us as to be hardly separated from our territory. Our actual
pecuniary interest in it is second only to that of the people
and Government of Spain. It is reasonably estimated that at
least from $30,000,000 to $50,000,000 of American capital are
invested in plantations and in railroad, mining, and other
business enterprises on the island. The volume of trade
between the United States and Cuba, which in 1889 amounted to
about $64,000,000, rose in 1893 to about $103,000,000, and in
1894, the year before the present insurrection broke out,
amounted to nearly $96,000,000. Besides this large pecuniary
stake in the fortunes of Cuba, the United States finds itself
inextricably involved in the present contest in other ways
both vexatious and costly. … These inevitable entanglements of
the United States with the rebellion in Cuba, the large
American property interests affected, and considerations of
philanthropy and humanity in general, have led to a vehement
demand in various quarters, for some sort of positive
intervention on the part of the United States. …

"It would seem that if Spain should offer to Cuba genuine

autonomy—a measure of home rule which, while preserving the
sovereignty of Spain, would satisfy all rational requirements
of her Spanish subjects—there should be no just reason why the
pacification of the island might not be effected on that
basis. Such a result would appear to be in the true interest
of all concerned. … It has been objected on the one side that
Spain should not promise autonomy until her insurgent subjects
lay down their arms; on the other side, that promised
autonomy, however liberal, is insufficient, because without
assurance of the promise being fulfilled. … Realizing that
suspicions and precautions on the part of the weaker of two
combatants are always natural and not always
unjustifiable—being sincerely desirous in the interest of both
as well as on its own account that the Cuban problem should be
solved with the least possible delay—it was intimated by this
Government to the Government of Spain some months ago that, if
a satisfactory measure of home rule were tendered the Cuban
insurgents, and would be accepted by them upon a guaranty of
its execution, the United States would endeavor to find a way
not objectionable to Spain of furnishing such guaranty. While
no definite response to this intimation has yet been received
from the Spanish Government, it is believed to be not
altogether unwelcome, while, as already suggested, no reason
is perceived why it should not be approved by the insurgents. …

"It should be added that it can not be reasonably assumed that

the hitherto expectant attitude of the United States will be
indefinitely maintained. While we are anxious to accord all
due respect to the sovereignty of Spain, we can not view the
pending conflict in all its features, and properly apprehend
our inevitably close relations to it, and its possible
results, without considering that by the course of events we
may be drawn into such an unusual and unprecedented condition,
as will fix a limit to our patient waiting for Spain to end
the contest, either alone and in her own way, or with our
friendly co-operation."

President Cleveland's Message to Congress,

December 7, 1896.

Just at this time (December 7, 1896) the Cuban insurgents

suffered a serious calamity, in the death of Antonio Maceo,
the heroic mulatto, who seems to have been the most soldierly
and inspiring of their leaders. He had broken through the
"trocha," or fortified line across the island, by which the
Spaniards were endeavoring to hold its western part, and had
been troubling them in the province of Pinar del Rio for some
months. At length he was killed in an unimportant skirmish,
and much of the vigor of the insurrection appears to have gone
out of it when he died. The obstinacy of spirit remained,
nevertheless, and all the merciless energy of Weyler only
spread death and misery, without opening any prospect of an
end to the state of war. Spain was being utterly exhausted by
the immense cost of the struggle; Cuba was being ruined and
depopulated; yet neither would yield. The oppressors would not
set their victims free; the oppressed would not submit. But,
politically, the situation continued for another year as it
had been when described by President Cleveland at the close of
1896. The only visible authority was that which the Spaniards
maintained here and there. The revolutionists established no
government that could reasonably be given the name, and their
"Republic of Cuba," which foolish people in the United States
were clamoring to have recognized, existed on paper alone. To
concede "belligerent rights" to the scattered bands of
insurgents would only bring them under crippling rules of
international law, and do no good to their cause. President
McKinley, who succeeded President Cleveland in March, 1897,
made no change in the policy which the latter had pursued. He
continued the insistent pressure by which it was sought to
persuade the Spanish government to give a satisfying measure
of free government to its great dependency. After some months
there appeared to be a fair promise of success. The Liberal
party had come into power at Madrid, with Sagasta at its head.
In October, Weyler was recalled, General Blanco took his place,
and a new constitution for Cuba was announced, giving the
colony what seemed to be a fairly autonomous government, under
a parliament of its own. In his message to Congress the
following December, President McKinley was able to meet the
 continued clamor for more violent measures of interference by
saying: "It is honestly due to Spain, and to our friendly
relations with Spain, that she should be given a reasonable
chance to realize her expectations, and to prove the asserted
efficacy of the new order of things to which she stands
irrevocably committed. She has recalled the commander whose
brutal orders inflamed the American mind and shocked the
civilized world. She has modified the horrible order of
concentration, and has undertaken to care for the helpless and
permit those who desire to resume the cultivation of their
fields to do so, and assures them the protection of the
Spanish Government in their lawful occupations."
{175}
But the awful tragedy of suffering among the
"reconcontrados" had excited lookers-on to such a pitch that
the conduct of Spain in any new line of policy could no longer
be fairly judged. There had been attempts on the part of the
Spanish authorities to give some relief to the starved and
perishing multitude, and help to that end had been accepted
from the United States. The American Red Cross Society, with
Miss Clara Barton at its head, entered the island in December,
with vast stores of food and hospital supplies, and a strong
force of generous workers; but the need was far beyond their
means. The tale of death and misery in the stricken country
seemed to grow more sickening every day.

CUBA: A. D. 1897 (November).

Constitution establishing self-government in the islands of
Cuba and Porto Rico, promulgated by Royal Decree.

The following is a translation of the text of the Constitution

establishing self-government in the islands of Cuba and Porto
Rico which was promulgated by royal decree at Madrid on the
25th of November, 1897:

Upon the proposition of my Prime Minister, and with the

concurrence of the Council of Ministers in the name of my
 august son, King Alfonso XIII, and as Queen Regent of the
Kingdom, I hereby decree as follows:

[Footnote Start]
EXPLANATORY NOTE.
To facilitate the understanding of this decree and to avoid
confusion as to the legal value of the terms employed therein
the following definitions are to be observed:

Central Executive Power: The King with his Council of Ministers.

The Spanish Parliament: The Cortes with the King.
The Spanish Chambers: The Congress and the Senate.
The Central Government: The Council of Ministers of the Kingdom.
The Colonial Parliament: The two Chambers with
the Governor-General.
The Colonial Chambers: The Council of Administration
and the Chamber of Representatives.
Colonial Legislative Assemblies: The Council of Administration
and the Chamber of Representatives.
Governor-General in Council: The Governor-General
with the Secretaries of his Cabinet.
Instructions of the Governor-General: Those which he may have
received when named for his office.
Statute: Colonial measure of a legislative character.
Colonial Statutes: Colonial Legislation.
Legislation or General Laws: Legislation or laws of the Kingdom.
[Footnote End]

TITLE I.
GOVERNMENT AND CIVIL ADMINISTRATION IN THE ISLANDS
OF CUBA AND PORTO RICO.

ARTICLE 1.
The system of government and civil administration in the
islands of Cuba and Porto Rico shall hereafter be carried on
in conformity with the following provisions:
ARTICLE 2.
Each island shall be governed by an insular parliament,
consisting of two chambers, and by the Governor-General,
representing the mother country, who shall exercise supreme
authority.

TITLE II.
THE INSULAR CHAMBERS.

ARTICLE 3.
The legislative power as to colonial matters in the shape and
manner prescribed by law, shall be vested in the insular
chambers conjointly with the Governor-General.

ARTICLE 4.
Insular representation shall consist of two bodies of equal
powers, which shall be known as chamber of representatives and
council of administration.

TITLE III.
COUNCIL OF ADMINISTRATION.

ARTICLE 5.
The council shall be composed of thirty-five members, of whom
eighteen shall be elected in the manner directed by the
electoral law and seventeen shall be appointed by the
Governor-General acting for the Crown, from among such persons
as have the qualifications specified in the following
articles:

ARTICLE 6.
To be entitled to sit in the council of administration it is
necessary to be a Spanish subject; to have attained the age of
thirty-five years; to have been born in the island, or to have
had four years' constant residence therein; not to be subject
to any pending criminal prosecution; to be in the full
enjoyment of his political rights; to have his property free
from attachment; to have had for two or more years previous an
annual income of four thousand dollars; to have no interest in
any contract with either the insular or the home government.
The shareholders of a stock company shall not be considered as
government contractors, even if the company has a contract
with the government.

ARTICLE 7.
Persons are also qualified to serve as councilors who, besides
the above-stated requirements, have any of the following
qualifications:

1. To be or to have been a senator of the Kingdom, or to

possess the requirements for being a senator, in conformity
with Article III of the constitution.

2. To have held for a period of two years any of the following

offices: President, or prosecuting attorney of the pretorian
court of Havana; rector of the University of Havana; councilor
of administration in the council formerly thus designated;
president of the Havana Chamber of Commerce; president of the
Economic Society of Friends of the Country; president of the
Sugar Planters' Association; president of the Tobacco
Manufacturers' Union; president of the Merchants, Tradesmen's,
and Agriculturalists' League; dean of the bar of Havana; mayor
of Havana; president of the provincial assembly of Havana
during two terms or of any provincial assembly during three
terms; dean of either of the chapters of the two cathedrals.
3. Likewise may be elected or appointed as councilor any
property owner from among the fifty taxpayers paying the
highest taxes, either on real estate or on industries,
commerce, arts, and the professions.

ARTICLE 8.
The councilors appointed by the Crown shall be appointed by
special decrees, stating the qualification entitling the
appointee to serve as councilor. Councilors thus appointed
 shall hold office for life. One-half the number of elective
councilors shall be elected every five years, and the whole
number shall be elected whenever the council of administration
shall be dissolved by the Governor-General.

ARTICLE 9.
The qualifications required in order to be appointed or
elected councilor of administration may be changed by a
national law, at the request or upon the proposition of the
insular chambers.

ARTICLE 10.
No councilor shall, during the session of the council, accept
any civil office, promotion (unless it be strictly by
seniority), title, or decoration; but any councilor may be
appointed by either the local or the home government to any
commission within his own profession or category, whenever the
public service shall require it. The secretaries of the
insular government shall be excepted from the foregoing rule.

{176}

TITLE IV.
THE CHAMBER OF REPRESENTATIVES.

ARTICLE 11.
The chamber of representatives shall be composed of members
named by the electoral boards in the manner prescribed by law
and in the proportion of one for every twenty-five thousand
inhabitants.

ARTICLE 12.
To be elected as representative the candidate must have the
following requirements: To be a Spanish citizen, to be a
layman, to have attained his majority, to be in full enjoyment
of civil rights, to have been born in the island or to have
had four years' constant residence therein, and not to be
 subject to any pending criminal prosecution.

ARTICLE 13.
Representatives shall be elected every five years, and any
representative may be re-elected any number of times. The
insular chamber shall determine what classes of offices are
incompatible with the office of representative, as well as the
cases governing re-election.

ARTICLE 14.
Any representative upon whom either the local or home
government shall confer a pension, or any employment,
promotion (unless it be by strict seniority), paid commission,
title, or decoration, shall cease to be such without necessity
of any declaration to that effect, unless he shall within fifteen
days of his appointment notify the chamber of his having
declined the favor. The provisions of the preceding paragraph
shall not include the representatives who shall be appointed
members of the cabinet.

TITLE V.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE INSULAR CHAMBERS AND THEIR
RELATIONS
TO EACH OTHER.

ARTICLE 15.
The chambers will meet every year. The King, the
Governor-General acting in his name, shall convene, suspend,
and adjourn the sessions and dissolve the chamber of
representatives and the council of administration, either
separately or simultaneously, under the obligation to call
them together again or renew them within three months.

ARTICLE 16.
Each of the two legislative bodies shall determine the rules
of their proceedings and shall be the judges of the
qualifications of their respective members and the legality of
their election. Until the chamber and the council shall pass
their own rules, they shall be governed by the rules of the
national house of representatives and of the senate,
respectively.

ARTICLE 17.
Each chamber shall choose its president, vice-president and
secretaries.

ARTICLE 18.
Neither chamber shall sit unless the other be sitting also,
except when the council exercises judicial functions.

ARTICLE 19.
The two insular chambers shall not deliberate together nor in
the presence of the Governor-General. The sessions shall be
public, but either chamber may hold secret sessions whenever
business of a private nature shall require it.

ARTICLE 20.
To the Governor-General, through his secretaries, as well as
to either of the two chambers, belongs the power to initiate
and propose colonial statutes.

ARTICLE 21.
All colonial statutes in regard to taxes and the public credit
shall originate in the chamber of representatives.

ARTICLE 22.
Resolutions may be passed by either chamber by a plurality of
votes; but in order to pass a measure of a legislative
character a majority of all the members constituting the body
must be present. Nevertheless, one-third of the members shall
constitute a quorum for deliberation.

ARTICLE 23.
No resolution or law shall be considered passed by the insular
parliament unless it has had the concurrence of the chamber of
representatives and the council of administration.

ARTICLE 24.
Every colonial statute, as soon as it has been approved in the
form prescribed in the preceding article, shall be presented
to the Governor-General by the officers of both chambers for
his sanction and proclamation of the same.

ARTICLE 25.
Members of the council and the chamber of representatives
shall have immunity for any speech or vote in either chamber.

ARTICLE 26.
No councilor of administration shall be indicted or arrested
without a previous resolution of the council, unless he shall
be found "in flagranti" or the council shall not be in
session, but in every case notice shall be given to that body
as soon as possible, that it may determine what should be
done. Nor shall the representatives be indicted or arrested
during the sessions without the permission of the chamber
unless they are found "in flagranti," but in this last case,
or in case of indictment or arrest when the chamber is not
sitting, notice shall be given as soon us possible to the
chamber of representatives for its information and action. All
proceedings against councilors and representatives shall be
brought before the pretorian court at Havana in the cases and
manner that shall be prescribed by colonial statutes.

ARTICLE 27.
The guarantees established in the foregoing section shall not
apply to a councilor or representative who shall himself admit
that he is the author of any article, book, pamphlet, or
printed matter wherein military sedition is incited or
invoked, or the Governor-General is insulted and maligned, or
national sovereignty is assailed.
ARTICLE 28.
The relations between the two chambers shall be governed,
until otherwise provided, by the act of July 19, 1837,
regulating the relations between the two legislative houses of
the Cortes.

ARTICLE 29.
Besides the power of enacting laws for the colony the insular
chambers shall have power:

1. To receive the oath of the Governor-General to preserve the

constitution and the laws which guarantee the autonomy of the
colony.

2. To enforce the responsibility of the secretaries of the

executive, who shall be tried by the council, whenever
impeached by the chamber of representatives.

3. To address the home government through the

Governor-General, proposing the abrogation or modification of
existing laws of the Kingdom; to invite the home government to
present bills as to particular matters, or to ask a decision
of an executive character on matters which interest the
colony.

ARTICLE 30.
The Governor-General shall communicate to the home government
before presenting to the insular parliament any bill
originating in the executive government of the island
whenever, in his judgment, said bill may affect national
interests. Should any such bill originate in the insular
parliament, the government of the island shall ask for a
postponement of the debate until the home government shall
have given its opinion. In either case the correspondence
passing between the two governments shall be laid before the
chambers and published in the official Gazette.
{177}

ARTICLE 31.
All differences of jurisdiction between the several municipal,
provincial, and insular assemblies, or between any of them and
the executive, which by their nature may not be referred to
the home government, shall be submitted to the courts of
justice in accordance with the rules herein prescribed.

TITLE VI.
POWERS VESTED IN THE INSULAR PARLIAMENT.

ARTICLE 32.
The insular chambers shall have power to pass upon all matters
not specially and expressly reserved to the Cortes of the
Kingdom or to the central government as herein provided, or as
may be provided hereafter, in accordance with the prescription
set forth in additional Article 2. In this manner, and without
implying that the following enumeration presupposes any
limitation of their power to legislate on other subjects, they
shall have power to legislate on all matters and subjects
concerning the departments of justice, interior, treasury,
public works, education, and agriculture.

They shall likewise have exclusive cognizance of all matters

of a purely local nature which may principally affect the
colonial territory; and to this end they shall have power to
legislate on civil administration; on provincial, municipal,
or judicial apportionment; on public health, by land or sea,
and on public credit, banks, and the monetary system. This
power, however, shall not impair the powers vested in the
colonial executive according to the laws in connection with
the matters above mentioned.

ARTICLE 33.
It shall be incumbent upon the colonial parliament to make
regulations under such national laws as may be passed by the
Cortes and expressly intrusted to it. Especially among such
measures parliament shall legislate, and may do so at the
first sitting, for the purpose of regulating the elections,
the taking of the electoral census, qualifying electors, and
exercising the right of suffrage; but in no event shall these
dispositions affect the rights of the citizens, as established
by the electoral laws.

ARTICLE 34.
Notwithstanding that the laws governing the judiciary and the
administration of justice are of a national character, and
therefore obligatory for the colony, the insular parliament
may, within the provisions of said laws, make rules or propose
to the home government such measures as shall render easier
the admission, continuance, or promotion in the local courts
of lawyers, natives of the island, or practicing therein.

The Governor-General in council shall have, as far as the

island of Cuba is concerned, the same power that has been
vested heretofore in the minister for the colonies for the
appointment of the functionaries and subordinate and auxiliary
officers of the judicial order and as to the other matters
connected with the administration of justice.

ARTICLE 35.
The insular parliament shall have exclusive power to frame the
local budget of expenditures and revenues, including the
revenue corresponding to the island as her quota of the
national budget. To this end the Governor-General shall
present to the chambers every year before the month of January
the budget for the next fiscal year, divided in two parts, as
follows: The first part shall state the revenues needed to
defray the expenses of sovereignty, and the second part shall
state the revenues and expenditures estimated for the
maintenance of the colonial administration. Neither chamber
shall take up the budget of the colonial government without
having finally voted the part for the maintenance of
sovereignty.

ARTICLE 36.
The Cortes of the Kingdom shall determine what expenditures
are to be considered by reason of their nature as obligatory
expenses inherent to sovereignty, and shall fix the amount
every three years and the revenue needed to defray the same,
the Cortes reserving the right to alter this rule.

ARTICLE 37.
All treaties of commerce affecting the island of Cuba, be they
suggested by the insular or by the home government, shall be
made by the latter with the co-operation of special delegates
duly authorized by the colonial government, whose concurrence
shall be acknowledged upon submitting the treaties to the
Cortes. Said treaties, when approved by the Cortes, shall be
proclaimed as laws of the Kingdom and as such shall obtain in
the colony.

ARTICLE 38.
Notice shall be given to the insular government of any
commercial treaties made without its participation as soon as
said treaties shall become laws, to the end that, within a
period of three months, it may declare its acceptance or
nonacceptance of their stipulations. In case of acceptance the
Governor-General shall cause the treaty to be published in the
Gazette as a colonial statute.

ARTICLE 39.
The insular parliament shall also have power to frame the
tariff and fix the duties to be paid on merchandise as well
for its importation into the territory of the island as for
the exportation thereof.

ARTICLE 40.
As a transition from the old regime to the new constitution,
and until the home and insular governments may otherwise
 conjointly determine hereafter, the commercial relations
between the island and the metropolis shall be governed by the
following rules:

1. No differential duty, whether fiscal or otherwise, either

on imports or exports, shall be imposed to the detriment of
either insular or peninsular production.

2. The two governments shall make a schedule of articles of

direct national origin to which shall be allowed by common
consent preferential duty over similar foreign products. In
another schedule made in like manner shall be determined such
articles of direct insular production as shall be entitled to
privileged treatment on their importation into the peninsula
and the amount of preferential duties thereon. In neither case
shall the preferential duty exceed 35 per cent. Should the
home and the colonial government agree upon the schedules and
the preferential duties, they shall be considered final and
shall be enforced at once. In case of disagreement the point
in dispute shall be submitted to a committee of
representatives of the Cortes, consisting of an equal number
of Cubans and Peninsulars. The committee shall appoint its
chairman, and in case of disagreement the eldest member shall
preside. The chairman shall have the casting vote.

3. The valuation tables concerning the articles in the

schedules above mentioned shall be fixed by mutual agreement,
and shall be revised after discussion every two years. The
modifications which may thereupon become necessary in the
tariff duties shall be carried out at once by the respective
governments.

{178}

TITLE VII.
THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL.
ARTICLE 41.
The supreme authority of the colony shall be vested in a
Governor-General, appointed by the King on the nomination of
the council of ministers. In his capacity he shall have as
vice-royal patron the power inherent in the patronate of the
Indies; he shall have command of all military and naval forces
in the island; he shall act as delegate of the departments of
state, war, navy, and the colonies; all other authorities in
the island shall be subordinate to his, and he shall be
responsible for the preservation of order and the safety of
the colony. The Governor-General shall, before taking
possession of his office, take an oath in the presence of the
King to discharge his duties faithfully and loyally.

ARTICLE 42.
The Governor-General, representing the nation, will discharge
by himself and with the aid of his secretaries all the
functions indicated in the preceding articles and such others
as may devolve upon him as direct delegate of the King in
matters of a national character. It shall be incumbent upon
the Governor-General as representing the home government:

1. To appoint without restriction the secretaries of his

cabinet.

2. To proclaim, execute, and cause to be executed in the

island all laws, decrees, treaties, international covenants,
and all other acts emanating from the legislative branch of
the government, as well as all decrees, royal commands, and
other measures emanating from the executive which shall be
communicated to him by the departments of which he acts as
delegate. Whenever in his judgment and in that of his
secretaries he considers the resolutions of the home
government as liable to injure the general interests of the
nation or the special interests of the island, he shall have
power to suspend the publication and execution thereof, and
shall so notify the respective department, stating the reasons
for his action.

3. To grant pardons in the name of the King, within the

limitations specially prescribed to him in his instructions
from the government, and to stay the execution of a death
sentence whenever the gravity of the circumstances shall so
demand or the urgency of the case shall allow of no time to
solicit and obtain His Majesty's pardon; but in either case he
shall hear the counsel of his secretaries.

4. To suspend the guarantees set forth in articles 3, 5, 6,

and 9, and in the first, second, and third paragraphs of
article 13 of the constitution; to enforce legislation in
regard to public order, and to take all measures which he may
deem necessary to preserve the peace within and the safety
without for the territory entrusted to him after hearing the
counsel of his cabinet.

5. To take care that in the colony justice be promptly and

fully administered, and that it shall always be administered
in the name of the King.

6. To hold direct communication on foreign affairs with the

ministers, diplomatic agents, and counsels of Spain throughout
America. A full copy of such correspondence shall be
simultaneously forwarded to the home Department of State.

ARTICLE 43.
It behooves the Governor-General, as the superior authority in
the colony and head of its administration:

1. To take care that the rights, powers, and privileges now

vested or that may henceforth be vested in the colonial
administration be respected and protected.

2. To sanction and proclaim the acts of the insular

parliament, which shall be submitted to him by the president
and secretaries of the respective chambers. Whenever, in the
judgment of the Governor-General, an act of the insular
parliament goes beyond its powers or impairs the rights of the
citizens as set forth in Article I of the constitution, or
curtails the guarantees prescribed by law for the exercise of
said rights, or jeopards the interest of the colony or of the
nation, he shall forward the act to the council of ministers
of the Kingdom, which, within a period that shall not exceed
two months, shall either assent to it or return it to the
Governor-General with the objections to its sanction and
proclamation. The insular parliament may, in view of the
objections, reconsider or modify the act, if it deems fit,
without a special proposition. If two months shall elapse
without the central government giving any opinion as to a
measure agreed upon by the chambers which has been transmitted
to it by the Governor-General, the latter shall sanction and
proclaim the same.

3. To appoint, suspend, and discharge the employees of the

colonial administration, upon the suggestion of the
secretaries of the departments and in accordance with the
laws.

4. To appoint and remove, without restriction, the secretaries

of his cabinet.

ARTICLE 44.
No executive order of the Governor-General, acting as
representative and chief of the colony, shall take effect
unless countersigned by a secretary of the cabinet, who by
this act alone shall make himself responsible for the same.

ARTICLE 45.
There shall be five secretaries of department, to wit:
Grace and justice and interior;
finance;
public education, public works and posts and telegraphs;
agriculture, industry, and commerce.

The Governor-General shall appoint the president of the

cabinet from among the secretaries, and shall also have power
to appoint a president without a secretaryship. The power to
increase or diminish the number of secretaries composing the
colonial cabinet, and to determine the scope of each
department, is vested in the insular parliament.

ARTICLE 46.
The secretaries of the cabinet may be members of either the
chamber of representatives or the council of administration
and take part in the debates of either chamber, but a
secretary shall only vote in the chamber of which he is a
member.

ARTICLE 47.
The secretaries of the cabinet shall be responsible to the
insular parliament.

ARTICLE 48.
The Governor-General shall not modify or abrogate his own
orders after they are assented to by the home government, or
when they shall declare some rights, or when a sentence by a
judicial court or administrative tribunal shall have been
based upon said orders, or when they shall deal with his own
competency.

ARTICLE 49.
The Governor-General shall not turn over his office when
leaving the island except by special command from the home
government. In case of absence from the seat of government
which prevents his discharging the duties of his office or of
disability to perform such duties, he can appoint one or more
persons to take his place, provided the home government has
not previously done so or the method of substitution shall not
be stated in his instructions.