Transport System

 Double circulation, the arrangement where animals like amphibians,

reptiles, and mammals have two circuits of blood flow, facilitated by
a single organ, the heart:

Structure of Double Circulation: In double circulation, the heart consists of

two pumps for two circuits. The right side of the heart pumps oxygen-poor
blood to the lungs or skin for gas exchange, while the left side pumps oxygen-
rich blood to the rest of the body for delivery of oxygen and nutrients.

Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits: The pulmonary circuit carries blood to the
gas exchange tissues (lungs or skin) for oxygenation, while the systemic circuit
delivers oxygenated blood to organs and tissues throughout the body. After
exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products, oxygen-poor blood returns to
the heart to complete the circuit.

Advantages of Double Circulation: Double circulation ensures a vigorous

flow of oxygenated blood to vital organs like the brain and muscles, as the heart
repressurizes the blood after it passes through the gas exchange tissues. This
leads to higher blood pressure in the systemic circuit compared to the
pulmonary circuit.

Evolutionary Variation in Double Circulation: Different animals have

evolved various adaptations for double circulation based on their respiratory
habits. For example, amphibians have a three-chambered heart that diverts
blood flow depending on whether they are in water or on land, while
crocodilians have a connection between pulmonary and systemic circuits
allowing them to shunt blood away from the lungs temporarily when
underwater.

Double Circulation in Birds and Mammals: Birds and mammals have

evolved a four-chambered heart, with completely divided ventricles, to support
their high metabolic rates as endotherms. This allows for separate and
independently powered systemic and pulmonary circuits, enabling efficient
delivery of oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

Convergent Evolution: The presence of a powerful four-chambered heart in

both birds and mammals reflects convergent evolution, where similar traits
evolve independently in distinct lineages due to similar environmental
pressures.

 The coordinated cycles of heart contraction that drive double

circulation in mammals:

Overview of Mammalian Circulation: The mammalian cardiovascular system

consists of two circuits - the pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. The
right ventricle pumps oxygen-poor blood to the lungs through the pulmonary
arteries, where it picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Oxygen-rich
blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins, then flows into the left
ventricle and is pumped out to body tissues through the systemic circuit.

The Mammalian Heart: The mammalian heart is composed mostly of cardiac

muscle and is about the size of a clenched fist. It consists of four chambers -
two atria and two ventricles. Atria serve as collection chambers, while ventricles
pump blood forcefully, especially the left ventricle which pumps oxygen-rich
blood throughout the body via the systemic circuit.

Cardiac Cycle: The heart undergoes rhythmic cycles of contraction (systole)

and relaxation (diastole), collectively known as the cardiac cycle. During
systole, blood is pumped out of the heart, while during diastole, the chambers
fill with blood. The cardiac output, determined by heart rate and stroke volume,
is the volume of blood pumped by each ventricle.

 How the rhythmic beat of the heart is maintained through

coordination of electrical impulses:
Autorhythmic Cells: In vertebrates, the heartbeat originates within the heart
itself. Some cardiac muscle cells, known as autorhythmic cells, can contract and
relax repeatedly without nervous system signals.

Sinoatrial (SA) Node: The SA node, located in the wall of the right atrium,
serves as the pacemaker of the heart. It generates electrical impulses that set the
rate and timing of contractions for all cardiac muscle cells. These impulses
spread rapidly through the heart tissue due to electrical coupling through gap
junctions.

Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG): The electrical activity of the heart can be

measured using electrodes placed on the skin, which record the currents
generated by the impulses from the SA node. This produces a graph of current
against time, representing the stages of the cardiac cycle.

Coordination of Heart Contractions: Impulses from the SA node cause both

atria to contract simultaneously. The impulses then reach the atrioventricular
(AV) node, where they are delayed before spreading to the ventricles, allowing
the atria to empty completely before ventricular contraction.

Regulation of Heart Rate: The pacemaker function of the SA node is regulated

by physiological cues, primarily by the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the nervous system. Sympathetic activation speeds up the
pacemaker, while parasympathetic activation slows it down. Hormones and
body temperature also influence heart rate.

Impact of External Factors: External factors like hormones and body

temperature can affect the pacemaker function, leading to changes in heart rate.
For example, epinephrine increases heart rate, while a rise in body temperature
leads to a faster heartbeat.

In summary, the coordination of electrical impulses, primarily driven by the SA

node, ensures the rhythmic beat of the heart, while various physiological cue
and external factors regulate the heart rate to meet the body's demand for
oxygen and maintain overall homeostasis.

 The structure and function of blood vessels in the vertebrate

circulatory system:

Endothelium: All blood vessels have a central lumen lined with endothelium, a
layer of flattened epithelial cells. This smooth endothelial layer minimizes
resistance to fluid flow, facilitating the movement of blood through the vessels.

Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels with very thin walls
consisting of only endothelium and a basal lamina. This thin structure allows for
efficient exchange of substances between the blood and interstitial fluid.

Arteries: Arterial walls are thick, strong, and elastic, allowing them to
accommodate blood pumped at high pressure by the heart. They contain layers
of connective tissue, smooth muscle, and elastic fibers. The smooth muscles in
arterial walls help regulate blood flow by dilation or constriction in response to
signals from the nervous system and hormones.

Veins: Veins convey blood back to the heart at lower pressure and therefore
have thinner walls compared to arteries. They contain valves to maintain
unidirectional flow of blood despite the low pressure. Veins also have layers of
connective tissue and smooth muscle, though less extensive than arteries.

Regulation of Blood Flow: Signals from the nervous system and circulating
hormones regulate blood flow by affecting the smooth muscle in the walls of
arteries and arterioles. This modulation of blood vessel diameter helps control
blood flow to different parts of the body.

Maintenance of Blood Pressure: Arterial walls, with their elasticity, play a

crucial role in maintaining blood pressure by bulging outward as blood enters
and recoiling as the heart relaxes between contractions. This behavior helps
ensure continuous blood flow and pressure regulation throughout the circulatory
system.

How blood vessel diameter influences blood flow velocity:

Analogy with Water Flow: The passage begins by comparing blood flow in
blood vessels to water flow in a hose connected to a faucet. When water flows
through a narrow nozzle attached to the hose, its velocity increases because the
cross-sectional area of the nozzle is smaller than that of the hose.

Blood Flow in Circulatory System: Similarly, blood slows down as it moves

from arteries to arterioles to capillaries in the circulatory system. The number of
capillaries is enormous, leading to a much greater total cross-sectional area in
capillary beds compared to arteries or any other part of the circulatory system.

Decrease in Velocity: The significant increase in cross-sectional area from

arteries to capillaries results in a dramatic decrease in blood velocity. Blood
travels much more slowly in the capillaries compared to the larger arteries. For
instance, blood moves about 500 times slower in capillaries (approximately 0.1
cm/sec) than in the aorta (about 48 cm/sec).

Speeding up in Veins: After passing through the capillaries, blood speeds up as

it enters the venules and veins, which have smaller total cross-sectional areas
compared to capillary beds. This increase in velocity facilitates the return of
blood to the heart for recirculation.

The concept of blood pressure in the circulatory system:

Generation of Blood Pressure: Contraction of a heart ventricle generates

blood pressure, which creates a force in all directions. This pressure is necessary
to propel blood throughout the circulatory system.
Direction of Blood Flow: The part of the blood pressure force directed
lengthwise in an artery pushes blood away from the heart, which is the site of
highest pressure. This directional force facilitates blood flow to various parts of
the body.

Stretching of Arterial Walls: The sideways force exerted by blood pressure

stretches the walls of arteries. This stretching is accommodated by the elasticity
of arterial walls, which helps maintain blood pressure and ensures continuous
blood flow even when the heart is not actively contracting.

Role of Arterial Recoil: After ventricular contraction, the recoil of elastic

arterial walls is crucial in maintaining blood pressure and blood flow throughout
the cardiac cycle. This recoil action helps propel blood forward during diastole,
when the heart is relaxed.

Resistance in Arterioles and Capillaries: As blood enters the smaller

arterioles and capillaries, the narrow diameter of these vessels creates
substantial resistance to blood flow. This resistance is essential for regulating
blood flow to specific tissues and organs.

Pressure Dissipation in Veins: By the time blood enters the veins, much of the
pressure generated by the heart has dissipated due to resistance encountered in
the arterioles and capillaries. Veins, with their thinner walls and lower pressure,
efficiently return blood to the heart for recirculation.

 The changes in blood pressure during the cardiac cycle:

Systolic Pressure: Arterial blood pressure is highest when the heart contracts
during ventricular systole. This peak pressure is known as systolic pressure.
During ventricular systole, each contraction of the heart causes a surge in blood
pressure, leading to the rhythmic bulging of artery walls, which can be felt as a
pulse.
Factors Contributing to Systolic Pressure: The spike in blood pressure during
systole is partly due to the narrow openings of arterioles, which impede the exit
of blood from the arteries. As the heart contracts, blood enters the arteries faster
than it can leave, causing the vessels to stretch and widen in diameter due to the
rise in pressure.

Diastolic Pressure: During diastole, when the heart is relaxed, the elastic walls
of the arteries snap back. Despite being lower than systolic pressure, diastolic
pressure remains substantial. This is because, before enough blood has flowed
into the arterioles to completely relieve pressure in the arteries, the heart
contracts again.

Continuous Flow of Blood: Throughout the cardiac cycle, the arteries remain
pressurized due to their elastic properties. As a result, blood continuously flows
from the arteries into arterioles and capillaries, ensuring that tissues receive a
steady supply of oxygen and nutrients.

 The regulation of blood pressure and factors affecting blood flow in

the circulatory system:

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation: Homeostatic mechanisms regulate arterial

blood pressure by altering the diameter of arterioles. Vasoconstriction, the
narrowing of arterioles due to smooth muscle contraction, increases blood
pressure upstream in the arteries, while vasodilation, the widening of arterioles
due to smooth muscle relaxation, causes blood pressure to fall.

Regulatory Signals: Nitric oxide (NO) and endothelin are major regulators of
vasodilation and vasoconstriction, respectively. Signals from the nervous and
endocrine systems regulate the production of these molecules in blood vessels,
providing homeostatic control of blood pressure.

Coordination with Cardiac Output: Changes in arteriole diameter are often

coupled with changes in cardiac output, which affects blood pressure. For
example, during heavy exercise, arterioles in working muscles dilate to increase
blood flow, while cardiac output also increases to maintain blood pressure and
support the increased demand for blood flow.

Effects of Gravity: Gravity affects blood flow in animals, especially those with
long necks like giraffes. Giraffes have adaptations such as one-way valves and
sinuses to prevent excessive blood pressure in the head when lowering their
heads to drink.

Vein Function: Gravity also affects blood flow in veins, particularly in the legs
when standing or sitting. Valves inside veins maintain the unidirectional flow of
blood and rhythmic contractions of smooth muscles in vein walls, along with
skeletal muscle contractions during exercise, enhance the return of blood to the
heart.

Risks of Abrupt Exercise Cessation: Abrupt cessation of vigorous exercise

can lead to heart failure in some athletes due to sudden reduction in blood return
to the heart. Gradual cooling down through moderate activity helps reduce
stress on the heart and mitigate this risk.

 The function of capillaries in the circulatory system:

Blood Flow Regulation: Blood flow in capillary beds is regulated by

constriction or dilation of arterioles and the opening and closing of precapillary
sphincters. These mechanisms control the passage of blood into specific
capillaries, allowing for localized adjustments in blood flow based on tissue
needs.

Exchange of Substances: Capillaries facilitate the exchange of substances

between the blood and interstitial fluid. Macromolecules are transported across
the endothelium in vesicles via endocytosis and exocytosis. Small molecules
like oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse directly across endothelial cells or
through microscopic pores in the capillary wall.
Fluid Movement: Fluid movement between capillaries and surrounding tissues
is influenced by blood pressure and osmotic pressure. Blood pressure tends to
drive fluid out of capillaries, while the presence of blood proteins in capillaries
creates osmotic pressure that pulls fluid back. The net movement of fluid is
generally from capillaries to interstitial fluid, with the highest loss occurring at
the arterial end of capillaries due to higher blood pressure.

 The role of the lymphatic system in fluid recovery and immune

function:

Fluid Recovery: The lymphatic system recovers fluid lost from capillaries as
lymph. This fluid, along with any leaked blood proteins, is absorbed into the
lymphatic vessels and circulated back to the bloodstream via large veins near
the neck.

Lymph Movement: Lymph moves through the lymphatic vessels towards the
heart, aided by mechanisms such as valves in lymph vessels, rhythmic
contractions of vessel walls, and skeletal muscle contractions. Disruptions in
lymph movement can lead to fluid accumulation, known as edema, which can
have severe consequences such as in the case of elephantiasis caused by
parasitic worm blockage.

Lymph Nodes: Lymph nodes are small organs along lymph vessels that filter
lymph and play a crucial role in the body's defense. They contain white blood
cells that help fight infections, and swollen lymph nodes often indicate an active
immune response, such as during an infection.

Immune Function: The lymphatic system is increasingly recognized for its role
in immune responses, including harmful ones like those involved in asthma.
Research on the lymphatic system has expanded in recent years, revealing its
significance in various biomedical contexts.

 The composition and functions of vertebrate blood, focusing on its

cellular elements and plasma:
Plasma: Plasma is the liquid matrix of blood, constituting about 55% of its
volume. It contains ions, proteins, nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases,
and hormones. Plasma plays crucial roles in osmotic regulation, transport, and
defense.

Ions: Inorganic salts dissolved in plasma serve various functions, including

buffering the blood, maintaining osmotic balance, and regulating muscle and
nerve activity. Maintaining the electrolyte concentration within narrow ranges is
essential for proper physiological function.

Plasma Proteins: Plasma proteins, such as albumins, act as buffers against pH

changes and help maintain osmotic balance. Immunoglobulins (antibodies)
defend against pathogens, apolipoproteins transport lipids, and fibrinogens are
clotting factors involved in wound healing.

Transport of Substances: Plasma serves as a medium for transporting

nutrients, metabolic wastes, respiratory gases (like oxygen and carbon dioxide),
and hormones throughout the body. The high protein concentration in plasma
distinguishes it from interstitial fluid, as capillary walls are not very permeable
to proteins.

 The cellular components of blood and their functions:

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): These are the most abundant blood cells and
specialize in transporting oxygen. They lack nuclei and mitochondria, allowing
more space for hemoglobin, the protein that binds oxygen. Sickle-cell disease,
caused by abnormal hemoglobin, leads to distorted red blood cells, impairing
circulation and causing various complications.

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): White blood cells function in defending the
body against infections. They include phagocytes, which engulf and digest
microorganisms, and lymphocytes, which mount immune responses against
foreign substances. White blood cell count increases during infections, and they
can be found both within the circulatory system and in tissues.
Platelets: Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They are
essential for sealing breaks in blood vessels and preventing excessive blood
loss. Platelets lack nuclei and are produced from specialized bone marrow cells.

Stem Cells and Blood Cell Replacement: Blood cells, including erythrocytes,
leukocytes, and platelets, originate from stem cells in the bone marrow. These
stem cells continually replenish blood cell populations throughout life.
Erythrocytes have a short lifespan and are replaced every 120 days, regulated by
a feedback mechanism sensitive to oxygen levels. Recombinant DNA
technology is utilized to synthesize erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that
stimulates erythrocyte production, for medical purposes.

Blood Clotting: When blood vessels are injured, blood clotting mechanisms are
activated to seal the wound and prevent excessive bleeding. This process
involves the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin, which forms a mesh-like
structure to trap blood cells and platelets, forming a clot. Mutations affecting
clotting factors can lead to disorders such as hemophilia, characterized by
impaired blood clotting.

Cardiovascular diseases, including disorders of the heart and blood vessels,

are a leading cause of death globally:

Atherosclerosis: This condition involves the hardening of arteries due to the

accumulation of fatty deposits, particularly cholesterol, along the arterial walls.
Cholesterol is transported in the blood mainly by low-density lipoprotein (LDL)
particles, which deliver cholesterol to cells, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
particles, which scavenge excess cholesterol. Individuals with a high LDL to
HDL ratio are at an increased risk of atherosclerosis.

Development of Plaque: Damage to the arterial lining triggers inflammation,

attracting leukocytes that take up lipids, including cholesterol. Over time, fatty
deposits accumulate, forming plaques that narrow the arteries and stiffen their
walls. If a plaque ruptures, it can lead to the formation of a thrombus (blood
clot), potentially causing a heart attack or stroke.
Heart Attack (Myocardial Infarction): A heart attack occurs when one or
more coronary arteries, which supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle,
become blocked. This obstruction can result from atherosclerotic plaques or
thrombi, depriving the heart of oxygen and leading to damage or death of
cardiac muscle tissue. Cardiac arrest may occur if a large portion of the heart is
affected.

Stroke: A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain due to a lack of
oxygen. It typically results from the rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.
The severity of a stroke and the chances of survival depend on the extent and
location of the damaged brain tissue. Rapid administration of clot-dissolving
drugs may help limit the damage in cases of arterial blockage.

Warning Signs and Treatment: Atherosclerosis may manifest as occasional

chest pain, known as angina pectoris, indicating insufficient oxygen supply to
the heart. Treatments for obstructed arteries may include inserting a stent to
expand the artery or performing bypass surgery to transplant a healthy blood
vessel from elsewhere in the body.

 Risk factors for cardiovascular disease include both genetic

predisposition and lifestyle choices. Regular exercise can reduce the risk
by decreasing the LDL/HDL ratio, while factors such as smoking and
consumption of trans fats increase this ratio, thereby increasing the risk of
cardiovascular problems. Statins are drugs commonly used to lower LDL
levels and mitigate the risk of heart attacks, particularly in individuals at
high risk. Additionally, aspirin, which inhibits inflammation, has been
found to aid in preventing the recurrence of heart attacks and strokes by
targeting the inflammatory response associated with atherosclerosis and
thrombus formation.

 Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is another significant contributor to

cardiovascular disease. Chronic high blood pressure can damage the
endothelium lining the arteries, promoting plaque formation. Typically,
hypertension is diagnosed when systolic pressure exceeds 140 mm Hg or
diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mm Hg in adults. Fortunately, hypertension
is relatively easy to diagnose and can often be managed through lifestyle
 modifications such as dietary changes, regular exercise, medication, or a
combination of these approaches. Early detection and management of
hypertension are crucial for reducing the risk of heart attacks and strokes
associated with high blood pressure.

 Gas exchange is the process of taking in molecular oxygen (O2) from the
environment and releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment.
This process occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces. Partial
pressure, which refers to the pressure exerted by a specific gas in a
mixture of gases, plays a crucial role in driving gas exchange. A gas will
diffuse from an area of higher partial pressure to an area of lower partial
pressure.

 For example, at sea level, the atmosphere exerts a pressure of 760 mm

Hg, and since oxygen (O2) constitutes about 21% of the atmosphere, the
partial pressure of O2 (PO2) is approximately 160 mm Hg. In contrast,
the partial pressure of carbon dioxide (CO2) is much lower, around 0.29
mm Hg at sea level.

 When water is exposed to air, an equilibrium is established where the

partial pressure of gases in the water equals the partial pressure of those
gases in the air. However, the concentration of gases in water differs
significantly from that in air due to differences in solubility. For example,
oxygen is much less soluble in water than in air.

 The respiratory medium, whether it is air or water, significantly

influences the conditions for gas exchange. Air contains a higher
concentration of oxygen compared to water, making it easier for
organisms to extract oxygen during respiration. Water, on the other hand,
contains less dissolved oxygen, and its greater density and viscosity pose
challenges for aquatic organisms in conducting gas exchange efficiently.

 Lungs serve as localized respiratory organs in animals, representing

infoldings of the body surface typically subdivided into numerous
pockets. Unlike tracheal systems seen in insects, lungs are not distributed
throughout the entire body; instead, they are localized structures. Since
the respiratory surface of the lungs is not in direct contact with all other
body parts, the circulatory system bridges this gap by transporting gases
between the lungs and the rest of the body. Lungs have evolved in various
 organisms, including those with open circulatory systems like spiders and
land snails, as well as in vertebrates.

 In vertebrates, the reliance on lungs for gas exchange varies. Amphibians,

for instance, heavily rely on diffusion across external body surfaces such
as the skin, with lungs being relatively small. On the other hand, most
reptiles (including birds) and all mammals depend entirely on lungs for
gas exchange. However, there are exceptions; for instance, turtles
supplement lung breathing with gas exchange across moist epithelial
surfaces continuous with their mouth or anus. Additionally, lungs and air-
breathing have evolved in some aquatic vertebrates as adaptations to
living in oxygen-poor water or to spending part of their time exposed to
air.

 In mammals, branching ducts convey air to the lungs, which are located
in the thoracic cavity, enclosed by the ribs and diaphragm. Air enters
through the nostrils and passes through a maze of spaces in the nasal
cavity, where it is filtered, warmed, humidified, and sampled for odors.
From the nasal cavity, air moves into the pharynx, where the paths for air
and food cross. When food is swallowed, the larynx moves upward,
allowing the epiglottis to tip over the glottis, the opening of the trachea.
This prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing. Air then
passes into the trachea, which branches into two bronchi, leading to each
lung. Within the lungs, bronchi branch into finer tubes called bronchioles,
which terminate in clusters of air sacs called alveoli.

 Gas exchange in mammals occurs in the alveoli, where oxygen from the
air dissolves in the moist film lining their inner surfaces and diffuses into
nearby capillaries, while carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction.
Alveoli lack cilia for particle removal, making them susceptible to
contamination. However, white blood cells patrol the alveoli, engulfing
foreign particles. Additionally, alveoli produce surfactant, a mixture of
phospholipids and proteins that reduces surface tension, preventing their
collapse under high surface tension.

 Mammals employ a mechanism called negative pressure breathing to

draw air into their lungs. This process is analogous to filling a syringe by
pulling back on the plunger, which lowers the pressure inside the syringe
chamber, causing gas or fluid to be drawn in through the needle.
 Similarly, mammals lower the air pressure in their lungs below that of the
surrounding air by actively expanding the thoracic cavity.

 During inhalation, the rib muscles and the diaphragm contract to expand
the thoracic cavity. This expansion lowers the air pressure in the lungs,
causing air to rush in through the nostrils and mouth, down the breathing
tubes, and into the alveoli. Exhalation, on the other hand, is usually
passive, with the muscles controlling the thoracic cavity relaxing and the
cavity volume decreasing. This increase in air pressure in the alveoli
forces air out of the body through the breathing tubes.

 The thoracic cavity contains a double membrane surrounding the lungs.

One layer adheres to the outside of the lungs, while the other adheres to
the wall of the thoracic cavity. Surface tension in the fluid between these
layers causes them to stick together, allowing them to slide smoothly past
each other but resisting being pulled apart easily. Consequently, changes
in the volume of the thoracic cavity lead to corresponding changes in lung
volume.

 During exercise, additional muscles of the neck, back, and chest may
increase the volume of the thoracic cavity by raising the rib cage. Some
mammals, like kangaroos, exhibit a piston-like pumping motion of organs
in the abdomen during locomotion, which further increases the volume of
air moved in and out of the lungs.

 The volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath is termed tidal
volume, which averages about 500 mL in resting humans. Vital capacity,
the maximum volume of air that can be moved in and out of the lungs
with maximal effort, is about 3.4 L for women and 4.8 L for men. As
mammals age, their lungs lose resilience, leading to an increase in
residual volume at the expense of vital capacity.

 Mammals do not completely empty their lungs with each breath, and
because inhalation and exhalation occur through the same airways, each
inhalation mixes fresh air with oxygen-depleted residual air. As a result,
the maximum partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) in the alveoli is
considerably less than in the atmosphere. This difference in lung structure
and function compared to birds, which have a unidirectional flow of air
 through their lungs, is one reason why mammals function less effectively
at high altitudes than birds.

 The control of breathing in humans is primarily regulated by involuntary

mechanisms, ensuring that gas exchange is coordinated with blood
circulation and metabolic demand. The key neurons responsible for
regulating breathing are located in the medulla oblongata, near the base of
the brain. Neural circuits in the medulla form a pair of breathing control
centers that establish the breathing rhythm.

 The medulla monitors the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the

brain and spinal cord as an indicator of blood CO2 concentration. As
blood CO2 levels rise due to increased metabolic activity, CO2 diffuses
into the cerebrospinal fluid, where it reacts with water to form carbonic
acid (H2CO3). This reaction results in the production of bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+), leading to a decrease in pH. Sensors in
the medulla and major blood vessels detect this pH change and respond
by increasing the depth and rate of breathing to eliminate excess CO2
until pH returns to normal.

 Although blood O2 levels typically have little effect on breathing control,

when O2 levels drop significantly (such as at high altitudes), O2 sensors
in the aorta and carotid arteries detect this change and signal the breathing
control centers to increase the breathing rate.

 The regulation of breathing is also influenced by neural circuits in the

pons, a part of the brain adjacent to the medulla. These circuits modulate
the breathing control centers to ensure effective ventilation matched with
blood flow through alveolar capillaries. During activities like exercise,
coordination between increased breathing rate and cardiac output
enhances O2 uptake and CO2 removal to meet the body's metabolic
demands.

 Gas exchange in animals is facilitated by respiratory pigments, which

bind and transport gases such as oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
These pigments greatly enhance the amount of O2 that can be carried in
the circulatory fluid, allowing for efficient delivery of O2 to tissues
throughout the body.
  One example of a respiratory pigment is hemoglobin, which is found in
vertebrates and contained within erythrocytes (red blood cells).
Hemoglobin consists of four subunits, each containing a heme group with
an iron atom at its center. Each iron atom can bind one molecule of O2,
allowing a hemoglobin molecule to carry four O2 molecules. Hemoglobin
binds O2 reversibly, loading O2 in the lungs or gills and unloading it
elsewhere in the body.

 The binding and release of O2 by hemoglobin are influenced by factors

such as partial pressure of O2 (PO2) and pH. Cooperative binding of O2
to hemoglobin subunits enhances its efficiency in delivering O2 to
actively respiring tissues. As tissues consume O2 and produce CO2, the
resulting decrease in pH (caused by the formation of carbonic acid)
decreases hemoglobin's affinity for O2, facilitating O2 release to support
cellular respiration. This phenomenon is known as the Bohr shift.

 Hemoglobin also plays a role in buffering blood pH and transporting

CO2. Only a small portion of CO2 is transported in blood plasma, with
the majority transported in the form of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in
erythrocytes. In the lungs, CO2 is released from bicarbonate ions and
diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli for exhalation, contributing to
the removal of CO2 from the body.

 Overall, respiratory pigments like hemoglobin play crucial roles in

facilitating gas exchange and maintaining homeostasis in animals by
efficiently transporting O2 and CO2 throughout the body.

 To determine the minimum number of capillary beds encountered by

a molecule of carbon dioxide (CO2) that starts in an arteriole in the
right thumb and leaves the body in exhaled air, we need to trace its
path through the circulatory system:

The CO2 molecule starts in an arteriole in the right thumb, where it enters the
venous system by diffusion or is transported by the blood.

The venous blood from the right thumb travels through the vena cava to the
right atrium of the heart.
From the right atrium, the blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle.

The right ventricle contracts, pumping the blood through the pulmonary valve
into the pulmonary artery.

The blood flows through the pulmonary artery to the capillaries of the lungs,
where gas exchange occurs, and CO2 is released into the alveoli.

The CO2 is exhaled out of the body through the respiratory system.

From this sequence, we can see that the CO2 molecule encountered only one
capillary bed, which is in the capillaries of the lungs. Therefore, the minimum
number of capillary beds encountered by the CO2 molecule is one.

Regarding the effect of an uncorrected hole between the left and right atria in a
developing fetus on the O2 content of the blood entering the systemic circuit:
If the hole, known as a patent foramen ovale, is not surgically corrected, it can
lead to a condition called a right-to-left shunt. This means that some of the
oxygenated blood from the left atrium can bypass the left ventricle and mix with
deoxygenated blood from the right atrium, entering the systemic circulation
without passing through the lungs for oxygenation.
As a result, the blood entering the systemic circuit would have a lower O2
content than normal because it would contain a mixture of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood. This could lead to decreased oxygen delivery to the body's
tissues, potentially causing hypoxemia (low blood oxygen levels) and
compromising overall oxygen supply to the tissues and organs.

 Blood has a higher oxygen (O2) concentration in the pulmonary veins

compared to the venae cavae due to the process of gas exchange that
occurs in the lungs. When blood flows through the pulmonary
circulation, it passes through the lungs where it picks up oxygen from
the alveoli and releases carbon dioxide. This exchange of gases results
 in an increase in the oxygen content of the blood in the pulmonary
veins. In contrast, the venae cavae return deoxygenated blood from
the body's tissues to the heart, so their oxygen content is lower:

The AV node delays the electrical impulse moving from the SA node to the
ventricles to allow for coordinated contraction of the heart chambers. This delay
ensures that the atria have enough time to fully contract and pump blood into
the ventricles before the ventricles contract. It also prevents rapid,
uncoordinated contractions between the atria and ventricles, allowing for
efficient pumping of blood and proper filling of the ventricles before they eject
blood into the circulation.

If regular exercise leads to a decrease in resting heart rate but no change in

cardiac output at rest, it suggests that the heart has become more efficient. One
likely change in the function of the heart at rest is an increase in stroke volume.
Stroke volume is the amount of blood ejected by the heart with each
contraction, and regular exercise can improve cardiac efficiency by increasing
the strength and efficiency of each heart contraction. As a result, the heart
pumps more blood with each beat, allowing it to maintain the same cardiac
output at rest despite the lower heart rate.

The primary cause of the low velocity of blood flow in capillaries is the large
total cross-sectional area of capillaries compared to other blood vessels.
Capillaries have a vast network of tiny vessels, resulting in a significantly larger
total cross-sectional area than arteries or veins. This increased cross-sectional
area slows down the velocity of blood flow, allowing more time for the
exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and
surrounding tissues.

 Short-term changes in an animal's cardiovascular function that

might facilitate using skeletal muscles to escape from a dangerous
situation include:

Increased heart rate: The sympathetic nervous system can stimulate the heart
to beat faster, increasing heart rate and cardiac output. This response helps
deliver more oxygenated blood to muscles, enhancing their performance during
physical activity.

Vasodilation of skeletal muscle arterioles: Vasodilation of arterioles supplying

skeletal muscles increases blood flow to these muscles, providing them with
more oxygen and nutrients to support increased activity.

Redistribution of blood flow: Blood flow can be redirected from non-essential

organs, such as the digestive system, to skeletal muscles involved in physical
activity. This redistribution ensures that oxygenated blood is prioritized for
muscles engaged in escape or fight responses.

If you had additional hearts distributed throughout your body, one likely
advantage would be redundancy in the cardiovascular system, providing backup
circulation in case one heart fails. This redundancy could increase overall
resilience and survivability in the event of heart failure or injury to one of the
hearts.

However, one likely disadvantage of having multiple hearts distributed

throughout the body could be increased energy consumption and metabolic
demands. Each heart would require energy to function, and coordinating the
rhythmic contractions of multiple hearts could require additional metabolic
resources. This increased energy expenditure might be disadvantageous in terms
of overall metabolic efficiency and could potentially impact other physiological
processes.

The composition of mammalian blood can be summarized as follows:

Plasma: Comprising about 55% of blood volume, plasma is the liquid

component of blood. It contains various dissolved substances, including
electrolytes (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate),
nutrients (glucose, fatty acids, vitamins), waste products of metabolism,
respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones, plasma proteins
(albumin, immunoglobulins, fibrinogen, apolipoproteins), and other defense
substances. Plasma plays essential roles in maintaining osmotic balance, pH
buffering, regulation of membrane permeability, and transporting substances
throughout the body.

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): Leukocytes are the cellular elements

responsible for defense and immunity. They account for about 1% of blood
volume and are involved in protecting the body against pathogens, foreign
substances, and abnormal cells. There are several types of white blood cells,
including neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, make up the
majority of cellular elements in blood, constituting about 45% of blood volume.
Their primary function is to transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues
throughout the body and to help in the transport of some carbon dioxide back to
the lungs for exhalation. Erythrocytes contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds
and carries oxygen.

Platelets: Platelets are small cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in the
bone marrow. They play a crucial role in blood clotting (hemostasis) by
aggregating at the site of blood vessel injury to form a plug that helps stop
bleeding. Platelets make up a small portion of blood, with a concentration
ranging from 250,000 to 400,000 per microliter (mm^3) of blood.

 In the differentiation of blood cells, stem cells in the bone marrow

undergo cell divisions to produce two specialized sets of cells:
lymphoid progenitor cells and myeloid progenitor cells:

Lymphoid Progenitor Cells:

Lymphoid progenitor cells give rise to immune cells known as lymphocytes,

which include B cells and T cells.
B cells (B lymphocytes) are a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in
the adaptive immune response. They are responsible for producing antibodies
that target specific pathogens.
T cells (T lymphocytes) are another type of white blood cell involved in the
adaptive immune response. They have various functions, including directly
attacking infected or abnormal cells and regulating the immune response.

Myeloid Progenitor Cells:

Myeloid progenitor cells give rise to several types of immune cells, as well as
red blood cells (erythrocytes) and cell fragments called platelets.
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): Erythrocytes are specialized cells responsible
for transporting oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body and
transporting some carbon dioxide from tissues back to the lungs for exhalation.
They contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds and carries oxygen.
Platelets: Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are small cell fragments derived
from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. They play a crucial role in blood
clotting (hemostasis) by aggregating at the site of blood vessel injury to form a
plug that helps stop bleeding.
Other Immune Cells: Myeloid progenitor cells also give rise to various types
of white blood cells involved in immune defense, including basophils,
neutrophils, monocytes, and eosinophils. These cells have different functions in
the immune response, such as combating infections, modulating inflammation,
and clearing cellular debris.

 Blood clotting, also known as coagulation, is a complex process that

begins when the endothelium (inner lining) of a blood vessel is
damaged, exposing the underlying connective tissue to the
bloodstream:

Platelet Adhesion: When the endothelium is damaged, collagen fibers in the

connective tissue are exposed. Platelets adhere to these collagen fibers,
facilitated by the von Willebrand factor (vWF), which acts as a bridge between
the platelets and collagen.

Platelet Activation and Aggregation: Upon adhesion, activated platelets

release chemical signals that attract and activate additional platelets. This results
in the formation of a platelet plug, which temporarily seals the site of injury and
prevents further blood loss. The release of substances like thromboxane A2
makes the platelets sticky, aiding in aggregation.

Activation of Clotting Factors: Clotting factors, which are present in the blood
plasma, are activated in a cascade-like manner. The initial activation can be
triggered by tissue factor (TF) released from damaged tissue or by contact
between blood and foreign surfaces (intrinsic pathway). This leads to the
activation of factor X.

Formation of Thrombin: Activated factor X, along with other cofactors, forms

a complex known as prothrombinase. Prothrombinase converts the inactive
protein prothrombin into its active form, thrombin, in the presence of calcium
ions. Thrombin is a crucial enzyme in the clotting process.

Conversion of Fibrinogen to Fibrin: Thrombin catalyzes the conversion of

soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin strands. Fibrin molecules then
polymerize and cross-link, forming a mesh-like network that stabilizes the
platelet plug and traps red blood cells, creating a solid clot.

Clot Retraction and Repair: As the clot forms, platelets contract, pulling the
edges of the wound together in a process called clot retraction. This reduces the
size of the damaged area and promotes wound healing. Over time, the clot is
broken down by fibrinolysis, a process involving the enzyme plasmin, allowing
for tissue repair.

The blood clotting process is finely regulated to prevent excessive clot

formation (thrombosis) within blood vessels while still ensuring effective
hemostasis (stopping bleeding) at sites of injury. Disorders in the clotting
cascade can lead to bleeding disorders or thrombotic conditions, highlighting
the importance of maintaining the delicate balance of coagulation factors in the
bloodstream.
  To calculate the percentage of individuals in the study and control
groups that had an LDL level of 100 mg/dL or less, we need to sum
the percentages of individuals falling within the range of 0-100 mg/dL
on the x-axis of each histogram. From the histograms provided, we
can see that the bars representing LDL levels from 0 to 100 mg/dL
are as follows:

Control group (individuals with two functional copies of PCSK9 gene):

Approximately 50% of individuals.
Study group (individuals with one copy of the PCSK9 gene inactivated):
Approximately 80% of individuals.
Therefore, about 50% of individuals in the control group and about 80% of
individuals in the study group had an LDL level of 100 mg/dL or less.

Yes, there is support for the researchers' hypothesis. The histogram for
individuals with an inactivating mutation in one copy of the PCSK9 gene (study
group) shows a higher percentage of individuals with lower LDL cholesterol
levels compared to the control group. This suggests that inactivating mutations
in the PCSK9 gene are associated with lower LDL levels.

If the researchers had compared the range of LDL cholesterol concentrations

directly between the control and study groups, they might have focused on
median or mean values and the spread of data (such as standard deviation). This
approach could provide information about the central tendency and variability
of LDL levels between the two groups but might not clearly illustrate the
distribution of individuals across different LDL concentration ranges.

The fact that the two histograms overlap indicates that PCSK9 alone does not
solely determine plasma LDL cholesterol levels. Other factors, such as genetic
variation, lifestyle, and environmental influences, also contribute to the
variability in LDL levels observed in both groups.

Individuals with higher LDL cholesterol levels, such as 160 mg/dL, are at an
increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease. From the histograms, we
can infer that the control group has a higher percentage of individuals with LDL
levels above 100 mg/dL compared to the study group. Therefore, the individual
from the control group with an LDL level of 160 mg/dL would likely have a
higher relative risk of developing cardiovascular disease compared to the
individual from the study group with the same LDL level. The histograms
provide a visual representation of the distribution of LDL levels in each group,
allowing for a comparison of relative risk based on LDL concentration ranges.

 Comparison between air and water as respiratory media,

highlighting several key parameters:

Oxygen (O2) Partial Pressure: At sea level, both air and water have the same
oxygen partial pressure of 160 mm. This means that at equilibrium, the
concentration of dissolved oxygen molecules in air and water would be the
same.

Oxygen (O2) Concentration: Despite having the same oxygen partial pressure,
air has a much higher oxygen concentration compared to water. Air contains
210 ml of oxygen per liter (210 ml/L), while water only contains 7 ml of oxygen
per liter (7 ml/L). This significant difference in oxygen concentration reflects
the lower solubility of oxygen in water compared to air.

Density: Air has a much lower density compared to water. Air has a density of
0.0013 kg per liter (0.0013 kg/L), whereas water has a density of 1 kg per liter
(1 kg/L). This difference in density affects the ease of movement for organisms
living in these media.

Viscosity: Air has a lower viscosity compared to water. Air has a viscosity of
0.02 centipoise (cP), while water has a viscosity of 1 centipoise (cP). Viscosity
refers to the resistance of a fluid to flow. The lower viscosity of air allows for
easier movement of respiratory gases compared to water.

In the mammalian respiratory system, air is the primary respiratory medium.

Oxygen is taken up from the air in the alveoli of the lungs and diffuses into the
bloodstream through the thin epithelial lining of the alveoli. Carbon dioxide, a
waste product of cellular respiration, diffuses out of the bloodstream into the
alveoli to be exhaled.

The respiratory system is adapted to efficiently extract oxygen from the air
while removing carbon dioxide, facilitating gas exchange with the bloodstream
to supply oxygen to tissues and remove waste carbon dioxide. This adaptation
allows mammals to thrive in environments where air is the primary respiratory
medium.

 If the researchers had measured the amount of surfactant in lung

samples from the infants, it's reasonable to expect a positive
correlation between the amount of surfactant and infant body mass.
Surfactant is a substance produced by the lungs that reduces surface
tension, preventing the alveoli from collapsing during exhalation and
ensuring proper gas exchange. As the body mass of the infant
increases, the lungs mature and produce more surfactant. Therefore,
larger infants would likely have higher levels of surfactant compared
to smaller infants.

An internal location for gas exchange tissues is advantageous for terrestrial

animals for several reasons:

Protection: Internal gas exchange tissues are protected from drying out or
damage by environmental factors such as wind, temperature extremes, or
pollutants.
Efficient gas exchange: Internal gas exchange surfaces can be more finely
tuned for efficient gas exchange, with specialized structures such as alveoli in
mammals or tracheal systems in insects.
Regulation: Internal gas exchange allows for better regulation of gas exchange
rates in response to physiological demands, such as adjusting ventilation rate or
blood flow to tissues.
Moist environment: Internal gas exchange surfaces can be maintained in a
moist environment, which is necessary for effective gas exchange to occur.
If the alveoli lost their elasticity, it would significantly impair gas exchange
in the lungs. Elasticity in the alveoli is crucial for several reasons:

Expansion during inhalation: Elastic fibers allow the alveoli to expand when
the lungs inflate during inhalation. This expansion increases the surface area
available for gas exchange, allowing more oxygen to diffuse into the
bloodstream and more carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the bloodstream.

Compression during exhalation: Elastic fibers also enable the alveoli to recoil
or contract during exhalation. This recoil helps to expel air from the lungs by
reducing the volume of the alveoli, which increases the pressure within them,
pushing air out of the lungs.

Efficient gas exchange: The expansion and contraction of alveoli due to their
elasticity ensure that there is a continuous flow of fresh air into the lungs and
stale air out of the lungs. This ventilation process helps maintain a steep
concentration gradient for oxygen and carbon dioxide, optimizing gas exchange
efficiency.

If the alveoli lost their elasticity, they would become less effective at expanding
and contracting with each breath. This would reduce the surface area available
for gas exchange, leading to decreased oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide
elimination. As a result, respiratory function would be compromised, potentially
causing symptoms such as shortness of breath, decreased exercise tolerance, and
inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues throughout the body.

 Tracing a path along the negative-feedback control circuit when a

person begins breathing very rapidly while resting:

Decrease in blood pH due to rising CO2 levels: The increased rate of

breathing leads to excessive elimination of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the
bloodstream. As a result, the concentration of CO2 in the blood decreases.
Detection of decrease in blood pH: Sensors in major blood vessels detect the
decrease in blood pH caused by the reduction in CO2 levels. Additionally, the
medulla oblongata receives signals from major blood vessels indicating this
change.

Medulla receives signals and sends instructions: The medulla detects the
decrease in pH of the cerebrospinal fluid, which is indicative of changes in
blood pH. In response, the medulla sends signals to the rib muscles and
diaphragm to increase the rate and depth of ventilation, instructing them to
breathe less rapidly.

Adjustment of ventilation: The increased ventilation leads to a decrease in the

elimination of CO2 from the bloodstream. As a result, the CO2 levels in the
blood start to rise again, restoring the blood pH to its normal level (about 7.4).
Once the pH returns to normal, the medulla ceases to send signals to increase
ventilation, and breathing returns to a normal rate and depth.

This negative-feedback loop helps maintain homeostasis by regulating blood pH

within a narrow range, ensuring that the body's respiratory system responds
appropriately to changes in CO2 levels to maintain equilibrium.

Regarding the additional questions:

Effect of CO2 concentration increase on cerebrospinal fluid pH: An increase

in CO2 concentration in the blood leads to an increase in carbonic acid
(H2CO3) production through the reaction between CO2 and water. This
carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions
(HCO3-). The increase in H+ ions lowers the pH of the cerebrospinal fluid,
leading to acidosis.

Function of increased heart rate due to drop in blood pH: An increase in

heart rate in response to a drop in blood pH helps to improve tissue perfusion
and oxygen delivery to cells. It compensates for the acidosis by enhancing
blood circulation, which can aid in removing excess CO2 and metabolic waste
products from tissues and replenishing oxygen supplies.

Effect of a small hole in the membranes surrounding the lungs: A small hole
in the membranes surrounding the lungs could lead to a loss of negative
pressure within the pleural cavity, resulting in a decrease in lung function. This
loss of negative pressure may impair the ability of the lungs to expand fully
during inhalation, reducing lung compliance and causing respiratory distress. It
could also increase the risk of pneumothorax, where air leaks into the pleural
cavity, further compromising lung function.

 The loading and unloading of respiratory gases, particularly oxygen

(O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), occur through diffusion across the
respiratory membrane, which separates the alveolar spaces in the
lungs from the surrounding capillaries:

Exchange of Oxygen (O2):

Inhaled air contains a higher partial pressure of oxygen (PO2) compared to the
alveolar air.
Oxygen diffuses from the alveolar spaces, where the PO2 is high (about 104
mmHg), into the blood within the pulmonary capillaries, where the PO2 is
lower.
Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells, forming oxyhemoglobin, which
is then transported to tissues where it is released for cellular respiration.
In tissues, where oxygen is consumed in metabolic processes, the partial
pressure of oxygen is lower (below 40 mmHg). This difference in PO2 between
the blood and tissues facilitates the unloading of oxygen from oxyhemoglobin
into the tissues.

Exchange of Carbon Dioxide (CO2):

Carbon dioxide is produced as a waste product of cellular respiration in tissues.

CO2 diffuses from the tissues, where its partial pressure (PCO2) is higher, into
the bloodstream in the capillaries, where the PCO2 is lower.
Some CO2 is transported in the blood as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) through the
bicarbonate buffer system, while the rest remains dissolved in plasma or binds
to hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin.
In the alveolar capillaries, where the PCO2 is lower, CO2 diffuses out of the
blood into the alveolar spaces.
During exhalation, carbon dioxide is expelled from the lungs into the
atmosphere.

This continuous exchange of respiratory gases maintains the appropriate levels

of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and tissues, supporting cellular
metabolism and overall homeostasis.

 Determinants of Net Diffusion of O2 and CO2 in Capillaries:

The net diffusion of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) across capillaries is
determined by their respective partial pressures (PO2 and PCO2) and
concentration gradients.
Oxygen diffuses from areas of higher partial pressure (such as in the alveoli of
the lungs) to areas of lower partial pressure (such as in tissues), where it is
utilized in cellular respiration.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from tissues, where its partial pressure is higher due to
its production as a waste product of metabolism, to areas of lower partial
pressure (such as in the alveoli), where it is exhaled from the body.

 Bohr Shift and Oxygen Delivery to Active Tissues:

The Bohr shift refers to the phenomenon where a decrease in pH (increase in

acidity) leads to a rightward shift in the oxygen dissociation curve of
hemoglobin.
In very active tissues undergoing high rates of cellular respiration, carbon
dioxide is produced, which reacts with water to form carbonic acid, lowering
the tissue pH.
The Bohr shift enhances the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in areas of
increased metabolic activity, such as active muscle tissue. This allows more
oxygen to be delivered to tissues where it is needed for cellular respiration.

 Administration of Bicarbonate (HCO3-) to Rapidly Breathing

Patient:

The doctor is assuming that the patient's rapid breathing is causing respiratory
alkalosis, a condition characterized by decreased blood CO2 levels and
increased pH.
By giving bicarbonate, the doctor aims to counteract the alkalosis by increasing
blood bicarbonate levels, which can help restore the blood's pH balance.