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The American Promise Volume C A
History of the United States Since 1890

James L. Roark
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The
American
Promise
A History of
the United States
Fifth Edition

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The
American
Promise
A History of
the United States
Fifth Edition

The American Promise v
The
American
Promise
A History of
the United States
Fifth Edition
VOLUME C: from 1900
James L. Roark
Emory University
Michael P. Johnson
Johns Hopkins University
Patricia Cline Cohen

University of California, Santa Barbara
Sarah Stage
Arizona State University
Susan M. Hartmann
The Ohio State University
B E D F ORD / S T. M A RTIN ’ S
Boston ♦ New York

FOR BEDFORD/ST. MARTIN’S
Publisher for History: Mary Dougherty

Executive Editor for History: William J. Lombardo
Director of Development for History: Jane Knetzger
Developmental Editor: Michelle McSweeney
Senior Production Editor: Bridget Leahy
Assistant Production Manager: Joe Ford
Senior Marketing Manager for U.S. History: Amy Whitaker
Editorial Assistants: Jennifer Jovin and Laura Kintz
Production Assistants: Elise Keller and Victoria Royal
Copy Editor: Linda McLatchie
Indexer: Leoni Z. McVey
Photo Researchers: Pembroke Herbert and Sandi Rygiel, Picture Research Consultants, Inc.
Permissions Manager: Kalina K. Ingham
Senior Art Director: Anna Palchik
Text Designer: Tom Carling, Carling Design, Inc.
Cover Designer: Billy Boardman
Cover Photo: Women wipers of the Chicago and North Western Railroad cleaning one of the giant “H” class locomotives,
Clinton, IA. Mrs. Marcella Hart and Mrs. Viola Sievers. April 1943. Photographer: Jack Delano. U.S. Office of War
Information
Cartography: Mapping Specialists Limited
Composition: Cenveo Publisher Services
Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley and Sons
President: Joan E. Feinberg

Editorial Director: Denise B. Wydra
Director of Marketing: Karen R. Soeltz
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Associate Director, Editorial Production: Elise S. Kaiser
Managing Editor: Elizabeth M. Schaaf
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Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2005, 2002 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except as may be expressly permitted
by the applicable copyright statutes or in writing by the Publisher.
Manufactured in the United States of America.
7 6 5 4 3 2
f e d c b a
For information, write: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 75 Arlington Street, Boston, MA 02116 (617-399-4000)
ISBN: 978–0–312–66312-4 (Combined Edition)

ISBN: 978–0–312–56953-2 (Loose-leaf Edition)
ISBN: 978–0–312–66313-1 (Vol. 1)
ISBN: 978–0–312–66314-8 (Vol. 2)
ISBN: 978–0–312–56954-9 (Vol. A)
ISBN: 978–0–312–56947-1 (Vol. B)
ISBN: 978–0–312–56944-0 (Vol. C)
Acknowledgments: Acknowledgments and copyrights appear at the back of the book on page CR-1, which constitutes
an extension of the copyright page. It is a violation of the law to reproduce these selections by any means whatsoever
without the written permission of the copyright holder.

The American Promise vii
Preface
A s authors, we continue to be deeply gratified

that The American Promise is one of the
most widely adopted texts for the U.S. history
covers, we added more contemporary voices to
enliven the narrative, more visuals that promote
analytical skills, and more pedagogy to facilitate
survey, reaching students at all levels and help- independent study and class discussion. In an
ing instructors in all classroom environments. effort to assist instructors to help their students
We know from years of firsthand experience that meet specific learning objectives, our new peda-
the survey course is the most difficult to teach gogy highlights historical interrelationships and
and the most difficult to take, and we remain causality, underscores the importance of global
committed to making this book the most teach- contexts in U.S. history, and models historical
able and readable introductory American history thinking.
text available. In creating this fifth edition, we To extend the text, our array of multimedia
set out to develop a resource that is both recog- and print supplements has never been more
nizable and new. abundant or more impressive. A range of options —
Our experience as teachers continues to inform from video clips to lecture kits on CD-ROM and
every aspect of our text, beginning with its frame- much more — offers instructors endless combi-
work. We have found that students need both nations to tailor The American Promise to fit the
the structure a political narrative provides and needs of their classroom. (See pages xii–xv.)
the insights gained from examining social and Students of all learning styles have more ways
cultural experience. To write a comprehensive, than ever to enhance their traditional textbook
balanced account of American history, we focus experience and make history memorable. The
on the public arena — the place where politics e-book, for example, allows students to zoom in
intersects social and cultural developments — to on and more closely examine the text’s hundreds
show how Americans confronted the major issues of historical photographs and artifacts. The book
of their day and created far-reaching historical companion site links to even more primary doc-
change. To engage students in the American uments, including images, texts, and audiovisual
story and to portray fully the diversity of the files, and its Online Study Guide provides Web-
American experience, we stitch into our narrative based self tests, map exercises, and visual activ-
the voices of hundreds of contemporaries, provide ities. By seamlessly connecting our text to its
a vivid and compelling art program, and situate rich storehouse of digital resources, these supple-
American history in the global world in which ments help students better understand the
students live. To help students read, understand, people whose ideas and actions shaped their
and remember American history, we provide the times and whose efforts still affect our lives.
best in pedagogical aids. While this edition rests Our title, The American Promise, reflects
solidly on our original goals and premises, the our agreement with playwright Arthur Miller’s
book has also changed, largely in response to conviction that the essence of America has been
adopters who helped us see new ways that the its promise. For millions, the nation has held
book could work for their students. out the promise of a better life, unfettered wor-
Users of past editions have emphasized the ship, equality before the law, representative
central role that The American Promise plays in government, democratic politics, and other free-
their introductory courses — both as an in-class doms seldom found elsewhere. But none of these
tool for them to teach from and as a resource for promises has come with guarantees. As we see
students to study from independently. Our goal it, much of American history is a continuing
in this fifth edition was to make our text even struggle over the definition and realization of
more successful for all students and instructors, the nation’s promise. Who are we, and what do
whether they are using it in class or at home, we want to be? Abraham Lincoln, in the midst
whether in print or online. Within the book’s of what he termed the “fiery trial” of the Civil
vii

viii PREFACE
War, pronounced the nation “the last best hope role of geography in American history, we include
of Earth.” Kept alive by countless sacrifices, that two critical-thinking map exercises per
hope has been marred by compromises, disap- chapter. Revised maps in the fifth edition illus-
pointments, and denials, but it still lives. We trate new scholarship on topics such as the
believe that our new edition of The American Comanche empire in the American Southwest
Promise, with its increased attention to human and highlight recent events in the Middle East.
agency, will continue to show students that Another unique feature is our brief Atlas of the
American history is an unfinished story and to Territorial Growth of the United States, a
make them aware of the legacy of hope bequeathed series of full-color maps at the end of each volume
to them by generations of Americans stretching that reveals the changing cartography of the
back more than four centuries, a legacy that is nation.
theirs to preserve and build on. Throughout the text, a host of tables, figures,
and other graphics enhance and reinforce the
Features content. Thematic chronologies summarize
complex events and highlight key points in the
We know that a history survey textbook may be narrative. To support our emphasis on the global
unfamiliar or challenging for many students. context of U.S. history, Global Comparison
The benefit of this full-length format is that we figures showcase data with a focus on transna-
have room to give students everything they need tional connections. In addition, occasional
to succeed. Our book is designed to pique students’ Promise of Technology illustrations examine
interest and to assist them in every way in their the ramifications — positive and negative — of
reading, reviewing, and studying for exams. We technological developments in American society
are pleased to draw your attention to three aspects and culture.
of our textbook that make The American Promise
stand out from the crowd — our visual program, Pedagogy. As part of our ongoing efforts to
pedagogical support, and special features. make The American Promise the most teachable
and readable survey text available, we paid
Visuals. From the beginning, readers have pro- renewed attention to imaginative and effective
claimed this textbook a visual feast, richly illus- pedagogy. Each chapter begins with a concise
trated in ways that extend and reinforce the but colorful opening vignette that invites
narrative. The fifth edition offers more than students into the narrative with lively accounts
eight hundred contemporaneous illustrations — of individuals or groups who embody the central
one-third of them new — along with innovative themes of the chapter. New vignettes in this
techniques for increasing visual literacy. Twelve edition include the Grimké sisters speaking out
new Visualizing History features show students against slavery, Frederick Jackson Turner pro-
how to examine the evidence through a wide claiming his frontier hypothesis, migrant mother
spectrum of historic objects, including archaeo- Frances Owens struggling to survive in the
logical artifacts, furniture, paintings, photographs, Great Depression, and the experience of Vietnam
advertisements, clothing, and political cartoons. War veteran Frederick Downs Jr. Each vignette
In addition, one picture in each chapter includes ends with a narrative overview of all of the
a special visual activity caption that reinforces chapter’s main topics. Major sections within
the skill of image analysis. More than three each chapter have introductory paragraphs
hundred artifacts — from dolls and political that preview the subsections that follow and
buttons to guns and sewing machines — empha- conclude with review questions to help stu-
size the importance of material culture in the dents check their comprehension of main ideas.
study of the past and make the historical account Running heads with dates and topical head-
tangible. ings remind students of chronology, and callouts
Our highly regarded and thoroughly rede- draw attention to interesting quotations from
signed map program, with more than 170 maps a wide range of American voices. In addition,
in all, rests on the old truth that “History is not key terms, set in boldface type and grouped
intelligible without geography.” Each chapter together at the end of the chapter, highlight
offers, on average, four full-size maps showing important people, events, and concepts. All chap-
major developments in the narrative and two or ters culminate in a conclusion, which reexam-
three spot maps embedded in the narrative ines central ideas and provides a bridge to the
that emphasize an area of detail from the discus- next chapter, and a Selected Bibliography,
sion. To help students think critically about the which lists important books to jump-start student

The American Promise ix
research and to show students that our narra- enrich this edition. Each biographical Seeking
tive comes from scholarship. the American Promise essay explores a dif-
The two-page Reviewing the Chapter ferent promise of America — the promise of home
section at the end of each chapter provides a ownership or the promise of higher education,
thorough review guide to ensure student success. for example — while recognizing that the prom-
A list of Key Terms, grouped according to chap- ises fulfilled for some have meant promises denied
ter headings, provides a starting point for self to others. New subjects in this edition include
study and suggests important relationships among indentured servant Anne Orthwood and her
major topics, while an illustrated chapter struggle in colonial America, progressive reformer
Timeline gives clear chronological overviews of Alice Hamilton, World War I servicewoman Nora
key events. Three sets of questions prompt stu- Saltonstall, Chinese scientist Qian Xuesen and
dents to think critically and to make use of the his encounter with anticommunism in America,
facts they have mastered. Review Questions, and Vietnamese immigrant-turned-politician
repeated from within the narrative, focus on a Joseph Cao. In addition to these new topics, all
specific topic or event, and Making Connections Seeking the American Promise features now
questions prompt students to think about broad conclude with a new set of Questions for
developments within the chapter. An all-new Consideration that help students explore the
set of Linking to the Past questions cross- subject further and understand its significance
reference developments in earlier chapters, within the chapter and the book as a whole.
encouraging students to make comparisons, see Each Documenting the American Promise
causality, and understand change over longer feature juxtaposes three or four primary docu-
periods of time. Online Study Guide cross- ments to show varying perspectives on a topic
references at the end of the review section point or an issue and to provide students with oppor-
students to free self-assessment quizzes and tunities to build and practice their skills of
other study aids. historical interpretation. Feature introductions
and document headnotes contextualize the
Special Features. We have been delighted to learn sources, and Questions for Analysis and
that students and instructors alike use and enjoy Debate promote critical thinking about primary
our special features. Many instructors use them sources. New topics in this edition are rich with
for class discussion or homework, and students human drama and include “Hunting Witches
report that even when the special features are in Salem, Massachusetts,” “Mill Girls Stand Up
not assigned, they read these features on their to Factory Owners,” and “The Press and the
own because they find them interesting, informa- Pullman Strike.”
tive, and exceptional entry points back into the Historical Questions essays pose and
narrative text itself. Each boxed feature concen- interpret specific questions of continuing inter-
trates on a historical thinking skill or a habit of est in order to demonstrate various methods and
mind. We include features that focus on analyz- perspectives of historical thinking. New ques-
ing written or visual primary source evidence, tion sets accompanying each of these features
and other features that pose intriguing questions focus on a particular mode of inquiry: Thinking
about the past or America’s relation to the world about Evidence, Thinking about Beliefs
and thereby model historical inquiry, the curios- and Values, and Thinking about Cause and
ity at the heart of our discipline. For this edition, Effect. New to this edition is the feature “How
we have added a new Visualizing History Did America’s First Congress Address the
feature to many chapters. Images such as Native Question of Slavery?”
American weaponry, Puritan furniture, nine- Beyond America’s Borders features con-
teenth-century paintings, photographs by pro- sider the reciprocal connections between the
gressive reformers, early-twentieth-century United States and the wider world and challenge
advertisements, and twenty-first-century polit- students to think about the effects of transna-
ical cartoons are all presented as sources for tional connections over time. With the goal of
examination. By stressing the importance of widening students’ perspectives and helping
historical context and asking critical questions, students see that this country did not develop
each of these new features shows students how in isolation, these features are enhanced by new
to mine visual documents for evidence in order end-of-feature questions, America in a Global
to reach conclusions about the past. Context. New essays in this edition include
Fresh topics and the addition of questions “European Nations and the Peace of Paris, 1783”
in our four enduring special features further and “Global Prosperity in the 1850s.”

x PREFACE
Updated Scholarship service of overseas volunteer Nora Saltonstall.

Chapter 16 includes new coverage of the Colfax
We updated the fifth edition in myriad ways to massacre, arguably the single worst incidence
reflect our ongoing effort to offer a comprehensive of brutality against African Americans during
text that braids all Americans into the national the Reconstruction era. Chapter 27 provides new
narrative and to frame that national narrative coverage of civil rights activism and resistance
in a more global perspective. To do so, we have in northern states, and Chapter 28 increases
paid particular attention to the most recent coverage of black power and urban rebellions
scholarship and, as always, appreciated and across the country. A new Visualizing History
applied many suggestions from our users that feature in Chapter 16 examines the Winslow
keep the book fresh, accurate, and organized in Homer painting A Visit from the Old Mistress.
a way that works best for students. Because students live in an increasingly
In Volume One, we focused our attention on global world and need help making connections
Native Americans, especially in the West, because with the world outside the United States, we
of the publication of exciting new scholarship. have continued our efforts to incorporate the
In Chapter 6, we have incorporated into the global context of American history throughout
narrative more coverage of Indians and their the fifth edition. This is particularly evident in
roles in various conflicts between the British Volume Two, where we have expanded coverage
and the colonists before the Revolution. Chapter of transnational issues in recent decades, such
9 expands the coverage of American conflicts as the 1953 CIA coup in Iran, the U.S. bombing
with Indians in the Southwest, adding new mate- campaign in Vietnam, and U.S. involvement in
rial on Creek chief Alexander McGillivray. Chapter Afghanistan.
10 greatly increases the coverage of Indians in In addition to the many changes noted above,
the West, with a new section devoted to the in both volumes we have updated, revised, and
Osage territory and the impressive Comanche improved the fifth edition in response to both
empire known as Comanchería. In addition, new scholarship and requests from instructors.
several new Visualizing History features — on New and expanded coverage areas include, among
ancient tools used in Chaco Canyon, on Aztec others, taxation in the pre-Revolutionary period
weaponry and its weaknesses in the face of Spanish and the early Republic, the Newburgh Conspiracy
steel, on Mohawk clothing and accessories, and of the 1780s, the overbuilding of railroads in the
on gifts exchanged between Anglos and Indians West during the Gilded Age, the 1918–1919
on the Lewis and Clark trail — highlight the global influenza epidemic, finance reform in the
significance of Native American material culture 1930s, post–World War II considerations of uni-
over the centuries. versal health care, the economic downturn of
Volume Two also includes expanded atten- the late 2000s, the Obama presidency, and the
tion to Native Americans — particularly in most recent developments in the Middle East.
Chapter 17, where we improved our coverage of
Indian schools, assimilation techniques used by
Acknowledgments
whites, and Indian resistance strategies — but
our main effort for the fifth edition in the second We gratefully acknowledge all of the helpful sug-
half of the book has been to do more of what we gestions from those who have read and taught
already do best, and that is to give even more from previous editions of The American Promise,
attention to women, African Americans, and the and we hope that our many classroom collabora-
global context of U.S. history. In the narrative, tors will be pleased to see their influence in the
we have added coverage of women as key movers fifth edition. In particular, we wish to thank the
in the rise of the Lost Cause after the Civil War, talented scholars and teachers who gave gener-
and we consider the ways in which the GI Bill ously of their time and knowledge to review this
disproportionately benefited white men after book: Patricia Adams, Chandler-Gilbert Community
World War II. New features and opening vignettes College; Susan Agee, Truckee Meadows Community
focus on widely recognized as well as less well- College; Jennifer Bertolet, George Washington
known women who both shaped and were shaped University; Michael Bryan, Greenville Technical
by the American experience: the depression-era College; Kim Burdick, Delaware Technical and
struggle of Florence Owens (the face of the famous Community College; Monica Butler, Seminole
Dorothea Lange photograph Migrant Mother), State College, Sanford; Andria Crosson, University
the workplace reforms set in motion by progres- of Texas San Antonio; Lawrence Devaro, Rowan
sive activist Alice Hamilton, and the World War I University and Camden County College;

The American Promise xi
Philip DiMare, California State University, appreciate the acute intelligence, attention to
Sacramento; Dorothy Drinkard-Hawkshawe, East detail, and limitless tolerance for the authors’
Tennessee State University; Edward (Jim) Dudlo, eccentricities that Michelle brought to this revi-
Brookhaven College; John Duke, Alvin Community sion. We thank freelance editors Jan Fitter and
College; Aaron Edstrom, University of Texas El Shannon Hunt for their help with the manuscript.
Paso; Brian Farmer, Amarillo College; Rafaele Thanks also go to editorial assistant Laura Kintz
Fierro, Tunxis Community College; José Garcia, for her assistance preparing the manuscript and
University of Central Florida; Cecilia Gowdy- to associate editor Jennifer Jovin, who provided
Wygant, Front Range Community College unflagging assistance and who coordinated the
Westminster; William Grose, Wythevilla Community supplements. We are also grateful to Jane
College; Stephanie Lee Holyfield, University of Knetzger, director of development for history;
Delaware; Johanna Hume, Alvin Community William J. Lombardo, executive editor for his-
College; W. Sherman Jackson, Miami University; tory; and Mary Dougherty, publisher for history,
Michael Jacobs, University of Wisconsin Baraboo/ for their support and guidance. For their imag-
Sauk County; Kevin Kern, University of Akron; inative and tireless efforts to promote the book,
Barbara Martin, University of Southern Indiana; we want to thank Jenna Bookin Barry, Amy
Alfonso John Mooney, University of Oklahoma; Whitaker, John Hunger, Sean Blest, and Stephen
Christopher Paine, Lake Michigan College; George Watson. With great skill and professionalism,
Sochan, Bowie State University; Joyce Thierer, Bridget Leahy, senior production editor, pulled
Emporia State University; Kathryn Wells, Central together the many pieces related to copyediting,
Piedmont Community College; Steven White, design, and composition, with the able assistance
Bluegrass Community and Technical College; and of Elise Keller and the guidance of managing
Tom Zeiler, University of Colorado at Boulder. editor Elizabeth Schaaf and assistant managing
A project as complex as this requires the editor John Amburg. Senior production supervi-
talents of many individuals. First, we would like sor Joe Ford oversaw the manufacturing of the
to acknowledge our families for their support, book. Designer Tom Carling, copyeditor Linda
forbearance, and toleration of our textbook respon- McLatchie, and proofreaders Janet Cocker and
sibilities. Pembroke Herbert and Sandi Rygiel Mary Lou Wilshaw-Watts attended to the myr-
of Picture Research Consultants, Inc., contributed iad details that help make the book shine. Leoni
their unparalleled knowledge, soaring imagina- McVey provided an outstanding index. The book’s
tion, and diligent research to make possible the gorgeous covers were designed by Billy Boardman.
extraordinary illustration program. New media editor Marissa Zanetti made sure
We would also like to thank the many peo- that The American Promise remains at the fore-
ple at Bedford/St. Martin’s who have been cru- front of technological support for students and
cial to this project. No one contributed more instructors. Editorial director Denise Wydra
than freelance developmental editor Michelle provided helpful advice throughout the course
McSweeney, who managed the entire revision of the project. Finally, Charles H. Christensen,
and oversaw the development of each chapter. former president, took a personal interest in
The results of her dedication to excellence and The American Promise from the start, and Joan
commitment to creating the best textbook imag- E. Feinberg, president, guided all editions through
inable are evident on every page. We greatly every stage of development.

Versions and Supplements
A dopters of The American Promise and their

students have access to abundant extra
resources, including documents, presentation
and study, and to find and access quizzes and
activities, study aids, and history research and
writing help.
and testing materials, the acclaimed Bedford
Series in History and Culture volumes, and much free Online Study Guide. Available at the
much more. See below for more information, companion site, this popular resource provides
visit the book’s catalog site at bedfordstmartins students with quizzes and activities for each
.com/roark/catalog, or contact your local Bedford/ chapter, including multiple-choice self-tests that
St. Martin’s sales representative. focus on important concepts; flashcards that test
students’ knowledge of key terms; timeline activ-
Get the Right Version ities that emphasize causal relationships; and
for Your Class map quizzes intended to strengthen students’
geography skills. Instructors can monitor stu-
To accommodate different course lengths and course dents’ progress through an online Quiz Gradebook
budgets, The American Promise is available in sev- or receive email updates.
eral different formats, including three-hole punched
loose-leaf Budget Books versions and e-books, which free Research, Writing, and Anti-plagiarism
are available at a substantial discount. Advice. Available at the companion site, Bedford’s
• Combined edition (Chapters 1–31) — History Research and Writing Help includes
available in hardcover, loose-leaf, and e-book the textbook authors’ Suggested References
formats organized by chapter; History Research and
Reference Sources, with links to history-related
• Volume 1: To 1877 (Chapters 1–16) — databases, indexes, and journals; More Sources
available in paperback, loose-leaf, and e-book and How to Format a History Paper, with
formats clear advice on how to integrate primary and
• Volume 2: From 1865 (Chapters 16–31) — secondary sources into research papers and how
available in paperback, loose-leaf, and e-book to cite and format sources correctly; Build a
formats Bibliography, a simple Web-based tool known
as The Bedford Bibliographer that generates
• Volume A: To 1800 (Chapters 1–10) — bibliographies in four commonly used documen-
available in paperback format tation styles; and Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism,
• Volume B: 1800–1900 (Chapters 10–20) — an online tutorial that reviews the consequences
available in paperback format of plagiarism and features exercises to help stu-
dents practice integrating sources and recognize
• Volume C: From 1900 (Chapters 21–31) — acceptable summaries.
available in paperback format
The online, interactive Bedford e-Book can be Resources for Instructors
examined or purchased at a discount at
bedfordstmartins.com/ebooks. Your students Bedford/St. Martin’s has developed a wide range
can also purchase The American Promise in other of teaching resources for this book and for this
popular e-book formats for computers, tablets, course. They range from lecture and presentation
and e-readers. materials and assessment tools to course man-
agement options. Most can be downloaded or
Online Extras for Students ordered at bedfordstmartins.com/roark/catalog.
The book’s companion site at bedfordstmartins HistoryClass for The American Promise.
.com/roark gives students a way to read, write, HistoryClass, a Bedford/St. Martin’s Online Course
xii

The American Promise xiii
Space, puts the online resources available with Resources tab at bedfordstmartins.com/roark/
this textbook in one convenient and completely catalog and are available on The Bedford Lecture
customizable course space. There you and your Kit Instructor’s Resource CD-ROM. They provide
students can access an interactive e-book and ready-made and fully customizable PowerPoint
primary sources reader; maps, images, documents, multimedia presentations that include lecture
and links; chapter review quizzes; interactive outlines with embedded maps, figures, and
multimedia exercises; and research and writing selected images from the textbook and extra
help. In HistoryClass you can get all our premium background for instructors. Also available are
content and tools and assign, rearrange, and mix maps and selected images in JPEG and
them with your own resources. For more infor- PowerPoint formats; content for i>clicker, a
mation, visit yourhistoryclass.com. classroom response system, in Microsoft Word
and PowerPoint formats; the Instructor’s Resource
Bedford Coursepack for Blackboard, WebCT, Manual in Microsoft Word format; and outline
Desire2Learn, Angel, Sakai, or Moodle. We maps in PDF format for quizzing or handing
have free content to help you integrate our rich out. All files are suitable for copying onto trans-
content into your course management system. parency acetates.
Registered instructors can download coursepacks
with no hassle and no strings attached. Content Make History — Free Documents, Maps,
includes our most popular free resources and Images, and Web Sites. Make History combines
book-specific content for The American Promise. the best Web resources with hundreds of maps
Visit bedfordstmartins.com/coursepacks to see and images, to make it simple to find the source
a demo, find your version, or download your material you need. Browse the collection of thou-
coursepack. sands of resources by course or by topic, date, and
type. Each item has been carefully chosen and
Instructor’s Resource Manual. The instructor’s helpfully annotated to make it easy to find exactly
manual offers both experienced and first-time what you need. Available at bedfordstmartins
instructors tools for preparing lectures and running .com/makehistory.
discussions. It includes chapter review material,
teaching strategies, and a guide to chapter-specific Reel Teaching: Film Clips for the U.S. History
supplements available for the text. Survey. This DVD provides a large collection of
short video clips for classroom presentation.
Guide to Changing Editions. Designed to Designed as engaging “lecture launchers” vary-
facilitate an instructor’s transition from the previ- ing in length from 1 to 15 or more minutes, the
ous edition of The American Promise to the current 59 documentary clips were carefully chosen for
edition, this guide presents an overview of major use in both semesters of the U.S. survey course.
changes as well as of changes in each chapter. The clips feature compelling images, archival
footage, personal narratives, and commentary
Computerized Test Bank. The test bank by noted historians.
includes a mix of fresh, carefully crafted multiple-
choice, matching, short-answer, and essay ques- America in Motion: Video Clips for U.S.
tions for each chapter. It also contains the History. Set history in motion with America in
Historical Question, Documenting the American Motion, an instructor DVD containing dozens of
Promise, Seeking the American Promise, and short digital movie files of events in twentieth-
Beyond America’s Borders questions from the century American history. From the wreckage
textbook and model answers for each. The ques- of the battleship Maine, to FDR’s Fireside Chats,
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xiv Versions and Supplements
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The American Promise xv
research advice useful to students in all history Bissell Brown and Timothy J. Shannon, this
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Brief Contents
Preface vii Appendices A-1

Versions and Supplements xii Glossary of Historical Vocabulary G-1
Contents xvii Spot Artifact Credits CR-1
Maps, Figures, and Tables xxiv Index I-1
Special Features xxvi Atlas of the Territorial Growth of the United States M-1
About the Authors last book page
21 Progressivism from the Grass Roots to the White
House, 1890–1916...................................................... 674 About the Cover Art last book page
22 World War I: The Progressive Crusade

at Home and Abroad, 1914–1920............................ 710
23 From New Era to Great Depression, 1920–1932...... 748

24 The New Deal Experiment, 1932–1939................... 784
25 The United States and the Second World War,
1939–1945.................................................................. 822
26 Cold War Politics in the Truman Years,

1945–1953.................................................................. 862
27 The Politics and Culture of Abundance,

1952–1960.................................................................. 896
28 Reform, Rebellion, and Reaction, 1960–1974........ 930

29 Vietnam and the End of the
Cold War Consensus, 1961–1975............................. 968
30 America Moves to the Right, 1969–1989............. 1002

31 The Promises and Challenges of
Globalization: Since 1989....................................... 1038
xvi

The American Promise xvii
Contents
preface vii CHAPTER 21

versions and supplements xii Progressivism from the
brief contents xvi
Grass Roots to the White
maps , figures , and tables xxiv
special features xxvi
House, 1890–1916 674
opening vignette : Jane Addams founds Hull
House 675
Grassroots Progressivism 677

• Civilizing the City 677
• Progressives and the Working Class 680
seeking the american promise : “Making the
Workplace Safer: Alice Hamilton Explores the
Dangerous Trades” 678
Progressivism: Theory and Practice 683
• Reform Darwinism and Social Engineering 683
• Progressive Government: City and State 684
Progressivism Finds a President: Theodore
Roosevelt 685
• The Square Deal 685
• Roosevelt the Reformer 688
• Roosevelt and Conservation 690
• The Big Stick 694
• The Troubled Presidency of William Howard
Taft 696
visualizing history : “The Birth
of Photojournalism” 688
historical question : “Progressives and
Conservation: Should Hetch Hetchy Be Dammed
or Saved?” 692
Woodrow Wilson and Progressivism at High
Tide 698
• Progressive Insurgency and the Election
of 1912 698
• Wilson’s Reforms: Tariff, Banking,
and the Trusts 699
• Wilson, Reluctant Progressive 701
The Limits of Progressive Reform 702
• Radical Alternatives 702
• Progressivism for White Men Only 703
Conclusion: The Transformation of the Liberal
State 706
selected bibliography 707
reviewing the chapter 708
xvii

xviii contents
CHAPTER 22 CHAPTER 23
World War I: The From New Era to Great
Progressive Crusade at Depression, 1920–1932 748
Home and Abroad, opening vignette : Henry Ford puts America on
wheels 749
1914–1920 710
The New Era 751
opening vignette : Doughboy George “Brownie” • A Business Government 751
Browne sees combat on the front lines in France 711
• Promoting Prosperity and Peace Abroad 753
Woodrow Wilson and the World 713 • Automobiles, Mass Production, and Assembly-Line
• Taming the Americas 713 Progress 754
• The European Crisis 715 • Consumer Culture 754
• The Ordeal of American Neutrality 715 The Roaring Twenties 757
• The United States Enters the War 717 • Prohibition 757
“Over There” 718 • The New Woman 760
• The Call to Arms 718 • The New Negro 761
• The War in France 720 • Entertainment for the Masses 764
• The Lost Generation 765
The Crusade for Democracy at Home 723
visualizing history : “Advertising in a Consumer
• The Progressive Stake in the War 724 Age” 758
• Women, War, and the Battle for Suffrage 725 historical question : “Was There a Sexual
• Rally around the Flag — or Else 727 Revolution in the 1920s?” 762
seeking the american promise : “Seeking to seeking the american promise : “The Quest for
Serve: An American Woman in Wartime Home Ownership in Segregated Detroit” 766
France” 726
Resistance to Change 768
documenting the american promise : “The Final
Push for Woman Suffrage” 728 • Rejecting the Undesirables 769
• The Rebirth of the Ku Klux Klan 770
A Compromised Peace 731
• The Scopes Trial 770
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points 731
• Al Smith and the Election of 1928 771
• The Paris Peace Conference 731
• The Fight for the Treaty 734 The Great Crash 772
• Herbert Hoover: The Great Engineer 772
Democracy at Risk 735
• The Distorted Economy 772
• Economic Hardship and Labor Upheaval 736
• The Crash of 1929 773
• The Red Scare 737
• Hoover and the Limits of Individualism 774
• The Great Migrations of African Americans and
Mexicans 739 Life in the Depression 775
• Postwar Politics and the Election of 1920 743 • The Human Toll 775
beyond america ’ s borders : “Bolshevism” 740 • Denial and Escape 777
Conclusion: Troubled Crusade 744 • Working-Class Militancy 778
selected bibliography 744 Conclusion: Dazzle and Despair 780
reviewing the chapter 746 selected bibliography 780


The American Promise xix
The New Deal Experiment, The United States and
1932–1939 784 the Second World War,
opening vignette : “Migrant Mother” Florence Owens 1939–1945 822
struggles to survive in the Great Depression 785
opening vignette : Colonel Paul Tibbets drops the
Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Patrician atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan 823
in Government 787
• The Making of a Politician 787 Peacetime Dilemmas 825
• The Election of 1932 790 • Roosevelt and Reluctant Isolation 825
beyond america ’ s borders : “Fascism: Adolf • The Good Neighbor Policy 825
Hitler and National Socialism” 788 • The Price of Noninvolvement 826
Launching the New Deal 791 The Onset of War 827
• The New Dealers 791 • Nazi Aggression and War in Europe 827
• Banking and Finance Reform 793 • From Neutrality to the Arsenal of Democracy 830
• Relief and Conservation Programs 794 • Japan Attacks America 832
• Agricultural Initiatives 796 Mobilizing for War 833
• Industrial Recovery 797 • Home-Front Security 834
seeking the american promise : “Textile Workers • Building a Citizen Army 835
Strike for Better Wages and Working
Conditions” 798 • Conversion to a War Economy 838
documenting the american promise : “Japanese
Challenges to the New Deal 800 Internment” 836
• Resistance to Business Reform 800
Fighting Back 838
• Casualties in the Countryside 801
• Turning the Tide in the Pacific 839
• Politics on the Fringes 802
• The Campaign in Europe 840
Toward a Welfare State 804
The Wartime Home Front 843
• Relief for the Unemployed 805
• Women and Families, Guns and Butter 843
• Empowering Labor 806
• The Double V Campaign 844
• Social Security and Tax Reform 808
• Wartime Politics and the 1944 Election 846
• Neglected Americans and the New Deal 809
• Reaction to the Holocaust 848
The New Deal from Victory to Deadlock 812 beyond america ’ s borders : “Nazi Anti-Semitism
• The Election of 1936 813 and the Atomic Bomb” 846
• Court Packing 814 Toward Unconditional Surrender 849
• Reaction and Recession 814 • From Bombing Raids to Berlin 849
• The Last of the New Deal Reforms 815 • The Defeat of Japan 852
Conclusion: Achievements and Limitations • Atomic Warfare 856
of the New Deal 817 historical question : “Why Did the Allies Win
selected bibliography 818 World War II?” 854
reviewing the chapter 820 Conclusion: Allied Victory and America’s

Emergence as a Superpower 857

xx contents
Cold War Politics in The Politics and Culture of
the Truman Years, Abundance, 1952–1960 896
1945–1953 862 opening vignette : Vice President Richard Nixon
debates Russian premier Nikita Khrushchev 897
opening vignette : Helen Gahagan Douglas,
congresswoman and loyal Truman ally, supports the Eisenhower and the Politics of the “Middle
Marshall Plan, the creation of NATO, and the war in Way” 899
Korea 863 • Modern Republicanism 899
From the Grand Alliance to Containment 865 • Termination and Relocation of Native
Americans 900
• The Cold War Begins 865
• The 1956 Election and the Second Term 902
• The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan 870
• Building a National Security State 871 Liberation Rhetoric and the Practice
of Containment 902
• Superpower Rivalry around the Globe 873
• The “New Look” in Foreign Policy 903
documenting the american promise : “The
Emerging Cold War” 868 • Applying Containment to Vietnam 903
• Interventions in Latin America and the Middle
Truman and the Fair Deal at Home 875 East 904
• Reconverting to a Peacetime Economy 875 • The Nuclear Arms Race 906
• Blacks and Mexican Americans Push for Their Civil seeking the american promise : “Operation
Rights 879 Pedro Pan: Young Political Refugees Take
• The Fair Deal Flounders 882 Flight” 906
• The Domestic Chill: McCarthyism 883 New Work and Living Patterns in an Economy
historical question : “What Happened to Rosie of Abundance 909
the Riveter?” 878 • Technology Transforms Agriculture and
seeking the american promise : “An Immigrant Industry 909
Scientist Encounters the Anti-Communist • Burgeoning Suburbs and Declining Cities 911
Crusade” 884
• The Rise of the Sun Belt 912
The Cold War Becomes Hot: Korea 887 • The Democratization of Higher Education 915
• Korea and the Military Implementation
of Containment 887 The Culture of Abundance 915
• From Containment to Rollback • Consumption Rules the Day 915
to Containment 888 • The Revival of Domesticity and Religion 916
• Korea, Communism, and the 1952 Election 890 • Television Transforms Culture and Politics 917
• An Armistice and the War’s Costs 891 • Countercurrents 918
Conclusion: The Cold War’s Costs The Emergence of a Civil Rights Movement 920
and Consequences 892 • African Americans Challenge the Supreme Court
selected bibliography 892 and the President 921
• Montgomery and Mass Protest 924
documenting the american promise : “The
Brown Decision” 922
Conclusion: Peace and Prosperity Mask Unmet
Challenges 926

The American Promise xxi
Reform, Rebellion, and Vietnam and the End of
Reaction, 1960–1974 930 the Cold War Consensus,
opening vignette : Fannie Lou Hamer leads grassroots 1961–1975 968
struggles of African Americans for voting rights and
political empowerment 931 opening vignette : Lieutenant Frederick Downs, Jr.,
is wounded in Vietnam and returns home to a country
Liberalism at High Tide 933 divided over the war 969
• The Unrealized Promise of Kennedy’s New
Frontier 933 New Frontiers in Foreign Policy 971
• Johnson Fulfills the Kennedy Promise 934 • Meeting the “Hour of Maximum Danger” 971
• Policymaking for a Great Society 935 • New Approaches to the Third World 974
• Assessing the Great Society 937 • The Arms Race and the Nuclear Brink 974
• The Judicial Revolution 938 • A Growing War in Vietnam 976
The Second Reconstruction 940 Lyndon Johnson’s War against Communism 978
• The Flowering of the Black Freedom Struggle 940 • An All-Out Commitment in Vietnam 978
• The Response in Washington 942 • Preventing Another Castro in Latin America 979
• Black Power and Urban Rebellions 945 • The Americanized War 980
• Those Who Served 981
A Multitude of Movements 947
• Native American Protest 947 A Nation Polarized 982
• Latino Struggles for Justice 948 • The Widening War at Home 982
• Student Rebellion, the New Left, and the • The Tet Offensive and Johnson’s Move toward
Counterculture 949 Peace 984
• Gay Men and Lesbians Organize 955 • The Tumultuous Election of 1968 987
documenting the american promise : “Student beyond america ’ s borders : “1968: A Year
Protest” 950 of Protest” 984
visualizing history: “Anti-Establishment Nixon, Détente, and the Search for Peace
Clothing” 952 in Vietnam 989
The New Wave of Feminism 955 • Moving toward Détente with the Soviet Union
and China 989
• A Multifaceted Movement Emerges 956
• Shoring Up U.S. Interests around the World 990
• Feminist Gains Spark a Countermovement 960
• Vietnam Becomes Nixon’s War 991
beyond america ’ s borders : “Transnational
Feminisms” 958 • The Peace Accords 993
• The Legacy of Defeat 995
Liberal Reform in the Nixon Administration 961
seeking the american promise : “From the Fall
• Extending the Welfare State and Regulating of Saigon to the House of Representatives” 994
the Economy 961
• Responding to Environmental Concerns 962 Conclusion: An Unwinnable War 998
• Expanding Social Justice 963 selected bibliography 998
Conclusion: Achievements and Limitations reviewing the chapter 1000
of Liberalism 963

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In the fixed inequivalves (e.g. Chama) it is sometimes the right,
sometimes the left valve which is undermost, but the fixed valve,
whether right or left, is always deep, and the free valve flat. Ostrea
and Anomia are always fixed by the left valve.
The lunule is a well-marked area in front of and close to the
umbones, usually more or less heart-shaped, and limited by a ridge.
Generally it is shallow, but sometimes, as in Dosinia, Opis, and some
Cardium, deeply impressed. A corresponding area behind the
umbones, enclosing the ligament, is called the escutcheon (Fig.
186), but it seldom occurs.
The ligament is a more or less elastic band, which unites the two
valves along a line adjacent to the umbones. As a rule, the greater
part of the ligament is external to the shell, but it may be entirely
internal. It is placed, normally, behind the umbones, but in a few
cases, when the hinge line is very long (Arca, Pectunculus), it
extends in front of them as well. The edges of the valves, when the
ligament is mainly external, are more or less excavated for its
reception. When internal it is generally contained in a groove or
spoon-shaped pit, known as the fossette (compare Fig. 187).
Fig. 186.—Venus
subrostrata Lam.: es,
escutcheon; li,
ligament; lu, lunule; u,
u, umbones.
The ligament consists of two distinct parts, which may occur
together or separately, the external, or ligament proper, and the
internal, or cartilage. Only the external portion can be seen when the
valves are closed. As a rule, the two portions are intimately
connected with one another, the ligament folding over the cartilage,
but in some cases, e.g. Mya, Mactra, where the cartilage is lodged
within the hinge, they are completely disconnected (Fig. 187).
In Pecten the external ligament is very thin, and runs along the
dorsal margin, while the internal ligament is large, solid, and situated
in a shallow pit. In Perna, where the hinge is toothless, the ligament
is folded into a number of transverse ridges, which fit into
corresponding grooves in the shell.
The ligament proper is inelastic and insoluble in caustic potash.
The cartilage is very elastic, composed of parallel fibres, slightly
iridescent, and soluble in caustic potash.
The operation of the ligament—using the word as including the
whole ligamental process—is in opposition to that of the adductor
muscles. When the latter close the valves, they compress the
ligament, an action which its elasticity resists: thus its operation
tends in part towards keeping the valves open. But when ligament
and cartilage are both fully developed, they work in opposition to one
another, the ligament, by its resistance to compression, preventing
any straining of the adductor muscles when the valves are open, and
the cartilage, for the same reason, preventing the ventral margins of
the shell from closing too rapidly upon one another when the valves
are being shut.
Fig. 187.—Hinge of A, right
valve, and B, left valve of
Mulinia edulis King; ca,
cardinals; l.a, anterior
laterals; l.p, posterior
laterals; f, fossette; c,
cartilage; l, ligament.
The Hinge.—The valves of Pelecypoda are generally articulated,
below the umbones, by a hinge which is furnished, in the majority of
cases, with interlocking teeth, small pits or depressions in each valve
corresponding to the teeth in the other. The teeth are distinguished
as cardinal, or those immediately below the umbo, and lateral, or
those to either side of the cardinals, the latter being also
distinguished as anterior and posterior laterals, according as they
are before or behind the umbo (Fig. 184). In shells which are
tolerably equilateral there is no difficulty in distinguishing between
cardinal and lateral teeth. But when they are very inequilateral, the
whole hinge may share in the inequality of growth, and an anterior
lateral may be thrown backward and simulate a cardinal, or a
cardinal may be thrown backward and simulate a posterior lateral
(e.g. Cardita, Unio, Fig. 188). In many Chama the cardinals are
pushed up into the umbo and become a mere ridge, while the strong
anterior lateral becomes nearly central and simulates a cardinal.
Fig. 188.—Hinges of A, Cardita semiorbiculata Brug., and B,
Unio rectus Lam., showing how, in inequilateral shells, the
lateral teeth tend to shift their position. a.m, anterior
adductor, p.m, posterior adductor muscle; c, c, cardinal
teeth; p.l, posterior lateral teeth; l, ligament.
Some bivalves, e.g. Anodonta, Ostrea, Pedum, many Mytilus,
have no hinge teeth at all, in others the laterals are wanting
(Psammobia, Diplodonta). In the Arcadae the hinge consists of a
number of very similar denticles, which are often serrated like the
teeth of a comb (Fig. 189).
Fig. 189.—The hinge in
Arcadae: A, Nacula Loringi
Ang. × 4/3; B, Arca
granosa L.; u.a, umbonal
area.
Fig. 190.—A, Tridacna scapha Lam.; B,

Cardium enode Sowb., showing the
interlocking of the ventral margins.
Hinge-teeth are probably, in origin, derived from the crenulations
or ribbings of the surface of the shell, the upper ends of which
impinge upon the dorsal margin and mark it in a way which is quite
recognisable when the shell is thin. Similar crenulations, resulting in
interlocking of the valves, are not uncommon upon the ventral
margin in certain genera (Fig. 190). The mechanical effect of these
continued riblets, when fitted together on the opposing valves, would
be to prevent the valves sliding upon one another while closing, or
after being closed. Thus there would be a probability of their
surviving, even after the ribbing had disappeared from the surface of
the shell, the increased strength given by the hinge compensating
for, and making it possible to do without, the extra strength supplied
by the ribs. It is therefore possible that the teeth of the Nuculidae and
Arcadae, which have no distinction between cardinals and laterals,
represent a very ancient type, from which have been evolved the
various forms of hinge in which cardinals and laterals are
distinguished. Even in some forms of Arcadae (comp. Pectunculus)
we get a hint how the transverse teeth of the typical Arca may have
become transformed into the longitudinal tooth of the normal lateral.
[350]
The developed hinge-teeth, then, ensure the opening of the

valves in one direction; they also secure their accurate closure upon
one another in exactly the same plane. Exposed shells and gaping
siphons matter little to animals which are protected by their
burrowing propensities, but to those which live in material which can
be easily penetrated by their foes, it must be of advantage to be able
to buckle their armour absolutely tight. The edentulous hinge of
Anodonta is a degeneration from a dentate type, which retains its
teeth (in Unio, etc.) when subject to the jar of rapid streams, but
tends to lose them in the stiller waters of canals, lakes, and ponds.
Other processes in the bivalve shell.—In Anatina each umbo is
fissured and strengthened on the inside by a kind of umbonal plate
which carries the ligament. Some forms of Liligna develop a strong
internal umbonal rib, which serves as a buttress to strengthen the
shell. In Pholas, the so-called falciform process serves as a point of
attachment for the muscles of the foot and viscera. There is no
ligament or hinge-teeth, the place of the latter being taken by the
anterior adductor muscle, which is attached to the hinge-plate, the
latter being reflected back into the shell.
In Septifer the anterior adductor muscle is carried on a sort of
shelf or myophore, and in Cucullaea the posterior adductor is partly
raised on a similar and very prominent formation.
Length and breadth of bivalve shells is variously measured. Most
authorities measure length, or ‘antero-posterior diameter,’ by a
straight line drawn from the extreme anterior to the extreme posterior
margin, and breadth by a similar line, drawn from the umbones to a
point, not very clearly marked, on the opposite ventral margin (see
Figs. 184 and 185). Others, less correctly, reverse these terms.
Thickness is measured by the extreme distance of the opposite
faces of the closed valves. As a rule, the length exceeds, and often
greatly exceeds, the thickness, but in a few cases—e.g. the Cardissa
section of Cardium—this is reversed.
The periostracum.—Nearly all shells are covered, at some period
of their growth, by a periostracum,[351] or surface skin, which serves
the purpose of protecting the shell against the destructive effects of
the chemical action set up by water or air. It also, in some cases (see
p. 258), acts as a kind of base upon which the shell is deposited. In
old shells it is commonly worn away, especially at those parts which
are likely to become abraded.
The form and composition of the periostracum varies greatly.
Sometimes (e.g. Oliva) it is a mere transparent film, at others
(Zonites) it is transparent, but stout and solid. It is corneous in
Solenomya, covered with fine hairs in many Helicidae, in Conus,
Velutina, and Cantharus it is thick, fibrous, and persistent; in
Trichotropis and some Triton it is furnished with long bristles on a
thick ground (Fig. 191). In fresh-water shells it is usually rather thick,
in order to protect the shell from the erosive powers of certain kinds
of water. In some cases (Mya, Anatina) the periostracum is
continued over the siphons, so as to form a protection throughout
their whole length.
Fig. 191.—Triton olearium L.,
Mediterranean, an example
of a shell with a stout and
hairy periostracum. × ½.
Erosion.—The fresh-water Mollusca generally, and marine
mollusca in a few rare cases (Purpura, Littorina) are subject to
erosion, or decay in the shell substance. In univalves erosion usually
sets in near the apex (Fig. 192), where the life of the shell may be
regarded as weakest, and in bivalves near the umbones. It is
commonest in old shells, and rarely occurs in the very young. So
long as the periostracum is present to protect the shell, erosion
cannot set in, but when once it has been removed the shell is liable
to the chemical changes set up in its substance by water. There is
abundant evidence to show that erosion is caused by pollution of
water. Out of many instances one must suffice. In a certain stream
near Boston, U.S., numbers of Mollusca occurred, the shells of
which were very perfect and free from disease. Some little way down
stream an alkaline manufactory drained its refuse into the water. At
and below this point for some distance every shell was more or less
eroded, most of them seriously. Farther down, when the alkali refuse
became diluted away, the shells retained their normal condition.[352]
Fig. 192.—Example of an eroded
fresh-water shell (Melania
confusa Dohrn, Ceylon).
A small percentage of lime in the water appears to produce
erosion. The result of some experiments by G. W. Shrubsole, in the
investigation of this point, may be tabulated as follows:[353]—
Water from Lime present Result
per gall.
River Dee, near Chester 3·00 grs. acted strongly on shells
Wrexham 4·00 grs. „ „ „
River Dee, near Llanderyel 0·53 grs. „ „ „
Trent Canal 8·33 grs. no action „
CHAPTER X
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA—
THE PALAEARCTIC, ORIENTAL, AND AUSTRALASIAN REGIONS
The Mollusca afford specially valuable evidence on problems of

geographical distribution. This fact is largely due to their extreme
susceptibility to any change in the conditions of life. Genera which
are accustomed to live in a certain temperature and on certain food,
cannot sustain life if the temperature falls or rises beyond certain
limits, or if the required food be not forthcoming. There is therefore a
marked contrast between the Mollusca of the tropics and of the
temperate zones, while different regions in the same latitude,
whether within or without the tropics, often show great diversity in
their fauna. Every region is thus characterised by its Mollusca. The
Mollusca, for instance, of Australia or of South Africa characterise
those countries quite as much as do the kangaroo and the emu, the
hartebeest and the ostrich; there is nothing like them anywhere else
in the world. In the Greater Antilles the Mollusca stand out beyond all
other forms of life as characteristic of the islands as a whole, and of
each separate island in particular.
The geographical distribution of the land and fresh-water Mollusca
must be considered quite apart from that of the marine Mollusca.
The sea offers no such serious barriers to the spread of the latter as
the land does to the spread of the former. If we were to journey to
the Azores, and turn our attention to the land-snails, we should find
them almost wholly peculiar, while amongst the sea-shells we should
recognise many as occurring also on our southern coasts, and few
that were different from those of the Mediterranean. The marine
Mollusca of the Sandwich Islands, in spite of the enormous
intervening distance, are not very different from those of Natal, but
the land Mollusca of the two countries are as widely different as is
possible to imagine.
Land Mollusca are, as has been remarked, fettered to the soil.
Quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and reptiles are provided with organs of
motion which enable them to overpass barriers of various kinds.
Even plants, although themselves incapable of motion, may be
conveyed in every direction by means of seeds, which are either
wafted by the wind or adhere to the skin of animals. But the Mollusca
have no such regular means of transport, and are, in a large number
of instances, limited to districts of a certain character of soil, or
producing certain kinds of vegetation.
The localisation, both of genera and species, occurs all over the
world. The genus Achatinella, which is peculiar to the Sandwich
Islands, is found there in a profusion of species. It lives in the
mountain valleys which radiate from the central ridge of each island,
and each valley is characterised by its own peculiar set of species.
The great carnivorous Glandina is restricted to Central America and
the adjacent parts of the two continents, with one or two species in
Southern Europe. Bulimus proper is restricted to South America;
Achatina to Africa south of the Sahara; Tornatellina to the Pacific
Islands; Cochlostyla to the Philippines; Cylindrella and Bulimulus are
peculiar to the New World; Buliminus, Nanina, Scarabus, and
Cassidula to the Old.
Extreme cases of this restriction of habitat sometimes occur. Thus
Limnaea involuta is found only in a single small mountain tarn in
Ireland; Clausilia scalaris along a narrow strip of limestone in Malta;
Strophia nana is confined to a few square rods on an island that is
itself a mere dot in the Caribbean Sea; the genus Camptonyx occurs
only in the neighbourhood of Mt. Girnar, in Gujerat; and Lantzia in
moss on the top of a mountain in Bourbon.
Attempts to colonise snails in strange localities have usually
resulted in failure, especially when the attempt has involved serious
changes of environment. The common Cochlicella acuta of our
coasts resists all endeavours to establish it beyond a certain
distance from the sea. Snails brought from the Riviera and placed
under almost similar conditions of climate on our own southern
coasts have lived for a while, but have very rarely taken permanent
root. Mr. H. W. Kew[354] has collected a good many of these
attempts to acclimatise species, the general success of which seems
to depend almost entirely on a restoration of the old conditions of life.
At the same time there are certain species which exhibit a
curiously opposite tendency, and which seem capable of flourishing
in almost any part of the world, and under the most varied
surroundings. Our own common garden snail (Helix aspersa) is a
striking instance of this adaptability to new conditions. It has been
established, by art or by accident, in Nova Scotia, Maine, South
Carolina, New Orleans, California, Mexico city, Cuba, Hayti,
Cayenne, Brazil, Valparaiso, Cape Town, the Azores, St. Helena,
Mauritius, Loyalty Islands, and Australia. The great Achatina fulica of
East Africa has been established first in Mauritius, and from thence
has been carried to the Seychelles and Calcutta. Helix lactea, a
common Mediterranean species, has been carried to Teneriffe and
Montevideo; Helix similaris, whose fatherland is Eastern Asia, has
been transported to Mauritius, Bourbon, West Africa, West Indies,
Brazil, and Australia; Ennea bicolor (Eastern Asia) to India, Bourbon,
Mauritius, West Indies; Stenogyra decollata (Mediterranean basin) to
South Carolina; S. Goodallii (West Indies) to British pineries; Helix
Hortensis to New Jersey. Seven common English species (Limax
gagates, Hyalinia cellaria, H. alliaria, Helix aspersa, H. pulchella,
Pupa umbilicata) have become naturalised in St. Helena,[355] and as
many as nineteen in Australia.[356]
Cases of artificial transport of this kind are readily detected; they
follow the lines of trade. The snails themselves or their ova have
been accidentally enclosed with plants or mould, or have adhered to
packing-cases, or to hay and grass used in packing. Thus they
constitute no disturbance to the general rule of the persistent
localisation of species and genera, and there is little fear that the
evidence which the geographical distribution of the Mollusca brings
to bear upon the general problems of distribution will be confused by
any intermixture of fauna naturally distinct.
Land Mollusca: Barriers to Dispersal.—The chief natural barriers
to dispersal are extremes of temperature, the sea, mountain ranges,
and deserts. Rivers, however large, seem of little effect in checking
dispersal. There is no appreciable difference between the land
Mollusca north and south of the Ganges, or north and south of the
Amazon. Living snails, or their ova, are no doubt transported from
one bank to another on floating débris of various kinds. The barrier
offered by the sea is obvious, and at first sight appears
insurmountable; but the facts with regard to oceanic groups of
islands like the Azores and Canaries (see p. 297) show that even a
stretch of salt water many hundred miles in breadth may be
ineffectual in preventing the dispersal of Mollusca.
Mountain ranges, provided they are too high to be scaled, and too
long to be turned in flank, offer a far more effective barrier than the
sea. Every thousand feet upward means a fall of so many degrees in
the mean temperature, and a change, more or less marked, in the
character of the vegetation. There is generally, too, a considerable
difference in the nature of the climate on the two sides of a great
mountain range, one side being often arid and cold, the other rainy
and warm. The combined effect of these influences is, as a rule,
decisive against the dispersal of Mollusca. Thus the Helices of
California are almost entirely peculiar; one or two intruders from
states farther east have succeeded in threading their way through
the deep valleys into the Pacific provinces, but not a single genuine
Californian species has been able to scale the heights of the
Cascade Mountains. The land Mollusca of India are numbered by
hundreds; not one penetrates north of the Himalayas. According to
Mr. Nevill,[357] the change from the Indo-Malayan to the so-called
European molluscan fauna at the northern watershed of the Kashmir
valley is most abrupt and distinct; in two days’ march northward,
every species is different. Ranges of inferior altitude, such as the
Pyrenees, the Carpathians, or the Alleghanies, may be turned in
flank as well as scaled, and we find no such marked contrast
between the Mollusca on their opposite sides.
The most effective barrier of all, however, is a desert. Its scorching
heat, combined with the absence of water and of vegetable life,
check dispersal as nothing else can. The distribution of the Mollusca
of the Palaearctic Region is an excellent instance of this. Their
southern limit is the great desert which stretches, with scarcely a
break, from the west coast of Africa to the extreme east coast of
Asia. The Mediterranean offers no effectual barrier; shells of
southern Europe are found in profusion in Morocco, Tunis, and
Egypt, while all through Siberia to the extreme of Kamschatka the
same types, and even the same species, of Mollusca occur.
A detailed examination of the means, other than voluntary, by
which Mollusca are transported from one place to another hardly
comes within the scope of this work. Ocean currents, rivers, floods,
cyclonic storms of wind, birds, and even beetles and frogs, play a
part, more or less considerable, in carrying living Mollusca or their
ova, either separately or in connexion with floating débris of every
kind, to a distance from their native home. Accidental locomotion, of
one or other of these kinds, combined with the well-known tenacity of
life in many species (p. 37), may have contributed to enlarge the
area of distribution in many cases, especially in the tropics, where
the forces of nature are more vigorous than in our latitudes. The
ease with which species are accidentally spread by man increases
the probability of such cases occurring without the intervention of
human agency, and numbers of instances may be collected of their
actual occurrence.[358]
A point, however, which more concerns us here is to remark on
the exceedingly wide distribution of the prevailing forms of fresh-
water Mollusca. It might have been expected that the area of
distribution in the fresh-water forms would be greatly restricted, since
they cannot migrate across the land from one piece of water to
another, and since the barriers between pond and pond, lake and
lake, and one river system and another are, as far as they are
concerned, all but insuperable. We might have expected, therefore,
as Darwin and Wallace have remarked, to find a great multiplicity of
species confined to very restricted areas, since the possibility of
communication with the parent stock appears, in any given case, to
be so exceedingly remote.
As is well known, the exact reverse occurs. The range, not merely
of genera, but even of individual species, is astonishingly wide. This
is especially the case with regard to the Pulmonata and Pelecypoda.
The genera Limnaea, Planorbis, Physa, Ancylus, Unio, and Cyclas
are world-wide. Out of about ten genera of fresh-water Mollusca in
New Zealand, one of the most isolated districts known, only one is
peculiar. In South Africa and the Antilles no genus is peculiar. In the
latter case, this fact is remarkable, when we consider that the same
sub-region has at least ten peculiar genera of operculate land
Mollusca alone.
To give a few instances of the distribution of particular species:—
Limnaea stagnalis L. occurs in the whole of Europe, and northern
Asia to Amoorland, Turkestan, Afghanistan, North Persia, and
Kashmir; Greenland, North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific,
and from North Canada and British Columbia as far south as Texas.
The distribution of L. peregra Müll., L. truncatula Müll., and L.
palustris Müll, is almost equally wide.
Planorbis albus occurs in the whole of Europe, and northern Asia
to Amoorland, Kamschatka, and Japan; Turkestan, the Altai-Baikal
district, Alaska and Greenland, North Canada, and the whole of
eastern North America.
The distribution of Anodonta anatina L., Cyclas cornea L., and
Pisidium pusillum Gmel. is almost equally wide.
It is evident that the accidental means of transport mentioned
above are insufficient to account for the facts as we find them; we
are therefore compelled to seek for further explanation. Anything in
the nature of a current furnishes a ready means of transport for
Mollusca which have obtained a footing in the upper waters of a
river, and there is no difficulty in imagining the gradual spread of
species, through the agency of floods or otherwise, over a whole
river system, when once established at any point upon it. The feeble
clinging power of newly-hatched Limnaea has often been noticed as
contributing to the chances of their range of distribution becoming
extended. Fresh-water Mollusca, too, or their ova, are exceedingly
likely, from their extreme abundance, to be transported by water-
birds, which fly without alighting from one piece of water to another.
Again, the isolation of one river system from another is, in many
instances, by no means well marked or permanent, and a very slight
alteration of level will frequently have the effect of diverting the
supplies of one watershed into another. When we know what
enormous oscillations in level have taken place over practically the
whole surface of the globe, we can recognise the probability that the
whole river system of the earth has been mixed up and
reconstructed again and again, with a very thorough blending of
adjacent fauna.
It is possible that the very uniform conditions under which fresh-
water Mollusca live may have something to do with the uniformity of
their distribution and the comparative sameness in their
development. There can scarcely be any question that the
environments of fresh-water species are in themselves less varied
and less liable to fluctuation than those of species whose home is
the land. Water is very like water, all the world over; it may be
running or motionless, warm or cold, clear or muddy, but the general
tendency is for it to be free from extremes of any kind. Even if the
surface water of a lake or river freezes, or becomes unusually hot,
there is generally plenty of water at a lower stratum which maintains
a less extreme temperature, and to which creatures can retire on the
first symptoms of a change. From this two results will follow. Not only
will the inhabitants of a piece of water not be inclined to vary much
from the type, since their whole surroundings, food, etc., continue
very much the same, but, if transported by any accident or cataclysm
elsewhere, they will be exceedingly likely to arrive at a place which
closely resembles their former home in all essentials. Thus the
tendency for new types to be formed would be constantly checked,
or rather would very seldom arise.
Mr. Belt, while recognising the importance of changes of level as
affecting the distribution of fresh-water species, appears to regard
the operations of such changes from a rather different point of view
to that described above. “I think it probable,” he writes,[359] “that the
variation of fresh-water species of animals and plants has been
constantly checked by the want of continuity of lakes and rivers in
time and space. In the great oscillation of the surface of the earth, of
which geologists find so many proofs, every fresh-water area has
again and again been destroyed.... Thus species of restricted range
were always exposed to destruction, because their habitat was
temporary and their retreat impossible, and only families of wide
distribution could be preserved.”
The terrestrial surface of the globe has been divided, as indicating
the facts of geographical distribution, into six regions—the
Palaearctic, Oriental, Australasian, Ethiopian, Nearctic, and
Neotropical. To these is sometimes added a seventh, the
Neantarctic, consisting of Chili and Patagonia (and certain islands of
the south Atlantic); but since the Mollusca of Chili unmistakably form
a part of the Neotropical fauna, it seems hardly worth while to
recognise a separate region for those of the extreme south of South
America, which have no peculiar characteristics.
In certain points the exact limits of these regions, as indicated by
the Mollusca, will probably not correspond to those which are
marked out by other zoological classes. Wallace’s line, for instance,
does not exist, as far as the Mollusca are concerned.
These regions may be further subdivided into sub-regions, thus:—
Regions Sub-regions
Septentrional
Palaearctic Mediterranean
Central Asiatic
Indo-Malay
Oriental
Chinese
Papuan
Australasian Australian
Polynesian
Central African
Ethiopian South African
Malagasy
American
Nearctic
Californian
Neotropical Antillean
Central American
Colombian
Brazilian
Chilian
A. The Palaearctic Region
The southern boundary of this region is the northern limit of the

African Sahara, the Mediterranean forming no break whatever in its
continuity. In Asia this boundary is less well marked, but roughly
corresponds to the southernmost of the vast ranges of mountains
which border the great tablelands of central Asia. Across Africa the
line of desert is well defined; but in the north-east, as the desert
approaches more nearly to the sea, the African extent of the region
is correspondingly narrowed until it becomes little more than a strip
of coast land, scarcely widening even in Lower Egypt. On the
Morocco coast, Palaearctic land forms penetrate as far south as
Cape Nun.[360] At its eastern extremity the line becomes less well
defined, but probably proceeds along the snowy mountains west of
Setchouan, the Pe-ling and Tan-sia-shan ranges, so as to include all
the high ground of Thibet and of the upper waters of the Hoang-ho,
and ultimately reaches its eastern limit at some point on the shores
of the Sea of Japan.
The region thus includes all Europe, Africa north of the Sahara,
with the Atlantic islands (the Azores, Canaries, etc.), North Arabia,
Asiatic Turkey, the greater part of Persia, Afghanistan, Thibet, all
Asiatic Russia, and a very large portion of the Chinese empire.
The principal characteristics of the region as a whole are:—
(1) The rich development of Helix, Arion, Limax, Buliminus, and
Clausilia.
(2) The comparative absence of land operculates (see map,
frontispiece).
(3) The uniform character of the fresh-water fauna.
It is in the southern portion of the region that Helix (in the sub-
genera Macularia, Iberus, Pomatia, and Xerophila) and Buliminus
(Zebrina, Chondrula, Ena) attain their maximum. In the north,
Fruticicola is the characteristic group; in the mountainous districts of
the south-east, Campylaea, with Clausilia. The Arionidae have their
headquarters in the damp and warm regions of western Europe, but
are rare in the south. They only approach the Mediterranean coast in
Algeria, near Gibraltar, and in the region between the base of the
Pyrenees and the Maritime Alps, and are very poor in species
throughout Italy and Sardinia. They are absent from almost the
whole of northern Africa, the Mediterranean islands (except
Sardinia), the whole Balkan district, the Crimea, Caucasus, and
western Asia.[361]
The uniformity of the fresh-water fauna is disturbed only in the
extreme south. A few species of Melanopsis, with Neritina, occur in
southern Spain and Austria, Galicia, and southern Russia, while a
Melania or two (absent from Spain) penetrate the south-eastern
parts of Europe as far as Germany. Cyrena begins to replace Cyclas
in southern Russia and the Caucasus.
The Palaearctic region falls into three sub-regions:—
(1) The Northern or Septentrional Sub-region, i.e. the district
north of the line formed by the Pyrenees,[362] Alps, Carpathians, and
which, passing to the northward of the Aralo-Caspian district, follows
the great central mountain range of Asia until it reaches the Sea of
Japan, perhaps somewhere in the neighbourhood of Vladivostok.
(2) The Mediterranean Sub-region, i.e. the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean, the Black and Caspian Seas, with the Atlantic
Islands.
(3) The Central Asiatic Sub-region, i.e. Turkestan, Afghanistan,
Thibet, and probably the districts of Mongolia and Manchuria.[363]
(1) The Septentrional Sub-region has been divided by some
writers into two provinces, the European and the Siberian. There
seems, on the whole, but little occasion to separate off northern
Asia, the characteristic of which is, as will be seen below, rather the
gradual disappearance, as we proceed eastward, of European
species and genera, than the development of any new and peculiar
groups. The remarkable fauna of Lake Baikal stands apart, not only
from European, but also from the Siberian types occurring in its
immediate neighbourhood.
On the whole, the Septentrional Sub-region is poor in species
except those which inhabit fresh water. This fact is probably due to
the extreme vicissitudes of temperature which prevail, and it is
interesting to notice that the number of land Mollusca appears to
touch its lowest point in districts where the annual range of
temperature is greatest. On the other hand, in the western portions
of the region, where the climate is moist and temperature more
equable, the Mollusca are considerably more abundant and varied.
The line which separates the Septentrional from the
Mediterranean Sub-region must of necessity be very roughly drawn,
and stragglers from the south will be found to make their way
northward, and vice versâ, under favouring circumstances of
temperature and geological formation. Jordan has noticed[364] that
species which in southern countries are not confined to any
particular quality of soil are in more northern latitudes found only on
limestone, which absorbs more heat than other formations.
Conversely, the higher elevations of the Alps, Pyrenees, and even
Carpathians are like islands in a sea, and support a thoroughly
northern fauna, quite strange to that of the plains below. Thus Helix
harpa Say, a completely boreal shell, which is at home in Canada,
Sweden, Lapland, and the Amoor district, is found on the Riffel Alp,
at a height of 6000 feet.[365] Vertigo arctica Wall., a species
abundant in Lapland, North Siberia, Iceland, and Greenland, occurs
on the high Alps of the Tyrol.
Circumpolar Species.—A certain number of species are common
to the extreme north both of the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions,
and are, in fact, circumpolar. The number of these species, however,
is so small, not exceeding about 40 species (= 16 genera), that it

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Preface vii Appendices A-1

22 World War I: The Progressive Crusade

23 From New Era to Great Depression, 1920–1932...... 748

26 Cold War Politics in the Truman Years,

27 The Politics and Culture of Abundance,

28 Reform, Rebellion, and Reaction, 1960–1974........ 930

30 America Moves to the Right, 1969–1989............. 1002

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preface vii CHAPTER 21