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Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and
Electrodynamics
Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and
Electrodynamics

Sergey Leble and Anna Perelomova

© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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No claim to original U.S. Government works

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Names: Leble, S. B. (Sergeæi Borisovich), author. | Perelmova, Anna, author.

Title: The dynamical projectors method: hydro and electrodynamics / Sergey
Leble and Anna Perelmova.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
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Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017050734 | ISBN 9781138035607 (hardback: acid-free paper) |
ISBN 9781351107990 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Magnetohydrodynamics–Mathematics. |
Hydrodynamics–Mathematics. | Electrodynamics–Mathematics. | Projection.
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 Dedication

To our school teachers

Viktor Nekrasov (School 19, Arkhangel’sk)
Rudolf Bega (School 2, Moscow)
Epigraphs
Ïåñíü äâàäöàòü âòîðàÿ
ß òåíè ïðèíèìàþ çà òåëà
Ïîèñòèíå, íåðåäêî âíåøíèé çíàê
Ïðèâîäèò ëîæíûì âèäîì â çàáëóæäåíüå,
Òîãäà êàê ñóòü ïîãðóæåíà âî ìðàê.
Veramente piu volte appaion cose
che danno a dubitar falsa matera
per le vere ragion che son nascose.
Purgatorio Canto XXII - La Divina Commedia
Appearances will often, it is true,
give rise to false assumptions, when the truth
to be revealed is hidden from our eyes
Aleksandr Pushkin
Dante Alighieri
Who'd Fully Stopped You. . .
1823
Who'd fully stopped you, billows, proud?
Who'd dressed with chains your movement, mightiest?
Into a pool, so mute and lightless,
Who'd changed such a rebellious ood?
Whose magic wand had thrown aside
My hope, sorrow and gladness
And, with a doziness of laziness,
My ever-boiling soul had lulled?
So, blow, winds, rise, waters-dreamers,
Distract the pestilent stronghold!
Where are you, thunderstorm of freedom?
Wing the slaved waters' manifold!
Aleksandr Pushkin
Êòî, âîëíû, âàñ îñòàíîâèë,
Êòî îêîâàë âàø áåã ìîãó÷èé,
Êòî â ïðóä áåçìîëâíûé è äðåìó÷èé
Ïîòîê ìÿòåæíûé îáðàòèë?
×åé æåçë âîëøåáíûé ïîðàçèë
Âî ìíå íàäåæäó, ñêîðáü è ðàäîñòü
È äóøó áóðíóþ
Äðåìîòîé ëåíè óñûïèë?
Âçûãðàéòå, âåòðû, âçðîéòå âîäû,
Ðàçðóøüòå ãèáåëüíûé îïëîò!
Ãäå òû, ãðîçà  ñèìâîë ñâîáîäû?
Ïðîì÷èñü ïîâåðõ íåâîëüíûõ âîä.
Àëåêñàíäð Ïóøêèí vii
Ïîòîê ìÿòåæíûé îáðàòèë?
×åé æåçë âîëøåáíûé ïîðàçèë
Âî ìíå íàäåæäó, ñêîðáü è ðàäîñòü
È äóøó áóðíóþ
viii Epigraphs
Äðåìîòîé ëåíè óñûïèë?
Âçûãðàéòå, âåòðû, âçðîéòå âîäû,
Ðàçðóøüòå ãèáåëüíûé îïëîò!
Ãäå òû, ãðîçà  ñèìâîë ñâîáîäû?
Ïðîì÷èñü ïîâåðõ íåâîëüíûõ âîä.
Àëåêñàíäð Ïóøêèí

1
Contents

List of Figures .......................................................................................................... xv

Preface....................................................................................................................xvii

Authors....................................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1

Chapter 2 General Technique......................................................................... 27

2.1 General Proper Space Definition—Eigenvector Problem
for Perturbations over a Homogeneous Ground State .......... 27
2.1.1 General 1+1 D Problem. Linear Evolution in
Homogeneous Case.................................................. 27
2.1.2 Transition to X-Representation................................ 30
2.1.3 Boundary Regime Propagation ................................ 32
2.1.4 On Weak Nonlinearity Account Problems............... 37
2.1.5 Weakly Inhomogeneous Ground State.
Hyperbolic Equation ................................................ 40
2.1.6 Weak Inhomogeneity. Directed Waves .................... 41
2.1.7 Link to Spectral Theorem ........................................ 43

Chapter 3 One-Dimensional Problem in Hydrodynamics ............................. 51

3.1 On the Hydro-Thermodynamic Relations for
Quasi-Isentropic Processes ................................................... 51
3.2 Thermoconducting Flow of an Uniform Newtonian Gas.
Modes, Projectors and Dynamic Equations.
Acoustic Heating .................................................................. 56
3.2.1 An Ideal Gas ............................................................ 56
3.2.2 Fluids Different from Ideal Gases............................ 59
3.3 Non-Newtonian Fluids. ........................................................ 62
3.4 Acoustics of a Fluid Which Is Affected by Constant
Mass Force............................................................................ 64
3.4.1 Isothermal Atmosphere 1D Dynamics..................... 64
3.4.2 Examples of Projecting: Decomposition of the
Total Field of Exclusively Entropy or Acoustic
Parts and Energy Release with Mass Injection ........ 67
3.4.3 Dynamics of the Short-Scale Waves ........................ 69

ix
x Contents

Chapter 4 Coupling of Sound with Vorticity: Acoustic Streaming................ 75

4.1 3D Hydrodynamics and Vortex Mode .................................. 75
4.2 Five Projectors ...................................................................... 77
4.3 Examples of Acoustic Streaming: Weakly Difracting
Beam and Stationary Waveform ........................................... 80

Chapter 5 Projecting in Flows with Relaxation: Effects of Sound in

Acoustically Active Fluids ............................................................ 83
5.1 Vibrationally Relaxing Gases ............................................... 83
5.2 Chemically Reacting Gases ................................................ 100
5.2.1 Remarks on the Thermal Self-Focusing
of Sound ................................................................. 106
5.3 The Nonlinear Effects of Sound in a Liquid with
Relaxation Losses ............................................................... 108
5.4 On the Nonlinear Effects of Magnetoacoustic
Perturbations in a Perfectly Conducting Viscous
and Thermoconducting Gas................................................ 114
5.4.1 On the Nonlinear Interactions in a Plasma with
Finite Electrical Conductivity ................................ 123

Chapter 6 Boundary Layer Problem: Acoustic and Tollmienn-

Schlichting Waves ....................................................................... 131
6.1 Preliminary Remarks .......................................................... 131
6.2 Basic Equations for Compressible Fluid ............................ 133
6.3 Linear Approximation ........................................................ 134
6.4 The Tollmienn-Schlichting Mode....................................... 135
6.5 Acoustic Modes .................................................................. 136
6.6 Peculiarities of Non-Commutative Projecting in the
Inhomogeneous Linear Problem......................................... 137
6.7 Nonlinear Flow: Coupled Dynamic Equations................... 139
6.8 Resonance Interaction of Acoustic and T-S Modes............ 141

Chapter 7 1D Electrodynamics .................................................................... 147

7.1 Cauchy Problem for 1D Electrodynamics. Polarized
Hybrid Fields ...................................................................... 147
7.1.1 The Problem Formulation Outline ......................... 147
7.1.2 On Dynamical Projection Method Application:
Cauchy Problem..................................................... 148
7.1.3 The Effect of a Cumulative Part of Interaction ...... 150
7.1.4 Dispersion Account, an Example........................... 151
7.2 General Dynamics Equations, SPE System........................ 153
7.2.1 The Shafer-Wayne (SPE) and Generalizations ...... 154
7.2.2 Discussion and Conclusions .................................. 154
Contents xi

7.3 Boundary Regime Propagation in 1D Electrodynamics ..... 155

7.3.1 Statement of Problem............................................. 155
7.3.2 Operators of Dielectric Permittivity and
Magnetic Permeability ........................................... 157
7.3.3 Inverse Dielectric and Magnetic Operators............ 159
7.3.4 Projecting Operators in 1D Electrodynamics
with Unique Polarization: Boundary Regime
Propagation ............................................................ 160
7.3.5 On Integral Kernels Details.................................... 163
7.3.6 Polarized Hybrid Fields. Equations for Left and
Right Waves ........................................................... 165
7.4 Polarization Account .......................................................... 167
7.4.1 General Remarks.................................................... 167
7.4.2 Theory of Initial Disturbance Propagation,
Cauchy Problem Formulation ................................ 168
7.4.3 The Projection Method for the Cauchy
Problem .................................................................. 169
7.4.4 Nonlinearity Account, Interaction of Polarized
Waves: General Relations ...................................... 172
7.5 Comparison of Results Obtained with the Multiple
Scale Method ...................................................................... 174
7.6 Projection Method for Boundary Regime Propagation ...... 176

Chapter 8 Metamaterials .............................................................................. 183

8.1 Statement of Problem for Metamaterials............................ 183
8.1.1 Two Words on Metamaterials ................................ 183
8.1.2 Maxwell’s Equations. Operators of Dielectric
Permittivity and Magnetic Permeability ................ 183
8.1.3 Boundary Regime Problem.................................... 186
8.2 Dynamic Projecting Operators ........................................... 187
8.3 Separated Equations and Definitions for Hybrid Waves..... 189
8.4 Nonlinearity Account.......................................................... 191
8.5 General Equations of 1D Wave Propagation in a
Metamaterial That Is Described by the Lossless
Drude Model....................................................................... 192
8.6 Kerr Nonlinearity Account for Lossless Drude
Metamaterials ..................................................................... 194
8.6.1 Equations of Interaction of Left and Right
Waves with Kerr Effect .......................................... 194
8.6.2 Stationary Solution ................................................ 195
8.7 Statement of Problem for Waves withTwo Polarizations.... 200
8.7.1 Maxwell’s Equations. Boundary
Regime Problem..................................................... 200
8.8 Dynamic Projecting Operators ........................................... 203
xii Contents

8.9 Separated Equations and Definition for Left and

Right Waves ........................................................................ 207
8.10 General Nonlinearity Account............................................ 209
8.11 Kerr Nonlinearity Account for Lossless Drude
Metamaterials ..................................................................... 211
8.11.1 Equations of Interaction of the Waves via
Kerr Effect.............................................................. 211
8.12 Wave Packets ...................................................................... 213
8.12.1 Linear Wave Packets for the Right Waves ............. 213
8.12.2 Unidirectional Wavetrains Interaction ................... 214
8.12.3 Coupled Nonlinear Schrodinger Equations ........... 218
8.13 Stationary Solutions of SPE System for
Unidirectional Waves.......................................................... 220

Chapter 9 Waves in Waveguides .................................................................. 225

9.1 Electromagnetic Waves in Metal Rectangular
Waveguide Filled with a Material: Projecting
Operators Method ............................................................... 225
9.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations for a Waveguide.
Boundary Conditions ............................................. 225
9.1.2 The Transversal Waveguide Modes Evolution....... 226
9.2 Projecting Operators ........................................................... 233
9.3 Polarizations and Directed Modes in Rectangular
Waveguides ......................................................................... 233
9.4 Cylindrical Dielectric Waveguides ..................................... 233
9.4.1 On Transversal Fiber Modes.................................. 233
9.4.2 A Formulation and Solution of Linear Problem,
a Step to Dynamic Projecting Procedure ............... 234
9.4.3 Transition to Bessel Functions Basis ..................... 235
9.5 Dynamical Projecting Operators......................................... 240
9.5.1 z-Evolution System and Transition to
ω-Domain .............................................................. 240
9.5.2 Projection Operators in Time Domain.
Dispersion Account................................................ 245
9.6 Including Nonlinearity........................................................ 246
9.6.1 Application of Projection Operators ...................... 254
9.7 Appendix............................................................................. 256
Contents xiii

Chapter 10 Waves in 3D Space ...................................................................... 261

10.1 Introductory Note................................................................ 261
10.2 Basic Equations and Starting Points ................................... 262
10.3 Determination of Operator Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors
and Projecting Operators for a Full System of Maxwell’s
Equations ............................................................................ 264
10.3.1 Projection by Operator P1 Application.................. 266
10.3.2 Projection with Operator P2 ................................... 267
10.3.3 Results for Other Projector Operator ..................... 267
10.4 The Case of the Linear Dependence of Electromagnetic
Induction on the Electric Field and the Magnetic
Induction on the Magnetic Field......................................... 269
10.4.1 Projection Operators .............................................. 270
10.5 Examples with a Symmetry Account ................................. 272
10.5.1 Spherical Geometry ............................................... 272
10.5.2 Quasi-One-Dimensional Geometry ....................... 272
10.6 Concluding Remarks .......................................................... 273

Index...................................................................................................................... 275
List of Figures

5.1 (a) Evaluations in accordance with Eq. (5.14) for different B and
M = 0.2 before the formation of discontinuity in the wave profile.
kT4 (η)
(b) 2BT M2
in accordance to Eq. (5.16) for φ = exp(−η 2 ) (1) and
0
φ = −(1 + 2η 2 )−1 (2) .................................................................................... 93
5.2 Magnitude of acoustic pressure in a beam with initially planar front
equilibrium (Π < 0, Xs < 0) and non-equilibrium (Π > 0, Xs > 0)
stationary regimes ......................................................................................... 107
8.1 Relative error (in percent) of the expansion (8.72) at ω range [0.7, 0.9]
ω pe (a), and comparison of expressions for ca, (8.72)—solid line and
(8.71)—dotdotdash at ω range [0.6, 1.1] ω pe (b), ω pm = 1.1ω pe [19] ......... 193
8.2 (a) The solution (multiplied on f ) (8.105) as function of both
variables for p = 1GHz, q = 1.1p, I = 1GW /cm2 = 1013W /m2 , χ (3) =
10−20 m2 /V 2 [21], (b) velocity of propagation as function of amplitude
in logarithmic scale x = ln( f ) — lower line and for x = ln( 1f ) — upper
line, (c) the elliptic sinus modulus is plotted as the function of the same
variables ........................................................................................................ 201
8.3 The variables a — solid, b — dotdotdash as function of η. (a) the
case 1., (b) the case 2 .................................................................................... 219

xv
Preface
Generally, the way to a somewhat explicit formula that describes the evolution of
disturbances in a medium implies a number of crucial simplifications. Such names
of this procedure are “derivation” or “heuristic arguments.” The results often are
very impressive and begin to live their own history. A reader can find celebrated
examples in the frames of the linearized statements of problems in every textbook
on mathematical physics. Among them, we may list the D’Alambert (wave, string)
equation, Laplace-Poisson, and heat (diffusion) equations. Derivation of these equa-
tions is also a necessary element of the textbooks. Performing the procedure, one may
neglect some terms but very rarely meets attempts of their mathematical approval.
Recently, a boom in mathematical physics was observed in respect with similar
standard “minimal” nonlinear equations such as the so-called integrable ones. The
list of them includes a lot of entries and still grows. We would mention the most
known of them: there are Korteweg-de Vries (KdV) and nonlinear Schrodinger equa-
tions (NLSE), which describe the dynamics of one-dimensional wave packets in the
long wavelength domain (KdV case) and in a small vicinity of a (carrier) frequency
(NLSE case). In a sense, these equations are universal in small amplitude and dis-
persion realm. Considering the form of these equations, one understands that their
one-component and one-dimensional cases require a lot of explanation to embed the
resulting solutions in a general statement of problem, which is based on the original
multicomponent and multidimensional description. Special accent is made in respect
to a perturbation by nonlinearity in the context of the expansion of evolution operator
in a series with respect to powers of the small magnitude parameter.
Both KdV and NLS equations contain only the first derivative in time, which
imposes the only direction of a wave’s propagation. This principally differs from
the previously mentioned D’Alembert equation. It is clear that considering an initial
stage of evolution of 1D small magnitude perturbation, we observe general propaga-
tion in both directions. This directly points out the complex content of the potential
development of general initial perturbations. Some kind of superposition should be
taken into account in mathematical description. The phenomenon is well studied in
the theory of 1D string evolution, but it needs some efforts to translate the apparatus
to the multicomponent field. In this book, we suggest a systematic realization of such
a program, which makes visible all ingredients and stages of the implementation of
the “minimal” equations into the general statements of problems in hydrodynamics
and electrodynamics. We consider mainly two kinds of the problems: initial (Cauchy)
and boundary regime problems.
A method of separating disturbances in a medium into specific components is
developed. A hydrodynamic system is locally split into coupled nonlinear equations
of interacting modes. Linearization provides independent modes with an individual
evolution. The corresponding projector operators allow us to formulate initial-value
problems for each mode and to introduce physical basis in order to follow interacting

xvii
xviii Preface

disturbances as they develop. The one-dimensional problem is properly examined as

an example. The entropy and progressive components (modes) are introduced, and
dynamic equations that account for nonlinear interactions are derived. In particular,
weak nonlinearity and dispersion introduce Burgers/KdV-like systems for directed
waves interacting with a mean flow.
In the general (three-dimensional) case, five eigenvectors of a linear thermovis-
cous flow over a homogeneous background are derived in the quasi-planar geometry
of the flow. The corresponding projectors are evaluated and applied in order to get
the nonlinear evolution equations for the interacting entropy, vortical, and acoustic
modes. A dynamic equation on streaming caused by an arbitrary type of acoustic
excitation is derived as well. The correspondence to the known results on streaming
caused by quasi-periodic acoustic sources, is traced. The acoustic force of streaming
is calculated also for an impulse sound, including a mono-polar one. General hydro-
thermodynamic perturbations in a two-dimensional boundary layer is split into eigen
modes: a Tollmienn-Schlichting (TS) wave and two acoustic ones. The definition
of modes is performed by means of local relations, which are extracted from the
linearized general system over the equilibrium flow in a boundary layer. Each such
connection defines every individual subspace and the corresponding projector. After
subsequent projecting to the eigen subspace of an Orr-Sommerfeld equation for a
TS wave and the corresponding procedure for acoustics, the equations rearrange to
the one-dimensional system that describes evolution along the mean stream. A new
mechanism of nonlinear resonant excitation of the TS wave by sound is proposed
and modeled by means of four-wave interaction. Further, application of the project-
ing method is applied in problems relating to propagation and interaction of acoustic
and gravity waves in a stratified medium.
The same method is systematically applied to dynamics of electromagnetic dis-
turbances of a medium with a given dispersion and magnetic properties, including
metamaterials. The separation of total disturbance is provided on the basis of linear
dispersion relations that are introduced in either the frequency domain (for a bound-
ary regime) or in the wavevector domain (in a Cauchy problem). The problems are
in a certain sense “diagonalized” in a linear flow and partially diagonalized in a
nonlinear flow. Linear and nonlinear problems are considered in terms of propaga-
tion of polarized directed waves and their interaction in a dispersive medium. The
influence of restricting boundaries such as waveguides is considered from a practi-
cal point of view. These are the dielectric (optic) fibers and metal tubes that conduct
radio frequency waves. As for wave propagation in open space, projecting helps to
establish the general role of external sources and to take into account a symmetry of
perturbations.
Authors
Sergey Leble was born in Sretensk,
Russia, in 1945. He graduated from
the secondary school in Arkhangelsk
in 1962 and from Leningrad State
University in 1968 with a specialty in
theoretical physics. He conducted post-
doctoral studies in the subdivision of
nuclear theory and elementary particles
at Leningrad State University, where
he completed the PhD thesis entitled
“Theory of elementary particles in spaces with curvature” under the supervision of
Dr. Igor Terentyev in 1974. The full doctoral thesis, entitled “Waveguide propagation
of nonlinear waves in layered media,” was awarded by Leningrad State University
in 1987. He has served as a professor since 1988, head of the Theoretical Physics
department at Kaliningrad State University since 1989, and a professor at the Gdansk
University of Technology in Poland from 1995–2015. Currently, he is a professor at
Baltic Federal University in Kaliningrad, Russia. He has taught general and special-
ized courses in all areas of theoretical physics. An author of chapters in collective
monographs and of approximately 200 scientific works in the field of theoretical
and mathematical physics, concepts of scientific activity have lent his major mono-
graphs their titles: S.B. Leble. Waveguide propagation of nonlinear waves in strati-
fied media. Leningrad University, 1988; S.B. Leble. Nonlinear Waves in Waveguides
(Springer-Verlag, 1991); E. Doktorov, S. Leble. Dressing method in mathematical
physics (Springer, 2007).

Anna Perelomova was born in Moscow in 1965.

After graduating from high school in 1982, she
began studying in the Department of Acoustics at
the Physical Faculty of Moscow State University,
where she specialized in radiophysics and received a
degree with honors in 1989 under the supervision of
Dr. Oleg. Rudenko. Her doctoral thesis, under the
supervision of Drs. Ivan Nemchinov and Valerij Shu-
valov “Acoustic-gravitational waves induced by a
powerful source,” was awarded in 1994 by the Institute
of Physics of the Earth in Moscow. Anna Perelomova
defended a habilitation thesis “Interaction of acoustic
and non-acoustic modes: theoretical aspects of nonlinear acoustics” in 2006 for
the Department of Physics at the university named after A. Mickiewicz in Poznan,

xix
xx Authors

Poland. Since 2011, she has served as a professor in the Department of Technical
Physics and Applied Mathematics at the Gdansk University of Technology in Poland
and is the author of approximately 90 publications in the field of nonlinear hydrody-
namics and acoustics.
 1 Introduction
This book discusses the results published in papers devoted to the technique of
derivation of model evolution equations in terms of fundamental systems such as
hydrodynamics and electrodynamics. It also naturally includes initial or boundary
conditions that fix a type of a medium perturbation. Such universal approach is absent
in monograph or textbook literature. The contents of the book provide readers with
a practical tool that allows them to divide a space of solutions into subspaces with
specific behavior marked by such terms as direction of wave propagation, frequency
range, and, that is important to stress, characteristics of a medium. The characteris-
tics are expressed in terms of standard parameters of a matter, such as permeability
in case of electrodynamics or dissipation terms (equilibrium state and attenuation) in
hydrodynamics.
One such way is the introduction of a combinations of field variables, named
as modes, which correspond to their specific behavior. The simplest example that
appears already in one-dimensional (1D), or planar, dynamics may be described as
unidirectional waves; that is, waves with a fixed direction of propagation. In the case
of celebrated wave equation (the string equation in 1D) we have the d’Alembert
formula that gives the general solution of the initial (Cauchy) problem, with the
natural inclusion of the directed waves. A choice of initial condition that corresponds
to a wave, propagating, say, rightwards, is readily realized very easily with the help
of a technique discussed in this book, namely the dynamic projecting. This technique
splits the initial or boundary conditions space to the modal subspaces of the directed
waves. Readings of dispersion and/or dissipation (terms with higher derivatives) are
automatically taken into account within the algorithmic formalism, described already
in the example of introduction and with general detalization in Chapter 2. Account of
nonlinearity leads to interaction of the modes that are also automatically specified.
The simple case of nonlinearly directed wave leads to the celebrated Korteweg-de
Vries and nonlinear Schrödinger equations.
The general technique is universal, the steps are quite similar in both huge fields
of possible applications, in hydro- and electrodynamics. A transition to two- and
three-dimensional (3D) problems complicates calculations, but lies in the same road,
and may be either realized mechanically or one can effectively include the symbolic
computation programs because all the steps are written analytically. A good chance
to demonstrate a power of projecting the method relates to a case of atmosphere-
ocean waves physics, whose exponential equilibrium stratification admits, however,
a transition to equations with constant coefficients and separate directed acoustic and
internal waves.
An account of combined dissipation and nonlinearity in 3D hydrodynamics leads
to effective description of such important phenomena as heating and streaming. It is
a direct excitation of so-called entropy and rotation modes (non-wave or near-zero
frequency ranges). The application of the dynamic projecting technique allows to
use both periodic and nonperiodic acoustic sources for control of such processes.
1
2 Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and Electrodynamics

The impulse excitation is also included! Cumulatively, the combined dispersion and
nonlinearity allows to effectively describe electromagnetic pulses up to very short
ones (video) on the basis of generalization of Shafer-Wayne equations that includes
counter-propagating waves with a polarization account.
Among others, there are problems that appear secondary, but, in our opinion, they
are of great importance. We mean diagnostics problems. The question that naturally
arises in physics, geophysics and other applied sciences, sounds: How to recognize a
wave (or non-wave perturbation) in an overall field? The application of the projecting
technique provides the answer for high-quality requirements, because the set of the
projectors is complete, and each of them is strictly attached to a specific perturbation
under consideration.
One more task that is very “hot” in applied modeling of the abundant problems
of hydro- and electrodynamics is building numerical codes. The division of the com-
ponents of the field with different scales and directions of propagation would be
very effective. Especially, it relates to the nonlinear problems in which interaction
of modes “spoils” the linear picture, and one needs effective tool for “cleaning” of
perturbations when a program simulates time or space evolution. The dynamic pro-
jecting technique may be effectively used in such applications.
A numerical evaluation of basic physical parameters is an effective tool to
present the results of a modeling in the form of tables or plots. Such a representation
of results is a necessaary ingredient of theoretical physics [1] and can be effectively
applied in various scales from nuclear to universe ones. In many cases, there are
difficulties of such direct modeling if scales of different orders contribute to the phe-
nomenon under simulation. In such situations, it is effective to separate the descrip-
tion into parts with different characteristic scales. Mathematically, we split a space
of solution into corresponding subspaces in order to follow the following underlying
calculations [2,3,5]. The division of the solution space can be realized by means of
projecting operators, which correspond to the eigenvectors of the evolution operator
of the problem under consideration [2]. Such a procedure leads generally to pseudo-
differential operators as elements of the matrix evolution operator. Further, essential
simplifications may be the corresponding we restrict ourselves by some frequency
or wavelength range, expanding the kernel of projecting operators in the vicinity
of the given frequency carrier. This restriction allows us to cut the series of corre-
sponding pseudo-differential operators at some level, restricting the matrix elements
by polynomials of some operator, including derivatives. Otherwise, in more com-
plicated conditions, e.g. for the so-called short, or ultrashort, pulses, we use some
wide-range approximation of the kernel. In wave theory, such a procedure is known
as an approximation of dispersion relation, valid in some frequency domain. In non-
linear models, we obtain a definition of modes that may interact during evolution.
This allows us to follow the wave perturbations and identify the modes content as
well as the concomitant non-wave perturbations. From a mathematical point of view,
we apply either a Freshet expansion of the evolution operator or some model approx-
imation of the operator.
So, from a modeling perspective, we suggest a combined analytic—numerical
scheme of integration of a multicomponent system of partial differential equations
Introduction 3

with two kinds of initial-boundary conditions. The problem may concern an ini-
tial (Cauchy) boundary condition of boundary regime problems (for an introduction
see [6]).
Briefly, the idea of this approach may be described by the simplest example, as
follows. Consider an evolution problem as the system of two equations with constant
coefficients:
∂ u(x,t) ∂ u(x,t) ∂ v(x,t)
−a −b = 0, (1.1)
∂t ∂x ∂x
∂ v(x,t) ∂ u(x,t) ∂ v(x,t)
−c −d = 0, (1.2)
∂t ∂x ∂x
A compact form of (1.1) and (1.2) is

ψt = Lψ, (1.3)

with matrices    
u a∂x b∂x
ψ= and L = , (1.4)
v c∂x d∂x
introduces the evolution operator L and a state ψ of a system. The Fourier transfor-
mation in x
Z∞ Z∞
1 ikx 1
u(x) = √ ũ(k)e dk, v(x) = √ ṽ(k)eikx dk, (1.5)
2π 2π
−∞ −∞

may be written as
ψ = F ψ̃. (1.6)
In compact notation of derivatives by index, it yields the system of ordinary differ-
ential equations
ψ̃t = F −1 LF ψ̃ = L̃ψ̃, (1.7)
where the k-representation of the evolution operator takes the form
 
a b
L̃ = ik . (1.8)
c d

The matrix eigenvalue problem

L̃φ = λ φ (1.9)
introduces two subspaces, which we represent by the matrix of solutions Φ

L̃Φ = ΦΛ (1.10)

with diagonal matrix Λ = diag{λ1 , λ2 }. We normalize the eigenvectors such that their
first components are units. It is easy to check that if λ1 6= λ2 , the inverse matrix exists
and
Φ−1 L̃ = ΛΦ−1 . (1.11)
4 Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and Electrodynamics

Let us establish a matrix P̃i so that P̃i Φ = Φi are eigenvectors of the evolution matrix
in Eq. (1.7). Moreover, the standard properties of orthogonal projecting operators

P̃i · P̃j = 0, P̃i2 = P̃i , ∑ P̃i = I, (1.12)

i

where I is the unit operator, are implied. By means of (1.11), one can prove that the
P̃i are expressed as the direct matrix product

P̃i = Φi ⊗ (Φ−1 )i , (1.13)

where Φi is the ith column and (Φ−1 )i is the ith row of the matrix of solutions Φ
(1.10) [8] and the identity
L̃P̃i = P̃i L̃ (1.14)
holds. Explicit form of the eigenmatrix Φ in the mentioned normalization is given by
 
1 1
Φ= . (1.15)
φ1 φ2

The bottom components φi are established from (1.10)

λi − a
φi = , (1.16)
b
ik √
λ1,2 = [a + d ± ∆] (1.17)
2
if ∆ = (a−d)2 +4bc > 0, the eigenvalues λii are real and the equations are hyperbolic,
which corresponds to the wave propagation. It is the elliptic case, if ∆ < 0, whereas
the parabolic one, if ∆ = 0, requires individual consideration (see Section 2.1.3). The
idempotents in k-representation take the form
 
1 1

P̃1 = ⊗ −φ2 1 (1.18)
φ1 − φ2 φ 1

and  
1 1

P̃2 = ⊗ φ1 −1 . (1.19)
φ1 − φ2 φ2
Similarly, evaluating the direct product and plugging (1.16) yields
√ ! √ !
a−d+ ∆ d−a+ ∆
1 b√ 1 − b√
P̃1 = √ 2
d−a+ ∆
, P̃2 = √ 2
a−d+ ∆
. (1.20)
∆ c 2 ∆ −c 2

In x-representation, which follows from the inverse Fourier transformation, the

matrix L and the projectors P̃i are as follows:

F L̃F −1 = L, (1.21)
Introduction 5

F P̃i F −1 ≡ Pi (1.22)
and also commute:
F L̃F −1 F P̃i F −1 = F P̃i F −1 F L̃F −1 . (1.23)
In this “happy case” the projecting operators in k-representation are constant matri-
ces that do not depend on k. Hence, their x-representations coincide with these
established ones (1.20). Projecting the evolution Eq. (1.7) gives two independent
equations, which in fact are the first lines of

(Pi ψ)t = LPi ψ, (1.24)

obtained by simple application from the left; the commutation (1.23) is taken into
account. We make use of the direct calculations:
√ ! 
1 a−d+ ∆
b√ u
P1 ψ = √ 2 =
∆ c d−a+ ∆ v
2
 
1 1 1
√   !
1  bv + u  2 a − 2 d + 2 ∆  Π
√ √ = 2cΠ√ , (1.25)
∆ cu + v 12 d − 12 a + 21 ∆ a−d+ ∆

√ ! 
d−a+ ∆
1 − b u
P2 ψ = √ 2 √ (1.26)
∆ −c a−d+ ∆ v
2
 
1 1 1
√  
1  u  2 d − 2 a + 2 ∆ − bv 
 
Λ√
=√ √ = .
∆ v 12 a − 12 d + 21 ∆ − cu − a−d+
2b
∆
Λ

The first rows of these relations, by means of the new variables

  √ 
Π = √1∆ bv + u 12 a − 12 d + 21 ∆ ,
  √   (1.27)
Λ = √1∆ u 12 d − 21 a + 12 ∆ − bv ,

yield in the inverse relations

u = Π + Λ, 
1
 √  1
√  (1.28)
v = − 2b a − d + ∆ Λ + 2b d − a + ∆ Π,

The original system splits into the system of independent equations by means of
(1.24).  √ 
Πt = 12 a + d + ∆ Πx ,
 √  (1.29)
Λt = 21 a + d − ∆ Λx
6 Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and Electrodynamics

Such a system of independent equations naturally describes one-dimensional evolu-

tion. Let us take the typical p applications a = d = 0 (see also Section
√ case for physical
7.1.2). Now Λ1,2 = ±ik bc, v1,2 = ±ik bc , and therefore, (5.62) is significantly
h √ i √
simplified as a + d + a2 − 2ad + d 2 + 4bc = 4bc, correspondingly.
a=0,d=0
The referring variables now read
q
Π = 21 u + 12 b
v,
qc (1.30)
1 1 b
Λ= 2u− 2 c v,

and the dynamic equations take the forms

√
Πt = bcΠx , (1.31)
√
Λt = − bcΛx . (1.32)
They are equivalent to the classic string equation (its transformation is mentioned
in [4]) of acoustic or electromagnetic waves (see, e.g., [9]) and many others. In this
case, we have oppositely propagating waves; namely the mode Π is rightward and
Λ is leftward progressive waves. The Cauchy problem has an elegant formulation in
the context of initial conditions u(x, 0) = f (x), v(x, 0) = g(x), so that
r r
1 1 b 1 1 b
Π(x, 0) = (P1 ψ(x, 0))1 = f + g, Λ(x, 0) = (P2 ψ(x, 0))1 = f − g.
2 2 c 2 2 c
(1.33)
We have taken the first components of the relations (1.25) and (1.26) at initial time
t = 0. The D’Alembert formula follows directly from solutions of the equations with
conditions (1.33). In the elliptic case (∆ < 0), the square root is imaginary; then, in
the simple case when a = d = 0, ∆ = 4bc, the equations form
√
Πt = i −bcΠx , (1.34)
√
Λt = −i −bcΛx , (1.35)
which reflects that the reference variables are complex conjugate Λ = Π∗ . It is impor-
tant to notice that the variables

= Π + Λ,
u p
(1.36)
v = − bc (Λ − Π) ,

are real. They are convenient in the boundary problem of Laplace/Poisson equation
at half-plane solution.
The specific parabolic case (∆ = 0) corresponds to the unique eigenvalue

ik
λ= (a + d), (1.37)
2
Introduction 7

the link between the components is found to be

    
a b s iask + ibkφ1
cLφ 1 = ik = (1.38)
c d φ1 ick + idkφ1
   
s sλ
=λ = ,
φ1 λ φ1

λs
which
  also as ik − as = bφ1 . Plugging in the eigenvalue yields φ1 =
reads
s λ 1 a−d 1 a−d
b ik − a = − 2 s b or, for s = 1, φ1 = − 2 b .
We establish the second projecting matrix by use of the orthogonal to φ1 vector
φ2 , that is,
 

1
1 φ2 = 0. (1.39)
φ1

This gives
1
φ2 = − .
φ1
Using the basic formulas for the projectors (2.142) and (1.19), one arrives finally at
!
 1  2
1 1 a−d b
4 a−d −2b
P1 = φ1 = 2 ,
φ1 + φ11 1 φ1 a − 2ad + 4b2 + d 2 −2b a−d

!
φ1 −1 a−d
 
1 a−d 2b
P2 = = 2 2 .
φ1 + φ11 −1 φ11 a − 2ad + 4b2 + d 2 2b b
4 a−d

The simplification d = 0, a2 = −4bc leads to the matrix operator P1 :

4b2 −2ab
 
1
P1 = ,
a2 + 4b2 −2ab a2

4b2 −2ab 4b2 u − 2abv

    
1 u 1
P1 ψ = 2 = 2 .
a + 4b2 −2ab a2 v a + 4b2 a2 v − 2abu

Making use of the first row, we determine the reference variable

av − 2bu
π = −2b .
a2 + 4b2

Applying the projector to the original equation, we obtain

4b2 u − 2abv
   
a b 1
LP1 ψ = ∂ .
c 0 a + 4b2
2 a2 v − 2abu
8 Dynamical Projectors Method in Hydro and Electrodynamics

The first row

a2 v − 2abu 4b2 u − 2abv av − 2bu
b∂ + a∂ = −ab∂ 2
a2 + 4b2 a2 + 4b2 a + 4b2
leads to the equation for the reference variable π:
a
πt = ∂ π.
2
Repeating the procedure for the second operator, we have
    
a a 2b u λ
P2 ψ = 2 2 = 2b .
a + 4b2 2b 4 ba v a λ

In turn, this allows to define the second reference variable

au + 2bv
λ =a .
a2 + 4b2
Application to the equation

a∂ λ + 2a b2 ∂ λ
    
a b λ
LP2 ψ = ∂ 2b =
c 0 a λ c∂ λ

gives, finally,
2 a2 + 2b2
λt = a∂ λ + b2 ∂ λ = ∂λ.
a a
To compare the results with the conventional analysis of the system (1.1) and (1.2),
we rewrite it in the following manner:

ut = aux + bvx ,

vt = cux + dvx .
Multiplying the second equation by λ and taking a sum of equations, we obtain

ut + λ vt = aux + bvx + λ cux + λ dvx ,

 
(b + λ d)
ut − (a + λ c) ux = −λ vt − vx .
λ
Equalizing the directional derivatives

(b + λ d)
− (a + λ c) = − ,
λ
yields
b − aλ + dλ − cλ 2 = 0.
Another random document with
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1154. Shimnu seems to be the Buddhist word for “devil.” Cf.
Neander, Ch. Hist. vol. II. p. 181. Prof. von Le Coq (J.R.A.S.
1911, p. 300) says it is of Soghdian origin. Chavannes et
Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 523, n. 3, seek to show that it is the
equivalent of Ahriman.

1155. On this word see p. 323 supra; cf. Chavannes et Pelliot, op.
cit. 1ère ptie, p. 542, n. 2, which seems to summarize all that
there is to be said about it, and p. 342 infra.

1156. This was of course the exact statement of Zervanism, which

the Khuastuanift implicitly condemns. Cf. Mihr Nerses’
proclamation in 450 A.D. quoted on p. 285 supra.

1157. This was the name of the owner, which was Raimast Parzind
in the Tun-huang text of Sir Marc Stein.

1158. This was the name given to the incarnate, as distinguished

from the spiritual, messengers of the God of Light to man.
Thus Zoroaster is always spoken of in Manichaean literature
as a Burkhan, and doubtless the historical Buddha and Jesus
were included in the same category. Cf. Chavannes et Pelliot,
op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 572, n. 2.

1159. Obviously the authors of the Khuastuanift knew nothing of the

doctrine put forth by the Manichaeans in Christian lands that
the First Man offered himself as a sacrifice to destroy the sons
of Darkness. Cf. n. 2, p. 294 supra.

1160. Because by so doing the existence of the diabolic creation

would be prolonged.

1161. The words “of the Messenger” [God] are not in Prof. von Le
Coq’s version.

1162. Cf. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, pp. 503, n. 1. On
this being mentioned in a paper in the J.R.A.S. 1913, Dr F.
Denison Ross said that he thought the date should be put 300
 years later, J. cit. p. 81. He has since withdrawn this (J.R.A.S.
1913, pp. 434-436).

1163. See the luminous historical study by M. Henri Cordier, “Les

Fouilles en Asie Centrale,” Journal des Savans., Paris, 1910,
pp. 219 sqq., especially pp. 249, 250.

1164. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 513, n. 1. Müller,

Handschriften-Reste, pp. 20, 22. Von Le Coq, J.R.A.S. 1911,
p. 301.

1165. Ormuzd, “the whole circuit of the sky,” although he calls him,
more Graecorum, Zeus, “the sun and moon, the earth, fire,
water and the winds,” were “the only gods whose worship had
come down to the Persians from ancient times” in the days of
Herodotus. Cf. Herodotus, Bk I. c. 131.

1166. Faustus (Aug. v. Faust. Bk II. c. 4) distinctly says “Jesus Christ

is the son of the First Man.” Cf. also c. 5.

1167. It is very doubtful whether it is referred to or not in the Tun-

huang treatise. Cf. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, pp.
515, n. 2, and p. 516, n. 3.
1168. The Power whom Faustus (Aug. c. Faust. Bk XX. c. 2) calls
“God the Son.”

1169. Evidently the incarnate or human messengers, Zoroaster,

Buddha, Jesus, and Manes. The heavenly “legates” are never
depicted as “preaching” to men.

1170. The Past, Present and Future, called the “Three Moments” in
the Tun-huang treatise. See Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 11me
ptie, pp. 114, 116.

1171. Probably the strong or mighty Srôsh or Tertius Legatus.

1172. This may be compared to the Ophite Diagram in which Agape

or Love is made the summit of the Pantheon. See Chap. VIII
p. 68 supra. See also the same dogma in Valentinus, Chap.
IX p. 123 supra.

1173. Flügel, op. cit. pp. 95, 96.

1174. As to these, see En Nadîm in Flügel, op. cit. pp. 97-100.

1175. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 543, n. 2.

1176. Augustine, de Moribus Manichaeorum, c. X. Cf. Baur, Das

Manichäische Religionssystem, pp. 248 sqq. Chavannes et
Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 547, n. 1, examine the question
whether these are borrowed from Buddhism as F. W. K. Müller
and Cumont assert, and incline to the view that Manes took
them from Zoroastrianism.

1177. The word vusanti does not seem to be explained by Prof. von
Le Coq. Has it any connection with the Sanskrit vasanta
“spring”? In that case, the 50 days fast may have been
continuous like the Christian Lent and the Mahommedan
Ramadan. But it seems more likely that it refers to the weekly
fast on Sunday which, the Fihrist notwithstanding, seems to
 have been incumbent on all the Manichaeans, Elect and
Hearers alike. So Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 2me ptie, p.
111, n. 2. See n. 4, p. 349 infra.

1178. Prof. von Le Coq says (J.R.A.S. 1911, p. 307) that this word is
as yet unexplained and may belong to another language than
Turkish. One is almost tempted to see in it a corruption of the
Yom Kippur or Day of Atonement of the Jews. Judaism is the
last religion from which the Manichaeans would have
consciously borrowed; but the Jews have always taken their
goods where they found them, and it may well be that both
Jews and Manichaeans were here drawing from a common
source.

1179. Is this the Tertius Legatus or another?

1180. Augustine, c. Faust. Bk II. c. 5. Cf. Chavannes et Pelliot, op.

cit. 1ère ptie, p. 539, and n. 1.

1181. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 573, n. 3.

1182. So Baur, op. cit. This was doubtless true in the West and in
lands where they were exposed to severe persecution.

1183. This explains its translation from its original Pahlavi into the
language of the converts and each copy bearing the name of
the owner.

1184. See Cumont, Cosmog. Manich. p. 56, for authorities. Cf. also
de Stoop, op. cit. p. 22. As has been many times said above,
every religion and sect at the time accused the others of these
filthy practices, without our being able to discern any proof of
the justice of the accusation in one case more than in another.
In any case, St Augustine, here the chief authority, could not
have known of it at first hand, as he had never been more
than a Hearer, and he himself says (contra Fortunatum, Bk I.
App.) that while he had heard that the Elect celebrated the
 Eucharist, he knew nothing of the mode of celebration. Cf.
Neander, Ch. Hist. II. p. 193.

1185. All contemporary authorities are agreed that they were

forbidden to drink wine.

1186. Neander, op. cit. II. p. 170.

1187. Le Coq, Chotscho, Vol. I. Pl. I. and IV.

1188. Aug. c. Ep. Fundamenti, c. 8.

1189. Augustine, c. Faust. Bk XVIII. c. 5, whom he quotes, does not

say however that they kept Sunday as a festival, but merely
that they then worshipped the Sun: Vos in die, quem dicunt
solis, solem colitis.

1190. Aug. c. Ep. Fundamenti, c. 8 and de Stoop, op. cit. p. 27.

1191. Al-Bîrûnî, Chronology, p. 27.

1192. Ib. pp. 121, 190.

1193. A few other undoubted extracts from the Shapurakhan are to

be found in Müller, Handschriften-Reste, passim, and others
quoted at second hand from Mahommedan writers in Kessler,
op. cit., as to which see ib. pp. 180-191.

1194. Al-Bîrûnî, op. cit. p. 225.

1195. See Kessler, op. cit. p. 191 sqq.

1196. Aug. c. Faust. Bk XXXII. c. 7.

1197. See Albert Dufourcq, De Manichaeismo apud Latinos, Paris,

1900, where all these apocrypha are carefully examined. The
Quo vadis story appears on p. 40.

1198. Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. p. 508, and n. 1.

1199. Hegemonius, Acta, c. XIII. p. 22, Beeson.
ère
1200.
Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1 ptie, pp. 399, 400.
ère
1201.
Op. cit. 1 ptie, pp. 509, n. 5, 510, n. 2, 533, nn. 2 and 4.

1202.
Nowhere is this curious theory, which forms the base of most
Mediaeval Cabala and magic, more clearly stated. Thus the
Tun-huang treatise says in describing the fashioning of the
body of man by the devils (as in the Μέρος τευχῶν Σωτῆρος),
“there is not a single formation of the universe (or cosmos)
which they did not imitate in the carnal body” (Chavannes et
Pelliot, op. cit. 1ère ptie, p. 527); and in the next page “The
demon ... shut up the five natures of Light in the carnal body
of which he made a little universe (microcosm).”
ère
1203.
Chavannes et Pelliot, op. cit. 1 ptie, p. 514.

1204.
Op. cit. pp. 528, 529.

1205.
Their Chinese names are discussed by MM. Chavannes and
Pelliot (op. cit. 1ère ptie, pp. 521, n. 1, 542, n. 1, 543, nn. 1, 2,
and 544, n. 1), wherein are gathered nearly all that can be
said about them. The learned commentators decide that their
functions still remain mysterious. But see next note infra.

1206.
W. Radloff, Chuastuanift, das Bussgebet der Manichäer, St
Petersburg, 1909, pt I. pp. 19, 20. Von Le Coq, J.R.A.S. 1911,
p. 294: “when the Gods Kroshtag and Padwakhtag, the
Appellant and Respondent, should have brought to us that
part of the light of the Fivefold God that, going to God, is there
 to be purified.” One is inclined to compare this with Jeû and
Melchizidek receiving and purifying the light won from this
world, or with Gabriel and Michael in the Pistis Sophia bearing
the heroine upward out of Chaos; but the parallel may be
accidental and is easily pushed too far.

1207.
Like the “Twin Saviours” of the Pistis Sophia, whose functions
are never even alluded to in that document.

1208.
See notes 2 and 3, p. 327 supra.

1209.
M. de Stoop’s Essai sur la Diffusion du Manichéisme is most
informing on this head. See also A. Dufourcq’s Thesis quoted
in n. 2, p. 351 supra. A very brief summary of the history of
the sect was given by the present writer in J.R.A.S. 1913, pp.
69-94.

1210.
For the enquiry by Strategius, afterwards called Musonianus,
and Prefect of the East under Constantius, see Ammianus
Marcellinus, Bk XV. c. 13. Cf. Neander, Ch. Hist. IV. 488 sqq.
That the persecution instituted against them by Diocletian
slackened under Constantine and Constantius, see de Stoop,
op. cit. pp. 40, 41.

1211. See the Laws of Theodosius and Valentinian II, quoted by de

Stoop, op. cit. pp. 41, 42.

1212.
Gibbon, Decline and Fall, III. p. 153. Justinian put to death not
only convicted Manichaeans, but those who being acquainted
with members of the sect, did not denounce them. See de
Stoop, op. cit. p. 43.
1213.
The Manichaeans seem always to have been favoured by the
better classes and high officials of the Empire who maintained
for some time a secret leaning towards Paganism. See de
Stoop, op. cit. p. 84. The case of Barsymès, the banker or
money-changer whom Theodora made Praetorian Prefect,
and who was allowed according to Procopius (Anecdota, c.
XXII. 7) to profess Manichaeism openly, was doubtless only
one of many. It is apparently this Barsymès who is invoked in
the Turfan texts as “the Lord Bar Simus,” see Müller,
Handschriften-Reste, pp. 45, 59.

1214.
That this was the professed policy of the sect seems plain
from the words they attributed to Manes himself: “I am not
inhuman like Christ who said: Whoso denieth me, him will I
deny. I say unto you: Whoso denieth me before man and
saves himself by this falsehood, him will I receive with joy, as
if he had not denied me.” Cf. de Stoop, op. cit. p. 46, quoting
Cedrenus; Al Bîrûnî, Chronology, p. 191.

1215.
Von Le Coq, Exploration Archéologique à Tourfan, Confces
au Musée Guimet (Bibl. de Vulg. t. XXXV.), 1910, p. 278.

1216.
de Stoop, op. cit. pp. 86, 144.

1217.
Neander, Ch. Hist. III. pp. 34, 35.

1218.
Op. cit. III. p. 46.

1219.
Sozomen, Hist. Eccl. Bk V. c. 5, for instances. Cf. Neander,
op. cit. III. pp. 66, 67.
1220.
Neander, op. cit. III. p. 96.

1221.
Op. cit. III. p. 100.

1222.
S. Dill, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Western
Empire, pp. 143-166.

1223.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini, Bk III. cc. 64, 65.

1224.
Op. cit. c. 66.
Transcriber’s Notes:
Footnotes have been collected at the end of the text, and are
linked for ease of reference.
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