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 The Bloomsbury
Handbook of
Music Production
ii
 The Bloomsbury
Handbook of
Music Production
Edited by Andrew Bourbon and
Simon Zagorski-Thomas
 BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC
Bloomsbury Publishing Inc
1385 Broadway, New York, NY 10018, USA
50 Bedford Square, London, WC1B 3DP, UK

BLOOMSBURY, BLOOMSBURY ACADEMIC and the Diana logo

are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc

First published in the United States of America 2020

Volume Editors’ Part of the Work © Andrew Bourbon and

Simon Zagorski-Thomas, 2020

Each chapter © of Contributor

Cover design: Louise Dugdale

Cover image © Simon Zagorski-Thomas

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publishers.

Bloomsbury Publishing Inc does not have any control over, or responsibility for, any
third-party websites referred to or in this book. All internet addresses given in
this book were correct at the time of going to press. The author and publisher
regret any inconvenience caused if addresses have changed or sites have
ceased to exist, but can accept no responsibility for any such changes.

Whilst every effort has been made to locate copyright holders the publishers
would be grateful to hear from any person(s) not here acknowledged.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Bourbon, Andrew, editor. | Zagorski-Thomas, Simon, editor.
Title: The Bloomsbury handbook of music production / edited by Andrew
Bourbon and Simon Zagorski-Thomas.
Description: New York : Bloomsbury Academic, 2020. | Series: Bloomsbury handbooks |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “A summary of current research
on the production of stereo and mono recorded music”– Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019035761 (print) | LCCN 2019035762 (ebook) | ISBN 9781501334023
(hardback) | ISBN 9781501334030 (epub) | ISBN 9781501334047 (pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: Sound recordings–Production and direction. | Popular music–Production
and direction. | Sound–Recording and reproducing–History.
Classification: LCC ML3790 .B645 2020 (print) | LCC ML3790 (ebook) | DDC 781.49–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035761
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019035762

ISBN: HB: 978-1-5013-3402-3

ePDF: 978-1-5013-3404-7
eBook: 978-1-5013-3403-0

Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.

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and sign up for our newsletters.
 Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables x
Notes on Contributors xi

Introduction
Andrew Bourbon and Simon Zagorski-Thomas 1

Part I Background
1 Recorded Music
Simon Zagorski-Thomas 7

2 Authenticity in Music Production

Mike Alleyne 19
3 How to Study Record Production
Carlo Nardi 33

Part II Technology
4 From Tubes to Transistors: Developments in
Recording Technology up to 1970
Albin Zak III 53
5 Transitions: The History of Recording Technology
from 1970 to the Present
Paul Théberge 69
6 How Does Vintage Equipment Fit into a Modern
Working Process?
Anthony Meynell 89
vi Contents

Part III Places

7 Recording Studios in the First Half of the
Twentieth Century
Susan Schmidt Horning 109
8 Recording Studios since 1970
Eliot Bates 125

Part IV Organizing the Production Process

9 Information, (Inter)action and Collaboration
in Record Production Environments
M. Nyssim Lefford 145
10 Creative Communities of Practice: Role Delineation
in Record Production in Different Eras and across
Different Genres and Production Settings
Tuomas Auvinen 161
11 Pre-Production
Mike Howlett 177

Part V Creating Recorded Music

12 Songwriting in the Studio
Simon Barber 189
13 The Influence of Recording on Performance:
Classical Perspectives
Amy Blier-Carruthers 205
14 Welcome to the Machine: Musicians, Technology and
Industry
Alan Williams 221
 Contents vii

15 Studying Recording Techniques

Kirk McNally and Toby Seay 233
16 Materializing Identity in the Recording Studio
Alexa Woloshyn 249

Part VI Creating Desktop Music

17 Desktop Production and Groove
Anne Danielsen 267
18 The Boom in the Box: Bass and Sub-Bass in
Desktop Production
Robert Fink 281
19 Maximum Sonic Impact: (Authenticity/
Commerciality) Fidelity-Dualism in
Contemporary Metal Music Production
Mark Mynett 293
20 Desktop Production and Commerciality
Phil Harding 303
21 Audio Processing
Michail Exarchos (aka Stereo Mike) and
Simon Zagorski-Thomas 317

Part VII Post-Production

22 Studying Mixing: Creating a Contemporary
Apprenticeship
Andrew Bourbon 337
viii Contents

Part VIII Distribution

23 Producer Compensation in the Digital Age
Richard James Burgess 351
24 Evolving Technologies of Music Distribution:
Consumer Music Formats – Past, Present
and Future
Rob Toulson 367
25 Listening to Recorded Sound
Mark Katz 383
26 Interpreting the Materials of a Transmedia
Storyworld: Word-Music-Image in Steven Wilson’s
Hand. Cannot. Erase. (2015)
Lori A. Burns and Laura McLaren 393

Index 405
 Figures

15.1 Publication dates of selected sound-recording textbooks 237

17.1 Amplitude graph and spectrogram of Snoop Dogg’s ‘Can I Get A Flicc
Witchu’ 273
17.2 Sidechain pumping example 276
18.1 The dbx Model 100 ‘Boom Box’ Sub harmonic Synthesizer 284
18.2 A kick drum enhancer using virtual mid/side filtering for dynamic
equalization 285
18.3 Complete signal path for the Brainworx bx_subsynth plug-in 286
18.4 Sonic Academy KICK 2 drum synthesizer, main control panel 289
20.1 Phil Harding commercial pop EQ guide 2018 311
21.1 The Antares Auto-Tune Realtime UAD plug-in window showing settings
used by one of the authors on the lead rap voice for a recent Trap remix 321
21.2 Flex Pitch mode enabled on a distorted bass guitar track in Logic Pro X (10.4.1),
zooming in on both its Workspace and – the more detailed – Editor views 322
21.3 Ableton Live’s Clip View illustrating a number of available Warp modes and the
Transpose function 323
24.1 US music album sales from 1973 to 2018 (millions of units) 368
24.2 US music sales revenue from 1996 to 2018 (millions of dollars) 368
24.3 US music album and singles sales for CD and download from 2004 to 2018
(millions of units) 375
24.4 US vinyl sales between 1989 and 2018 378
 Tables

15.1 List of texts 238

26.1 Release timeline of the Hand. Cannot. Erase. materials and tour 395
 Contributors

Mike Alleyne is a professor in the Department of Recording Industry at Middle Tennessee

State University (MTSU). He is the author of The Encyclopedia of Reggae: The Golden Age
of Roots Reggae (2012) and a contributing editor of Rhythm Revolution: A Chronological
Anthology of American Popular Music – 1960s to 1980s (2015). He has lectured
internationally and has published in numerous journals, magazines and essay collections.
He was also a consultant and expert witness for the estate of Marvin Gaye in the 2015
copyright infringement trial involving the 2013 hit song ‘Blurred Lines’. He is a writer and
publisher, member of ASCAP and PRS, and currently co-edits the SAGE Business Case
Series in Music Marketing.

Tuomas Auvinen is a musicologist, musician and educator teaching music production

and ethnographic methodology courses at the University of Turku, among other places.
He completed his PhD in musicology at the University of Turku (2019) and is currently
researching the relationship between music production and artificial intelligence. He is
a songwriter, arranger, producer and live and studio musician performing on the viola,
guitar, bass, percussion, keyboards and vocals primarily in his native Finland. He is a board
member of the Finnish Society for Ethnomusicology and an editor of its peer-reviewed
journal, the Finnish Yearbook of Ethnomusicology. His publications have appeared in the
Journal on the Art of Record Production, the Finnish Yearbook of Ethnomusicology and
Musiikki.

Simon Barber is a research fellow in the Birmingham Centre for Media and Cultural
Research at Birmingham City University. His work focuses primarily on songwriting
and the relationships between creative workers and industry. He is currently leading
the Songwriting Studies Research Network, a two-year project funded by the Arts and
Humanities Research Council (AHRC), and has published on the subject in journals such
as Popular Music and Society and The European Journal of Cultural Studies. Simon is also
the producer and co-presenter of the popular Sodajerker podcast, which features interviews
with some of the most successful songwriters in the world.

Eliot Bates is Assistant Professor of Ethnomusicology at the Graduate Center of the City
University of New York. He is an ethnomusicologist and technology studies scholar whose
research examines recording production and the social lives of musical instruments and
studio technologies. A graduate of UC Berkeley (2008) and ACLS New Faculty Fellow
(2010), he previously taught at the University of Birmingham (UK), Cornell University
xii Contributors

and the University of Maryland, College Park. His publications include Digital Tradition:
Arrangement and Labor in Istanbul’s Recording Studio Culture (2016), Music in Turkey:
Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture (2011), and Critical Approaches to the Production
of Music and Sound co-edited with Samantha Bennett (2018). He is also a performer and
recording artist of the 11-stringed-oud.

Amy Blier-Carruthers is Lecturer in Postgraduate Studies at the Royal Academy of Music,

and Teaching Fellow in Performance at King’s College London. She read music at King’s
College London, concurrently undertaking practical studies in violin at the Royal Academy
of Music. Her work is published by Oxford University Press and Routledge, and she has
collaborated with colleagues at the Royal College of Art on a book, Walking Cities: London.
She is co-investigator for the AHRC Digital Transformations project ‘Classical Music
Hyper-Production and Practice as Research’ , is on the steering committee of the Institute
of Musical Research, and has worked for the Royal College of Music and the University of
Cambridge.

Andrew Bourbon is Subject Area Lead of Music Technology at Huddersfield University. He

previously taught at the London College of Music, UWL and Birmingham City University.
He completed his PhD at Birmingham University with Professor Jonty Harrison. He is
also a producer, sound engineer, composer and musician and has produced and mixed
records for The Waletones, Joe Wander, Lewis Bootle, Grupo Lokito and Alice Auer. He
participated, with Simon Zagorski-Thomas, in the AHRC-funded Performance in the
Studio research network and, with Amy Blier-Carruthers, Emilie Capulet and Simon
Zagorski-Thomas, in the Classical Music Hyper-Production project.

Richard James Burgess is President and CEO for the American Association of Independent
Music (A2IM) and has produced, recorded and performed on many gold, platinum and
multi-platinum albums. He was previously Associate Director of Business Strategies at
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings where he produced Jazz: The Smithsonian Anthology.
He is known for his pioneering work with synthesizers, computers, sampling, EDM, New
Romantics and early house music, as the inventor of the SDSV drum synthesizer and for
coining the music genre terms EDM and New Romantic. His most recent publications
include The Art of Music Production: The Theory and Practice, 4th edition (2013) and The
History of Music Production (2014).

Lori A. Burns is Professor of Music at the University of Ottawa. Her articles have been
published in edited collections and leading journals, such as Popular Music, The Journal for
Music, Sound, and Moving Image, Studies in Music, and The Journal for Music Theory. Her
book Disruptive Divas: Critical and Analytical Essays on Feminism, Identity, and Popular
Music (2002) won the Pauline Alderman Award from the International Alliance for Women
in Music (2005). She is co-editor of The Pop Palimpsest with Serge Lacasse (2018) and The
Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Video Analysis with Stan Hawkins (2019) as well
as series co-editor of the Ashgate Popular and Folk Music Series.
 Contributors xiii

Anne Danielsen is Professor of Musicology and Director of the RITMO Centre for
Interdisciplinary Studies in Rhythm, Time and Motion at the University of Oslo. She
has published widely on rhythm, digital technology, and mediation in post-war popular
music and is the author of Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and
Parliament (2006), Digital Signatures: The Impact of Digitization on Popular Music Sound
with Ragnhild Brøvig-Hanssen (2016) and the editor of Musical Rhythm in the Age of
Digital Reproduction (2010).

Michail Exarchos (aka Stereo Mike) is a hip-hop musicologist and award-winning rap
artist (MTV Best Greek Act 2008), including a nomination for an MTV Europe Music
Award. He is the course leader for Music Mixing and Mastering at London College of
Music (University of West London) where he is carrying out doctoral research on the
relationship between sample-based hip-hop and vintage record production techniques. His
publications include articles for Popular Music and the Journal of Popular Music Education.
His self-engineered and produced album Xli3h was included in the thirty best Greek hip-
hop albums of all time (SONIK magazine) and he is the first Greek artist ever to perform
at South by Southwest (2013).

Robert Fink is a past chair of the UCLA Musicology department, and currently Chair
of the UCLA Herb Alpert School of Music’s Music Industry Program. His publications
include Repeating Ourselves (2005) and The Relentless Pursuit of Tone (2018). His work
on popular music, minimalist experimentalism and post-1965 music and politics has
appeared in the Journal of the American Musicological Society, The Oxford Handbook of
Opera, the Cambridge Opera Journal and the recent collections Rethinking Reich (2019)
and Einstein on the Beach: Opera Beyond Drama (2019). Before coming to UCLA, Fink
taught at the Eastman School of Music (1992–97), and has been a visiting professor at Yale
University (2006) and a Fellow at the Stanford Humanities Center (1998–99).

Phil Harding joined the music industry at the Marquee Studios in 1973, engineering for
the likes of The Clash, Killing Joke and Matt Bianco. In the 1980s, he mixed records for
Stock, Aitken & Waterman, Bananarama, Rick Astley, Depeche Mode, Erasure, Pet Shop
Boys and Kylie Minogue. In the 1990s, he set up his own facility at The Strongroom with
Ian Curnow and further hits followed. Harding has recently worked for Samantha Fox,
Belinda Carlisle and Curiosity with his new team PJS Musicproductions.com. He is Co-
Chairman of JAMES (Joint Audio Media Education Services) and completed his doctorate
in Music Production at Leeds Beckett University in 2017. His most recent publication is
Pop Music Production (2019).

Mike Howlett was born in Lautoka, Fiji. During the 1970s he played bass with space-funk
group Gong. Leaving Gong in 1976, Mike put together his own group, Strontium-90, who
went on to enormous success as The Police. Mike began producing records in the 1980s
and had a string of top ten hits around the world. Mike was a founding member and former
chair of the Record Producers Guild (now known as MPG, the Music Producers Guild).
xiv Contributors

Following his PhD, Mike was Discipline Leader of Music and Sound at Queensland
University of Technology. He is currently semi-retired, playing occasional gigs with his
space-funk improvisational group PsiGong and re-mixing live multi-track recordings for
an upcoming Gong box set.

Mark Katz is Professor of Music at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and
Founding Director of the hip-hop cultural diplomacy program, Next Level. His publications
include Capturing Sound: How Technology Has Changed Music (2004, rev. 2010), Groove
Music: The Art and Culture of the Hip-Hop DJ (2012), and Build: The Power of Hip Hop
Diplomacy in a Divided World (2019). He is co-editor of Music, Sound, and Technology
in America: A Documentary History (2012) and former editor of the Journal of the Society
for American Music. In 2015 he was recognized by the Hip-Hop Education Center in its
inaugural awards ceremony. In 2016 he received the Dent Medal from the Royal Musical
Association.

M. Nyssim Lefford is a researcher and teacher at Luleå University of Technology in Sweden,

in the Audio Technology program. She studied music production and engineering and
film scoring at Berklee College of Music. She received her master’s from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology’s Media Lab for work on network music collaboration, and her
PhD for investigations into the perceptions of music creators in situ. As a researcher, she
continues to explore the unique creative, perceptual and cognitive processes of music
production and the ecology of recording studio environments, specifically, the nature
of production intelligence. Having worked in both industry and academia, in numerous
contexts, she has developed a breadth of interdisciplinary perspectives and methods.

Laura McLaren is a PhD student in musicology at the University of Toronto. Her research
interests are in popular music, feminist theory, music video and digital media. She
completed her Master’s of Arts with Specialization in Women’s Studies at the University of
Ottawa and completed her thesis ‘The Lyric Video as Genre: Definition, History, and Katy
Perry’s Contribution’ under the direction of Dr Lori Burns. She has presented her research
at IASPM-CAN and contributed a chapter to the forthcoming Bloomsbury Handbook of
Popular Music Video Analysis edited by Lori Burns and Stan Hawkins.

Kirk McNally is Assistant Professor of Music Technology in the School of Music at the
University of Victoria, Canada. He is the program administrator for the undergraduate
combined major program in music and computer science and the graduate program in
music technology. Kirk is a sound engineer who specializes in popular and classical music
recording, and new music performances using electronics. He has worked in studios in
Toronto and Vancouver, with artists including REM and Bryan Adams. His research and
creative work has been supported by the Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst
(DAAD), the Canada Council for the Arts, the Banff Centre for Arts and Creativity and
the Social Sciences Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).
 Contributors xv

Anthony Meynell is a record producer, songwriter, performing musician and academic

from London. After completing his PhD at the London College of Music, Anthony has
continued to combine extensive industry experience as a record label professional and
performer with lecturing, delivering programmes in popular music employing practice-
led research techniques to studies of performance in the studio, production and history of
technology. His research interest focuses on reenactment of historic recording sessions as
a process to uncover forgotten tacit working practices.

Mark Mynett is a record producer as well as live music front-of-house engineer, and
has worked as Senior Lecturer in Music Technology and Production at the University
of Huddersfield, UK, since 2006. Mark initially had an extensive career as a professional
musician with six worldwide commercial albums with several years of touring. This
was followed by a career as a self-employed record producer and front-of-house sound
engineer. In addition to teaching music technology and his own production work, Mark
frequently writes articles for publications such as Sound on Sound and Guitar World (US).
He is the author of Metal Music Manual: Producing, Engineering, Mixing and Mastering
Contemporary Heavy Music (2017).

Carlo Nardi received his PhD in Sciences of Music from the University of Trento in
2005. He is Research Associate at Rhodes University and Research Assistant at the Free
University of Bozen. He teaches methodology, arts marketing and music production at
Centro Didattico Musica Teatro Danza (CDM). He focuses on the use of technology from
a sensory perspective, authorship in relation to technological change, the organization of
labour in music-making and sound for moving images. Between 2011 and 2013 he was
General Secretary of IASPM (International Association for the Study of Popular Music). In
addition to academic research and teaching, he is also a producer, composer and performer.

Susan Schmidt Horning is Associate Professor of History at St John’s University in Queens,

New York. She is the author of Chasing Sound: Technology, Culture, and the Art of Studio
Recording from Edison to the LP (2013; 2015), and her work has appeared in the journals
ICON and Social Studies of Science, and in Music and Technology in the Twentieth Century
(2002) and The Electric Guitar: A History of an American Icon (2004). From her teenage
all-girl rock band, The Poor Girls, to the 1970s power-trio Chi-Pig, she played in northeast
Ohio and New York during the heady days of 1960s and 1970s rock and punk. Her current
project is a global study of all-girl rock bands in the 1960s.

Toby Seay is Professor of Recording Arts and Music Production at Drexel University. As
an engineer, he has worked on multiple gold and platinum certified recordings including
eight Grammy winners. He is a voting member of the Recording Academy (Grammys);
President of the International Association of Sound and Audiovisual Archives (IASA)
2017–2020; and Chair of the Coordinating Council of Audiovisual Archives Associations
(CCAAA) 2020–2021. Selected publications include: ‘The Recording’ in The Bloomsbury
Handbook of the Anthropology of Sound (2019), ‘Sonic Signatures in Record Production’
xvi Contributors

in Sound as Popular Culture (2016) and ‘Capturing That Philadelphia Sound: A Technical
Exploration of Sigma Sound Studios’ in the Journal on the Art of Record Production, no. 6
(2012).

Paul Théberge is a Canada Research Professor at Carleton University, Ottawa. He is cross

appointed to the Institute for Comparative Studies in Literature, Art and Culture (where he
served as Director, 2008–2011) and to the School for Studies in Art and Culture (Music).
He has published widely on issues concerning music, technology and culture. He is author
of Any Sound You Can Imagine: Making Music/Consuming Technology (1997), which
was the recipient of two academic book awards, and co-editor of Living Stereo: Histories
and Cultures of Multichannel Sound (2015). In 2012, he produced and engineered a set
of experimental recordings from the Glenn Gould archive – Glenn Gould: The Acoustic
Orchestrations.

Rob Toulson is Founder and Director of RT60 Ltd, specializing in technology development
for the audio and music industries. He was previously Professor of Creative Industries and
Commercial Music at the University of Westminster and Director of the Cultures of the
Digital Economy Research Institute at Anglia Ruskin University. Rob is a music producer,
sound designer and studio engineer who has worked with many established music artists
including Talvin Singh, Mediaeval Baebes, Ethan Ash and Janet Devlin. Rob is a successful
software engineer; he developed and co-produced the groundbreaking Red Planet EP
and iPhone music app for Daisy and The Dark. Rob is also the inventor of the unique
iDrumTune iPhone app.

Alan Williams is Professor of Music, Chair of the Department of Music and Coordinator
of Music Business at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. He has published chapters
in The Art of Record Production (2012), The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology
(2015) and Critical Approaches to the Production of Music and Sound (2018). He also writes,
records and performs with his ensemble, Birdsong At Morning.

Alexa Woloshyn is Assistant Professor of Musicology at Carnegie Mellon University.

She holds a PhD in musicology from the University of Toronto. Her research focuses on
how electronic, physiological and sociocultural technologies mediate the creation and
consumption of musical practices in both art and popular music. Her current research
projects examine performance practice in live electronic music and Indigenous musicians’
use of mediating technologies to construct and interrogate notions of ‘modern’ Indigeneity.
Her work has been published in the Journal of Popular Music Studies, Intersections: Canadian
Journal of Music, Circuits: musiques contemporains, eContact!, The American Indian Culture
and Research Journal, TEMPO, and the Journal on the Art of Record Production.

Simon Zagorski-Thomas is Professor at the London College of Music (University of West

London, UK) and founded and runs the 21st Century Music Practice Research Network.
He is series editor for the Cambridge Elements series and Bloomsbury book series on
 Contributors xvii

21st Century Music Practice. He is ex-chairman and co-founder of the Association for the
Study of the Art of Record Production. He is a composer, sound engineer and producer and
is, currently, writing a monograph on practical musicology. His books include Musicology
of Record Production (2014; winner of the 2015 IASPM Book Prize) and the Art of Record
Production: Creative Practice in the Studio co-edited with Katia Isakoff, Serge Lacasse and
Sophie Stévance (2019).

Albin Zak III is Professor of Music at the University at Albany (SUNY). He is a composer,
songwriter, record producer and musicologist. His articles and reviews have appeared in
the Journal of the American Musicological Society, Journal of the Society for American Music,
Current Musicology, Journal of American History and in several volumes of collected essays.
He is the author of The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records (2001) and I Don’t
Sound Like Nobody: Remaking Music in 1950s America (2010). His recordings include the
albums An Average Day, Waywardness and Inspiration and Villa Maria Road.
xviii
 Introduction
Andrew Bourbon and Simon Zagorski-Thomas

Organizing this book

It is important to consider what is not in this handbook as well as what it contains. We
can’t include everything and this introduction is about explaining what isn’t included as
well as what is and, hopefully, why. In many ways the production of the book has been a
metaphor for some aspects of the production of much of the recorded music in the last
fifty years. The book would not have been made without the impetus and facilitation
of a multinational corporation. Leah, our commissioning editor at Bloomsbury (our
metaphorical A&R person), has ceded overall creative control to us, Simon and Andrew,
and yet has been liaising with us about the timing and logistics of the production process
throughout. The writing of the book has been a collaborative process that involved us
managing the individual creative contributions of many actors. As editors we had a
vision of what we wanted and we invited a broad range of actors to participate. We
knew all of them to be highly competent and experts in their field but there were other
contributing factors such as status, experience, innovation and novelty as well. Not
everything went to plan. It took longer than expected, some participants dropped out for
various reasons and some chapters ended up being quite different to our expectations.
There were negotiations and edits and the precise nature of the book, including this
introduction, emerged out of that process. Of course, it was fundamentally shaped
by our initial ideas and vision, but it has also organically grown out of the process
of creation. And beyond this production and editing (post-production) process, once
we submit the ‘master’ to Bloomsbury there will be a further round of copy editing
and formatting – paralleling the mastering processes in audio recording – in order to
create the final ‘product’. While we do not want to take this metaphor too far – there
are, of course, major differences between both the creative processes and the completed
artefacts – it does serve to remind us that the end product of any creative process always
seems to have been inevitable in retrospect but was always contingent on the many
vagaries of life and collaboration.
2 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Music Production

In the proposal document for this book we provided the following as a brief outline of
the book’s goals:
Leading and emerging academics in the field of music production have been brought
together in this handbook to discuss how their cutting edge research fits into the broader
context of other work in their specialism. Examining the technologies and places of music
production as well as the broad range of practices – organization, recording, desktop
production, post-production and distribution – this edited collection looks at production as
it has developed around the whole world and not just in Anglophone countries. In addition,
rather than isolating issues such as gender, race and sexuality in separate chapters, these
points are threaded through the entire text.

Obviously the second sentence outlines the sectional structure, but it might be useful
to outline the reasons for these choices. For example, we could have taken a more
chronological approach, breaking the book into a series of decades or quarter centuries.
We could have chosen to divide the book according to professional (or other) roles such
as engineer, producer, artist, session player, equipment maker, etc. However, there is an
agenda at the heart of this book that is reflected in Bloomsbury’s stated aims for the series:
Bloomsbury Handbooks is a series of single-volume reference works which map the
parameters of a discipline or sub-discipline and present the ‘state of the art’ in terms of
research. Each Handbook offers a systematic and structured range of specially commissioned
essays reflecting on the history, methodologies, research methods, current debates and
future of a particular field of research. (Bloomsbury n.d.)

The idea of mapping the parameters of the discipline and presenting the ‘state of the art’ in
terms of research is complicated by the fact that this is a practical and vocational discipline.
As Zagorski-Thomas discusses in Chapter 1, there is a dichotomy between research that is
concerned with explaining the ‘state of the art’ of practice – essentially, how to do the job
well – and the ‘state of the art’ when it comes to understanding how production works. This
is also reflected in the various approaches that the contributors have taken in this volume.
It might be best understood in terms of two models of education that exist throughout
the music sector. What we will call the ‘traditional’ model is based on the idea of a novice
learning from an expert. This can be contrasted with what we might call the ‘university’
model of using theoretical knowledge to understand how a process works and looking
at new ways of working based on that theory. Of course, neither of these models exists
in a pure form, especially not in the current ‘state of the art’. Universities employ a lot of
dual-professionals who bring extensive knowledge about cutting edge industry practice –
and about the tried and tested expertise from the ‘golden age’ of recording. There is also
more and more research going on about how communication, interaction and creativity
work in the studio (see for example McIntyre 2012; Lefford 2015; Bennett and Bates 2018;
Thompson 2018) and how we listen to and interpret recorded music (e.g. Moylan 2007;
Zagorski-Thomas 2010; Moore 2012; Dibben 2013; Zagorski-Thomas 2014a, b, 2018).
There is extensive literature that combines some scientific knowledge about the nature of
sound with forms of generic technical manuals, for example explaining both the ‘typical’
controls on a dynamic compressor and how they affect an audio signal (e.g. Owsinski
 Introduction 3

1999; Case 2007; Izhaki 2008; Hodgson 2010; Savage 2011). And there are a broad range
of historical and ethnographic studies that outline past practice in varying amounts of
detail (e.g. Zak 2001; Meintjes 2003; Porcello and Greene 2004; Ryan and Kehew 2006;
Zak 2010; Williams 2012). What there is not much literature on is the connection between
practice and aesthetics. And again, this is an issue which spans the whole of the practical
music education section. Vocational education should not only be a matter of learning how
experts do their job (and how they did it in the past) but should also be about providing
novices with a theoretical map that lets them think about what the musical objectives of the
song are, decide how that might be embodied in a sonic metaphor or cartoon (Zagorski-
Thomas 2014b), and be able to identify the tools and techniques to achieve it.
So, to rewind for a second, the agenda we mentioned that is reflected in the Bloomsbury
Handbook’s stated aims is to find ways to bridge between the vocational and the academic,
the practical and the theoretical, and the ‘how’ and the ‘why’. Although more or less everyone
in this book can be described as a dual-practitioner of some sort – either simultaneously
or sequentially as both a creative practitioner and an analytical and reflective researcher –
they all also do it in different ways and to different extents. And, also in different ways, we
all negotiate between the ‘traditional’ and the ‘university’ modes of learning and knowledge
that were outlined earlier. The decision about structuring the book was, therefore, based
on finding a way to best achieve those aims of bridging between various differences and
dichotomies. These eight headings allowed us to mix up contributors from different
backgrounds and with different approaches in the same section. Hopefully, although
the contributions can all stand up on their own, this structure will suggest connections,
differences, contrasts and complementarity that will make the book greater than simply
the sum of all its parts. In order to reinforce this approach we have prefaced each of the
sections with a short discussion of the topic in broad terms and the ways that the various
chapters link together.

Bibliography
Bennett, S. and E. Bates (2018), Critical Approaches to the Production of Music and Sound,
New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.
Bloomsbury (n.d.), ‘Bloomsbury Handbooks’. Available online: https://www.bloomsbury.com/
us/series/bloomsbury-handbooks (accessed 5 May 2019).
Case, A. U. (2007), Sound FX: Unlocking the Creative Potential of Recording Studio Effects,
Burlington, MA: Focal Press.
Dibben, N. (2013), ‘The Intimate Singing Voice: Auditory Spatial Perception and Emotion
in Pop Recordings’, in D. Zakharine and N. Meise (eds), Electrified Voices: Medial, Socio-
Historical and Cultural Aspects of Voice Transfer, 107–122, Göttingen: V&R University
Press.
Hodgson, J. (2010), Understanding Records: A Field Guide to Recording Practice, New York:
Bloomsbury Publishing.
Izhaki, R. (2008), Mixing Audio: Concepts, Practices and Tools, Burlington, MA: Focal Press.
4 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Music Production

Lefford, M. N. (2015), ‘The Sound of Coordinated Efforts: Music Producers, Boundary

Objects and Trading Zones’, Journal on the Art of Record Production, (10).
McIntyre, P. (2012), ‘Rethinking Creativity: Record Production and the Systems Model’,
in S. Frith and S. Zagorski-Thomas (eds), The Art of Record Production: An Introductory
Reader to a New Academic Field, Farnham: Ashgate.
Meintjes, L. (2003), Sound of Africa! Making Music Zulu in a South African Studio, Durham,
NC: Duke University Press.
Moore, A. F. (2012), Song Means: Analysing and Interpreting Recorded Popular Song, Farnham:
Ashgate.
Moylan, W. (2007), Understanding and Crafting the Mix: The Art of Recording, 2nd edn,
Burlington, MA: Focal Press.
Owsinski, B. O. (1999), The Mixing Engineer’s Handbook, 1st edn, Boston, MA: Artistpro.
Porcello, T. and P. D. Greene (2004), Wired for Sound: Engineering and Technologies in Sonic
Cultures, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
Ryan, K. and B. Kehew (2006), Recording The Beatles, Houston, TX: Curvebender Publishing.
Savage, S. (2011), The Art of Digital Audio Recording: A Practical Guide for Home and Studio,
New York: Oxford University Press.
Thompson, P. (2018), Creativity in the Recording Studio: Alternative Takes, Leisure Studies in a
Global Era, New York: Springer International Publishing.
Williams, S. (2012), ‘Tubby’s Dub Style: The Live Art of Record Production’, in S. Frith and
S. Zagorski-Thomas (eds), The Art of Record Production: An Introductory Reader to a New
Academic Field, Farnham: Ashgate.
Zagorski-Thomas, S. (2010), ‘The Stadium in Your Bedroom: Functional Staging, Authenticity
and the Audience Led Aesthetic in Record Production’, Popular Music, 29 (2): 251–266.
Zagorski-Thomas, S. (2014a), ‘An Analysis of Space, Gesture and Interaction in Kings of
Leon’s “Sex On Fire” (2008)’, in R. von Appen, A. Doehring, D. Helms and A. Moore (eds),
Twenty-First-Century Pop Music Analyses: Methods, Models, Debates, Farnham: Ashgate.
Zagorski-Thomas, S. (2014b), The Musicology of Record Production, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Zagorski-Thomas, S. (2018), ‘The Spectromorphology of Recorded Popular Music: The
Shaping of Sonic Cartoons through Record Production’, in R. Fink, M. L. O’Brien and Z.
Wallmark (eds), The Relentless Pursuit of Tone: Timbre in Popular Music, New York: Oxford
University Press.
Zak, A. J. (2001), The Poetics of Rock: Cutting Tracks, Making Records, Oakland, CA:
University of California Press.
Zak, A. J. (2010), I Don’t Sound Like Nobody: Remaking Music in 1950s America, Tracking Pop,
Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.
 Part I
Background

The three chapters here deal with the questions of what recorded music is, the ways in which
it may or may not be authentic, and the problems involved in the research and study of
music production. But the question of background and context goes way beyond the scope
of what could be fitted into a single volume, let alone into the chapters within this single
part. Almost by definition, this part was going to be less to do with the specifics of music
production and more to do with the nature of music, the non-technical and non-musical
factors that influence how it is made, and the types of knowledge we can have about the
subject. While these three chapters address those ideas quite clearly and coherently, they
certainly do not do so exhaustively. Indeed, the chapters in Part VIII, on Distribution, can
be seen to be as equally relevant as background or context. Several of the contributors in
the book, although they are writing about a specific topic here, have professional lives that
reflect some of the complexities of this ‘background’. Mike Alleyne was an expert witness
in the Robin Thicke/estate of Marvin Gaye court case over the single ‘Blurred Lines’. The
influence of the law on creativity is understudied – possibly because it would be so difficult
to establish cause and effect – but record companies’ legal departments are having and have
had a huge influence on which records get made, get released and who gets the money (and
therefore creates incentives for future work). Richard James Burgess, through his work
with the Recording Academy and A2M, has been an advocate for recognizing producers
as creative contributors to recordings who should receive royalties in the same way that
an artist does. There is also the issue of the way that flows of money in and around the
industry influence the types and quantities of recordings that are made and released. Mike
Howlett, separate to his contribution here, has written about this idea of the producer as a
nexus between the business interests of the record company and the creative and technical
interests of the artists and technicians.
A conceptual thread that goes through many of the chapters in this collection, as well
as the first two chapters in this part, is the idea of ownership and the way that the recorded
artefact does more than simply provide access to sounds. This relates not only to the ways
in which we interpret the ‘unnatural’ experience of sound without sight but also to the
ways in which it helps to shape our sense of identity. This thread also travels through
Alexa Woloshyn’s and Mark Katz’s chapters in relation to both identity and listening
practice. Indeed, this idea of the ways in which a recording industry affects and is affected
6 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Music Production

by its national and cultural context formed the basis for a series of radio programmes
that Zagorski-Thomas recently made for the BBC World Service called ‘How the World
Changed Music’. It demonstrated the many ways in which the creation of recorded music
was an integral part of a process of cultural development – the spread of a single language
across China, the development of colonial and post-colonial statements of resistance and
identity in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Okinawa, the changing gender roles in
India and China, and the problems with attempts at state control of music in Poland and
Cuba.
Although, of the three, Carlo Nardi’s chapter is the most clearly focused on the types
of knowledge we can have about music production and the recorded artefact, all three are
permeated with this question. Of course, as one would expect with a part that provides
a general background or context to the whole volume, these questions infuse all of the
chapters. And, as discussed in the introduction, this question of what a survey of the ‘state
of the art’ of research in this discipline should look like is at the heart of the design of the
structure of this volume.
 1
Recorded Music
Simon Zagorski-Thomas

What is music?
There are a great many theories about the development, purpose and nature of music and,
while this is not the place to go too deeply into that discussion, it is important to discuss
some parameters and definitions at the start of this book. We all think we know exactly
what music is and yet most definitions run into trouble if they try to be universal rather
than personal. Mine is more a series of stories than a single definition.
Singing emerged as part of the bundle of activities that humans developed to encourage
and cement social cohesion and to use metaphors for emotion to synchronize the mood
between participants. It became part of the ritualization of life where we developed
special versions of everyday activities to imbue certain instances of them with additional
importance. Thus singing, chanting and poetry became special versions of speech that
allowed us to mark certain stories as more important than others. They allow us to
exaggerate certain features of speech – the types of energy that inflect the words with
additional meaning – and thus fall into the category of sonic cartoons (Zagorski-Thomas
2014). Instrumental music allows us to isolate the meaningful emotional energy from the
semantic meaning of language and to create a ritualized and schematic representation of
experience.
Being a representational system, it involves two layers of perception, interpretation
and appreciation – of the phenomenon that is being represented and of the way it is
represented. I can perceive, interpret and appreciate the semantic meaning of a poem
and the aesthetic way it is expressed. I can do the same with other forms of literature,
with visual art and with music. I can perceive, interpret and appreciate what I consider
to be the physical or emotional narrative that is being represented as well as the skill
and beauty with which it is represented. And there are three concurrent and interacting
modes of engagement (Middleton 1993) that we use in this process of interpretation and
appreciation:

1 The direct embodied responses of empathy and engagement (e.g. moving to a

beat).
2 The learned and physiological subconscious metaphorical connections we make
(e.g. hearing the sound of lethargic activity as sad or listless).
8 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Music Production

3 The conscious metaphorical connections that emerge from learning and problem
solving (e.g. hearing structure such as verse/chorus or sonata form in a piece of
music).

The ‘production’ activities of musicking (Small 1998) – composition, performance,

arranging and staging – that have developed throughout the span of human history and
in the myriad strands of geography and culture, have been designed and nurtured to
encourage these three forms of engagement in various combinations in the ‘consumption’
activities – listening, dancing, worshipping and other forms of participation. It is only
through limited technologies such as the music box and, more recently, through recorded
music that the ‘production’ activities could be embodied in an artefact that allowed them
to be separated in time and space from the ‘consumption’ activities.

What is recorded music?

When Edison developed the recording process, he considered its use to be for recording
speech – as a way of replacing writing. It was to be a representational system that not
only represented the words but also the character and tone of the voice of the individual
person. It is interesting that its primary function soon became the representation of music,
a representational system in itself.
Obviously the term ‘record’ implies that there is a phenomenon or an occurrence and
that there is an artefact that constitutes a record of that phenomenon or occurrence. But
records are not about replication, they are about selecting particular features to measure
or represent. When I talk about a record, I am not talking about reliving a moment exactly
as it was. My medical record is not an exact copy of the history of my body’s health, it
is a record of pieces of information that various health professionals think might be
important to any future health professionals who have to assess my health or treat my
illnesses. Audio recording uses a mechanical process to translate the vibration of air
molecules at a particular place (usually at the diaphragm of a microphone/transducer)
into a representational system that allows other transducers (usually a speaker cabinet or
headphones) to recreate similar vibrations of air molecules in a different place and time.
The ‘realism’ of this representational system has been based on making the transducer
and the storage system for the representation at least as sensitive as the human ear is to
frequency and dynamics. While we may have come quite close to this in terms of these
two features, there are other features of the live and active process of hearing that are
not being represented. There are very few moments in life when we are confused about
whether we are listening to ‘real’ or ‘recorded’ sound and, when we are, we can soon find
out if we want to. The ‘realism’ of recorded music is very limited. Indeed, many forms of
musical recording are about creating something that is clearer and more impactful than
the original moment – or they are about creating something that is an idealized version of
a musical idea.
 Recorded Music 9

In addition, even before the moment that electrical speaker systems were used to play
back these types of recording, they were also being used to create new forms of artificial
sound – sounds that were the result of the electrical circuitry in instruments like the
Theremin and the Ondes Martinot. Just as the representational system of music notation
allowed composers to create musical forms that were too complicated to hold in their heads
without the tool of notation, so too did the representational system of sound-as-voltage
allow creative musicians and technicians to produce sounds that were more precise and
ordered than those produced by the mechanical vibration of objects in the natural world.
Later in the twentieth century both art music and popular music developed approaches
and techniques that combined and manipulated these two sources of sonic representation –
recorded sound and electronically generated sound. The last forty years have witnessed a
steady process of integrating these two forms of sound generation into the technologies
of music production. Even in musical traditions that have an ideological averseness to
electronic musical instruments, the recording process now, more often than not, involves
electronically generated artificial reverberation. And, of course, multiple representations
of waveforms – collected from different angles and distances from the various sound
sources – are filtered, reshaped and merged together to create a new and highly artificial
representation of a sonic ‘event’. In traditions such as electroacoustic art music, hip-hop
and EDM, these twin strands of recording and construction and the ubiquitous processes
of waveform manipulation and reshaping come together to produce music that travels far
beyond the limits of what is possible in the acoustic realm of humans and objects making
air vibrate in a given environment.
The story of recorded music is often told as a progression from low fidelity to
high fidelity and, although we have moved beyond that narrative in some senses, the
development of 3-D sound and immersive audio is beset with those images of ‘realism’.
But do we want to be in control of our relationship with music? Do we want the
sound to alter as we move either our head position or our position in a room? Or do
we want to be subjected to a musical experience that has been created for us by the
artists? Of course, the answers to these types of rhetorical question tend to be ‘maybe’,
‘sometimes’ and ‘it depends’. The development of all forms of art and entertainment are
a constant negotiation between some collaborative group of makers, who are designing
and producing something for us to engage with, and the choices and decisions of the
audience member or consumer. They can choose whether, when and how they engage.
They can choose what aspect of the experience to focus their attention on at any given
moment, and their interpretation of what is happening and what it means will be a
unique product of their past experience and the decisions they make while engaging
with it. However, as Eric Clarke (2005) and others have pointed out, our interpretation
is not random. It is the result of our perception of affordances – what is possible and/
or more or less likely – in a given set of circumstances, whilst a representational system
manipulates our subject-position; rather than, it selects or distorts our visual or aural
perspective, it affords the perception of some features and not others, and it creates a
chronological narrative.
10 The Bloomsbury Handbook of Music Production

Sonic cartoons
The term sonic cartoons (rather than being about humour!) relates to the fact that
recordings are not realistic and that they are representations. And, along with the camera
obscura, photography, film, video, etc., they can all involve the creation of a representation
through a mechanical process that encodes a limited set of the physical properties of a
phenomenon – some of the ways it reflects light or causes air molecules to move. The
mechanical accuracy of these types of representation encourages us to place them in a
different category to other forms of representation such as drawing, painting or sculpture,
but we are technologically still a long way from any recording system that can mimic the
real world. We cannot mimic the way that the reflections of multiple sound sources in space
change along with our body’s position in the space, our head’s orientation (and continual
movement) on top of our body, and even, it now seems (Gruters et al. 2018), the muscular
changes in our ears that follow our eye movement.
What, though, is being represented by a recording? Written language is a representation
of the spoken word, but if you read a Hamlet soliloquy you will not experience the
actor’s facial expression or the tone of their voice. With a recording, for example, you can
experience an approximation of the sound of a group of musicians performing in a room
but you cannot see them and you cannot walk up to one of them so that you can hear them
more clearly. And if you move around in a space while listening to recorded sound played
back on speakers, it will change in very different ways than if you were in a room with
the players. Of course, most recordings, even ones of a single performance without any
additional overdubs, have been recorded with microphones in a different configuration
than the two ears on either side of our head. And many are deliberately unrealistic or
even surrealistic representations but we still understand them and make sense of them
in relation to the norms of human activity. Recorded music creates a representation of
the sound of some body (or bodies) and/or some thing(s) happening in some place for
some reason and that representation places you in some perceived physical and, therefore,
social and psychological relationship with that phenomenon. And just as I mentioned in
regard to music itself as a phenomenon, we can perceive, interpret and appreciate both the
musical activity that is being represented (i.e. the composition and the performance) and
the skill and artistry that are used in the process of representation (i.e. the techniques of
recording, production and mixing).

Curated versus constructed

In the same way that we have become accustomed to visual representations that might
be drawings, paintings or computer animations as well as those that are mechanical
‘reflections’, we have also developed aural forms of representation, as I mentioned before,
that are constructed entirely within the representational system rather than being ‘captured’
versions of a reality. Thus, I can record the sound of a snare drum being hit but I can also
create one electronically using white noise, envelope shaping and filtering. I can also record
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