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MANUAL:
APPROACH TO THE OSCE
EDITORS-IN-CHIEF
Colin Andrews MD
Parnian Riaz MD
SENIOR EDITORS
JUNIOR EDITORS
Printed in Canada.
ISBN: 978-0-9864874-6-0
Edmonton Manual
do Medical Students' Association
1-002 Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research
University of Alberta
Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1
Canada
editor@edmontonmanual.com
Additional copies of this publication may be purchased online. Our vvebsite also hosts more information on this
publication.
www.edmontonmanualcom
5
PLEASE READ THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS CAREFULLY
This book is published by the Edmonton Manual team, a not for profit operated by University of Alberta Medical
Students, It is a for students, by students" resource and, as such, this publication is a work in progress. Although the
authors, editors, and publisher have made efforts to ensure the accuracy of the information contained herein at the
time of publication, they do not guarantee that this information is accurate, complete, current, or suitable for
any particular purpose.
This book may be used as a guide to assist readers who are preparing for clinical clerkship and for objective structured
clinical examinations. This manual is simply a framework for guided learning. This book should only be used in
combination with other textbooks and resources, and strong clinical mentorship and teaching offered through an
accredited medical educational institution.
Knowledge of medical sciences and practice is constantly changing; therefore, readers should use individual judgment
and reference current sources of information as they become available.
The authors, editors, and publisher make no representations or warranties, explicit or implied, in relation to this book or
the contents herein. The authors, editors, and publisher are not responsible for any errors or omissions in this book. The
authors, editors, and publisher will not be held liable for any loss, damage, or injury arising from the use of this book.
The courts of the Province of Alberta shall have exclusive jurisdiction over any legal disputes relating to this book.
6
CONTRIBUTORS
Editorial Team
Editors-in-Chief Patrick Valiance BSc (Hans) MD Candidate (2019) (Senior Director of Marketing & Sales)
Family Medicine Sheny Khera MD CCFP MPH, Assistant Professor, University of Alberta
Jennifer Ringrose MD FRCPC, Assistant Professor, University of Alberta
Internal Medicine Selina Dobing MD CCFP MPH, Assistant Professor, University of Alberta
Jennifer McCombe MD MPH FRCPC, Associate Professor, University of Alberta
Kathleen Wong MD FRCPC, Assistant Clinical Professor, University of Alberta
Mohit Bhutani MD FRCPC, Associate Professor, University of Alberta
Obstetrics & Gynecology Rahim Janmohamed MD FRCSC, Associate Professor, University of Alberta
Psychiatry Melanie Marsh-Joyal MD FRCPC. Clinical Lecturer and Associate Program Director.
Jorge Perez-Parada MD FRCPC. Associate Professor. University of Alberta
Jonathan Hamill MD FRCPC BMus ARCT
Essential Clinical Skills Dr. Helly (Rachel) Goez MD FRCPC. Assistant Dean, University of Alberta
Previous Editors-in-Chief Aaron Knox MD: Shaheed Merani MD PhD; Ryan Gallagher MD; Jasmine Pawa MD:
David Lesniak PhD MD; Anthony Lott BSc MD; Brent Turner MD
Nikhil Raghuram PhD MD. Marvi Cheema MD; Mark Mckinney MD
2 Physical Exam
Introduction 76
Abdominal Exam 77
Blood Pressure Measurement 78
Cranial Nerve Exam 79
Diabetic Foot Exam 81
Examination for Liver Disease 82
Eye Exam 83
Female Genitourinary Exam 84
Hand Exam 85
HEENT Exam 86
Hip Exam 87
JVP Exam 88
Knee Exam 89
Lymphadenopathy & Spleen Exam 90
Male Genitourinary Exam 91
Neurological Exam 92
Precordial Exam 96
Respiratory Exam 98
9
MN"
Shoulder Exam 99
Thyroid Exam 101
3 Family Medicine
Introduction 108
Adult Periodic Health Exam 109
Constipation 111
•=1.1 Cough 113
Diarrhea 115
Dyspepsia 117
Dysuria 119
Erectile Dysfunction 121
Fatigue 123
Fever 125
man
Headache 127
Hypertension 129
Insomnia 131
Lower Back Pain 133
Nausea & Vomiting 135
Obesity 137
Respiratory Tract Infection 139
Sexual & High-Risk Infections 141
Skin, Hair, & Nails 143
Smoking Cessation 145
11.0
Sore Throat (Pharyngitis) 147
Urinary Incontinence 149
Weight Loss 151
4 Internal Medicine
Introduction 159
An Explanation of Likelihood Ratios 160
Ascites 161
Abnormal Heart Sounds 163
Acute Confusion 165
Acute Liver Injury 167
Allergic Reactions 169
Altered Level of Consciousness 171
Anemia 173
Bleeding Disorders 175
Cardiac Chest Pain 177
Congestive Heart Failure 179
Dehydration/Hypovolemia 181
Dementia 183
Diabetes - Acute Complications 185
Diabetes - Chronic Management 187
Dyspnea 189
Falls 191
Gait Disturbance 193
Hearing Loss & Deafness 195
Hematologic Malignancies 197
Hemiplegia/Hemisensory Loss 199
Hemoptysis 201
lir 10
Lower Respiratory Tract Infection 203
Monoarticular Joint Pain 205
Numbness & Parasthesias 207
Obstructive Lung Disease 209
Palpitations & Arrhythmias 211
Pancreatitis 213
Parkinson's & Movement Disorders 215
Peripheral Vascular Disease 217
Pleural Effusion 219
Polyarticular Arthritis & Joint Pain 221
Proteinuria 223
Pruritus 225
Renal Failure 227
Restrictive Lung Disease 229
Seizures 231
Shock 233
Sleep-Disordered Breathing 235
Syncope 237
Thrombocytopenia 239
Thyroid Disease 241
Transfusion Counseling 243
Unilateral Swollen Leg 245
Vision Loss 247
Weakness 249
5 Obstetrics &Gynecology
Introduction 260
Amenorrhea 261
Antepartum Care 263
Antepartum Hemorrhage 265
Contraception 267
Dysmenorrhea & PMS 269
Dyspareunia 271
Fetal Distress 273
Fetal Growth Disorders 275
Hirsutism 277
Hypertension in Pregnancy 279
Infertility 281
Interpretation of Fetal Heart Rate 283
Intrapartum Care 285
Menopause 287
Pap Test 289
Pelvic Mass 291
Pelvic Organ Prolapse 293
Pelvic Pain 295
Postpartum Complications 297
Post Term Pregnancy Complications 299
Pregnancy Loss 301
Preterm Labor 303
Vaginal Bleeding 305
Vaginal Discharge 307
11
6 Pediatrics
Introduction 314
Abnormal Sexual Maturity 315
Abnormal Stature 317
ADHD/Learning Disorder 319
Anemia (Pediatric) 321
Childhood Communicable Diseases 323
Depressed Newborn 325
Developmental Delay 327
Down Syndrome 329
Ear Pain 331
Enuresis 333
Failure to Thrive 335
Fever without a Source in a Child <3 Months 337
Heart Murmurs 339
Immunizations 341
Limping Child 343
Neonatal Jaundice 345
Newborn Respiratory Distress/Cyanosis 347
Pediatric Bruising 349
Pediatric Dehydration 351
Pediatric Emergency 353
Pediatric Nausea & Vomiting 355
Pediatric Seizure 357
Pediatric Rash 359
Pediatric Wheeze 361
Periodic Health Exam of a Newborn 363
Periodic Health Exam of a Toddler/Child 365
Periodic Health Exam of an Adolescent 367
Speech & Language Abnormalities 369
Stricior 371
7 Psychiatry
Introduction 380
Mental Status Exam 382
Abuse 383
Anxiety Disorders 385
Bipolar Disorders 387
Depressive Disorders 389
Eating Disorders 391
Gender Dysphoria 393
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome 395
Personality Disorders 397
Peripartum Depression 399
Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders 401
Substance Use Disorders 403
Suicidal Behavior 405
8 Surgery
Introduction 410
Abnormal Mass S, CRC Screening Guidelines 411
Abdominal Pain 413
12
Ankle & Foot (Pain, Fractures, & Dislocations) 415
Anorectal Pain 417
Approach to Fracture 419
Biliary Disease: Cholelithiasis 421
Bites & Dirty Wounds 423
Bladder Obstruction & Prostate Cancer 425
Breast Lump & Cancer Screening 427
Burns 429
Diplopia 431
Dizziness/Vertigo 433
Dysphagia 435
Epistaxis 437
Gastrointestinal Bleed (Lower) 439
Gastrointestinal Bleed (Upper) 441
Gynecomastia 443
Hand (Pain. Fractures. & Dislocations) 445
Head Trauma 447
Hematuria 449
Hernia 451
Hip (Pain, Fractures, & Dislocations) 453
Jaundice 455
Knee (Pain, Fractures. & Dislocations) 457
Neck Mass/Goiter 459
Pupil Abnormalities 461
Red Eye 463
Scrotal Mass & Scrotal Pain 465
Shoulder (Pain. Fractures & Dislocations) 467
Tinnitus 469
Trauma 471
9 PHELO
Introduction 480
Approach to End of Life Care & Bereavement 481
Approach to Medical Literature 483
Capacity Assessment 485
Clinical Epidemiology 486
Confidentiality 487
Doctor-Patient Relationship 488
Informed Consent 489
Medical Assistance in Dying (MAID) 490
Personal & Professional Conduct 491
Research Ethics 492
Resource Allocation 493
Sexual Health History 494
Appendices
Appendix A: Abbreviations 499
Appendix B: Triads. Tetrads. & Pentads 507
13
7 PRIMER ASSESSMENT IN MEDICAL
EDUCATION
Vijay FRCPC
If you are reading this.you have been around long enough to know that assessment in medical school is far diff erent than assessment in
high school or undergraduate courses where multiple choice examinations and short- or long-answer essays are used. Why? Because
these methods assess mainly knowledge and not performance. Being a doctor is about doing, not just knowing. This distinction is
best demonstrated by the Miller pyramid, a commonly used paradigm amongst medical educators. The Knows level involves basic
recall of information such as anatomy, physiology, and other basic sciences. The Knows How level is a bit more complex and often
involves the application of knowledge. The Shows How level involves the learner demonstrating clinical skills in a structured, in vitro
environment. Finally, the Does level involves the real life or in vivo performance of the learner.
An Objective Structured Clinical Examination (or OSCE) is a method that assesses the Shows How level. To contrast between
the Shows How level and the Does level, you need not look that far: every teacher has had the medical student who, in an OSCE,
111 1111 palpates the radial before inflating the blood pressure cuff and then, after finding the systolic
blood pressure, reinflates to 20 mmHg above the systolic. Yet, this same medical student simply
inflates the cuff to 300 mmHg on the real patient (this is at least better than the student who Does
Why an OSCE?
Having examined what an OSCE assesses—performance, not just knowledge—next is how it Knows HowiCarnpetencel
assesses. In the past (and possibly still today in some specialties/countries), the physician's
certification exam often involved the candidate being grilled on one topic or being assessed on Knows
Otnowledoel
the examination of one organ system in one patient. An OSCE involves multiple short samples
of your clinical performance. It should come as no surprise that multiple short samples of frarrewat b tM,etsment
various content areas are a better representation of you as a student than one long sample of
one content area. Hence, the OSCE!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank the medical students, residents, and staff physicians who helped move this project forward from an idea
into production; in particular, we thank those students who were involved in the initial conceptual design of the project through
informal feedback during hallway discussions as well as those who contributed to formal focus groups. It was the dedication and
energy of our student authors who ensured that content was produced, and then later reviewed by resident and staff physician co-
authors. Finally, we thank our mentors in medical education: resident and staff physician educators alike, who have encouraged the
development of the project and peer-assisted learning.
Original start-up funds for the first edition were provided by the University of Alberta Medical Students' Association and, in part,
by a grant from the Canadian Federation of Medical Students.
14
1 I ESSENTIAL CLINICAL SKILLS
i
1 Introduction
17
Essential Dermatology 21
Fluid Resuscitation 23
Interpretation of ABG 27
Interpretation of CBC-D 31
Interpretation of Creatinine 33
Interpretation of CT 37
Interpretation of ECG 39
Interpretation of Lipids 49
Interpretation of PFT 51
Interpretation of Urinalysis 53
Pre-Operative Exam 59
Understanding Antibiotics 65
ECG (Examples) 70
Station Contributors 71
References 72
Stollery Children Hospital. Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital, Edmonton Clinic Healthy Academy
15
INTRODUCTION
In this section, you will find some of the basic skills required to be a clinical clerk or intern. Your
role as a medical student will transition from preclinical to clinical years. As a student, your primary
goal is to gain an understanding of normal human physiology and pathology, while your clerkship
experience will require you to act as an information gatherer (in the form of a patient history and
physical examination) and then as an interpreter, using your evolving knowledge of disease and
treatment. At this juncture, a refresher on the basic skills will be useful to ensure your performance
and value in the context of your clinical team.
In an OSCE or clinical scenario, you may be asked to interpret basic clinical laboratory tests or
radiographic images to demonstrate your skill as a diagnostician. The following pages discuss those
skills in further detail. Regardless of the test, do not forget the clinical context in which these tests
are being interpreted. Carefully read the clinical vignette provided with the case and use it to
corroborate your interpretation of the test. That is, do not let the pressure of limited time in the
OSCE allow you to forget that there is an individual behind the numbers reported.
This section also contains information on the basic written clinical communication skills:
prescriptions, progress notes, and orders. These written forms of medical communication are
essential to the work that physicians do. On the wards, a clearly written and concise progress note
will give your colleagues, residents, staff, consultants, and interdisciplinary team members the
ability to follow a patient's progress during a hospital stay or over the course of multiple clinic visits.
It will also give you the ability to track and quickly recall the details of a patient you are following.
Having a systematic approach to constructing clearly written prescriptions and orders will ensure
that the care of your patients is carried out and medication errors are reduced.
On the ward, in clinic, and in examination settings, medical students often are asked to provide
an oral summary of a patient interaction. When a resident or staff physician asks you to present a
case, organization is key to delivering a useful synopsis. Before beginning the presentation, take a
few seconds to think about what it is that you want to convey. Consider your message. Implicitly
painting a picture of the pertinent positives and negatives will help your audience understand the
patient's presentation and help narrow the differential diagnosis. It also will demonstrate that you
have paid careful attention to the possible differential. A clinical presentation does not need to
include every last detail about the patient—it should simply provide sufficient information to make
a decision on the current clinical presentation. As an analogy, think of your clinical presentation
as an iceberg, of which only 30 percent is above the water's surface with the vast majority hidden
below. Similarly, you should present only the key findings, while keeping in your own mental reserve
the remaining 70 percent of detail in the event you are asked. Practicing your own oral presentation
style and taking into account the type of feedback and questions that are asked are essential
to building your confidence and skill. At the end of your presentation, be ready to discuss your
differential diagnosis and steps that can be taken in the investigation, management, and disposition
of the patient.
We hope that you find these essential clinical skills useful as you begin your clinical placements and
prepare for OSCEs.
Sincerely,
Edmonton Manual Editorial Team
16
ADMISSION & DAILY ORDERS
Authors: Shawna Pandya MD. Brian Yong MD. Darren Nichols MD CCFP
IMOSM
Orders (DAD-DAVID)
• The traditional DAD-DAVID format, with some examples of common orders, is included below:
D-A-D
•
Date/Time
•
Admit to (ward/service)/Allergies
•
Diagnosis
•
Diet
Diet as tolerated (DAT)
NPO t ice chips (e.g., pre-op, aspiration risk), clear fluids, full fluids, thickened fluids (dysphagia diet)
Advancing diet (N PO sips CF —r- FE-.- DAT)
Canadian Diabetes Association: diabetic diet (small-1600kca1, med-1800kca1, Irg-2000kca1)
Cardiac/heart healthy diet, Mediterranean diet
Fluid restrictions, salt restrictions
Consider Speech Language Pathologist consult for dysphagia, aspiration risk, swallowing study
, Consider Dietary consult for content, consistency, and quality
A
Activity
Activity as tolerated (AAT)
, Ambulation orders: if necessary consult OT/PT
Up in chair for meals
, Non-weight bearing (NWB), weight-bearing as tolerated (WBAT), full weight-bearing (FVVB)
Bed rest (BR), bed rest with bathroom privileges (13RwBP)
, Bed/chair alarms
Elevate head of bed (HOB) to 30 degrees
Precautions: fall, seizure, spinal, etc.
DVT prophylaxis, compression stockings
V
•
Vital Signs
Clarify what routine VS are for each service, add on as necessary (i.e., HR. BP, RR, Temp, Sa02)
Include on-call orders: set parameters (e.g., call MD if sBP 5180mm Hg)
Specify frequency, e.g., q1h. q4h, close observation (q15min), nurse in room, constant security (psychiatry, geriatrics). routine/
regular observation (pediatrics), when awake
Neurovitals (GCS and pupils)
Peripheral pulses/doppler (vascular patient)
Capillary glucose
•
IV
Fluid, route, rate
Replace NG losses 1:1 with 1/2 NS + KCI 10 mEq/L
Pediatrics: consider Wt. age, deficit, maintenance, and ongoing losses
Parameters for locking IV when patient drinking well
Saline or heplock
Emphasize oral route when possible
•
Ins/Outs
Ins/Outs with shift change (surgery, volume status patients, heart failure)
Foley catheter
Daily weights
•
Infection Control
Droplet
, Contact
, Droplet and contact
Airborne
Significant organism
17
• Investigations
, Blood - Hematology: CBC-D. reticulocyte count, PT/INR + PIT, crossmatch, type & screen
o Blood Biochemistry: liver function tests, liver enzymes (AST. ALT, ALP), urea, Cr. electrolytes (Na*, K+. Cl-. HCO3-), glucose,
Ca', PO4,TSH,Vit 812, folate, CK, CKMB
, Blood - Culture: viral serology. culture
0 Urine: R&M. C&S
o Imaging: X-ray, MRI, CT, bone scan
Other: ABCs, ECG. echo
Consults: Pharmacy, OT/PT, Dietician, Social Work, Pastoral Care, other specialties
Drugs
0 Check allergies (include latex, iodine, and tape allergies)
o Include drug name, dosage, route, frequency and stop date if applicable (i.e.. ATBx. narcotics)
6Ps:
, Pain (analgesia) - always include a Tylenol order unless contraindicated (maximum 4 g from all sources per day; max 2 g if
hepatic dysfunction)
o Puke (antiemetics) -always include an antiemetic order, especially if patient on narcotics
o Poop (bowel care) - especially important if patient is on narcotics
0 Pillow (sedation) - sleeping pills
o PE (DVT prophylaxis)
o Previous home medications
Drains
o Foley (to urometer)
o NC to low wall suction
o G-tube or 1-tube to straight drainage
Reprime JP/hemovac qshift and PRN
Dressings
o Change dressing QD. PRN; remove staples day x post-op
Signature
• Signature, printed name, training (e.g., SI-3, PGY-4, etc.), pager number
Note: Be sure to flag the patient's chart once orders are written. Any stat, important, or nuanced orders should be communicated to
nursing colleagues.
18
Isms.
Background
• Pain is the most common reason for emergency department visits
• Pain is both a physical and psychological experience ON 1
• Chronic pain is a common and complex disorder often requiring multidisciplinary treatment
• Nociceptive pain: the activation of nociceptive pain pathways via tissue damage. Differentiate between somatic pain (sharp,
stabbing, well localized, etc.) and visceral pain (dull, achy, poorly localized)
• Neuropathic pain: pain resulting from an abdominal neural activity. Patients may experience burning, tingling, shooting, or
electric pain
History
• OPQRST pain history: Onset. Provoking or Palliating factors, Quality,
Radiation. Severity, Treatment
• Are there associated symptoms such as fever/chills, cough, decreased Potent °plaid
range of motion in joints, paresthesias, etc. (eg. Morphine,
Dilaudid.
• Assess how pain is affecting day to day function (work, activities of daily
' Oxycontin, Fentanyl]
living, personal life, sleep) Non-opioid
• Past medical history and medication use (history of cancer, -V- Adjuvant
musculoskeletal injury, psychiatric diagnoses, peptic ulcer disease,
chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, anticoagulation) Mild Opioid [codeine, hydrocodonej
• Social history (occupation, recreational drug use, social support system) +/. Non opioid +/- Adjuvant
• The Visual Analog Scale (VAS) is a standardized means of assessing pain
severity. Clinically, patients can also rate pain severity between 1-10 Non optowl [Acetaminophen. NSAID] Adjuvant
(Verbal Numeric Rating Scale) or use the Wong-Baker FACES pain scale,
which is suitable for patients of a variety of ages, all cultures, and those Adapted from WHO Pain Ladder
with cognitive impairment. Analgesic Ladder: initially developed by WHO to address
• Address chronic pain and its management in the acute pain setting cancer pain. It has now been adapted as a stepwise
(e.g.. post-operatively). It is recommended that patients continue their approach to the management of pain from any etiology
baseline analgesics even in the setting of new acute pain. Multimodal Analgesia: involves the use of medications
• Continually reassess the etiology of the pain in the setting of failing synergestic analgesic effects while minimizing the side
analgesia as medical comorbidities and surgical complications may be effects of approaching the dose ceiling of individual
confounding variables.
Acute Pain
19
Breakthrough Pain (BTP)
Definition; a transient exacerbation of pain that occurs in the context of otherwise stable baseline pain
When treating BTP pharmacologically, one must first ensure that baseline pain is being treated effectively with appropriate
doses of around-the-clock (ATC) analgesics. This results in smoother pain control and decreased need to "play catch up" with
PRN medications.
Regular reassessment of baseline pain is recommended. Should persistent BTP be occurring before scheduled doses of ATC
analgesic, consider either increasing the total daily dose of ATC medication by 25-50% or shortening the dosing interval if the
patient is already at the maximum tolerable daily dose (i.e., divide the same dose of daily medication such that it is administered
at shorter intervals throughout the day).
If the patient is utilizing several PRN doses in addition to ATC medication, adjust the total daily ATC dose. This is done by taking
the daily sum of the PRN doses, converting it into the dose equivalency of the ATC medication, and then dividing it equally to be
added to the ATC medication. A new PRN dose can be added, which is usually 5-10% of the new total daily ATC dose.
Chronic Pain: pain persisting for 3 months or longer
• Treatment:
Multidisciplinary approach is key
Treatment options in chronic pain generally include pharmacological, behavioral medicine, physical medicine, neuromodulation,
and surgical approaches
Generally, the initial pharmacological therapy is targeted depending on whether the pain is nociceptive or neuropathic
Nociceptive Pain
Medication:
Similar medications as neuropathic pain; however first line therapy includes both non-opioid analgesics (e.g., acetaminophen,
NSAIDs) and, in some cases, extended release opioids in addition to attempts to relieve source of pain (see pain ladder)
Non-pharmacological:
) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (COT), relaxation therapy, meditation, aerobic exercise, acupuncture
Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy
Thermal compresses
Neuropathic Pain
• Initially try to establish etiology of chronic pain and target therapy to the cause
• Medication:
First line therapy includes: TCA Antidepressants, Gabapentin, and Pregabalin
SSRIs
Topical therapy (e.g., topical lidocaine, capsaicin cream) may be used in conjunction
Opioids are not considered first line therapy as they are not as efficacious in neuropathic pain yet carry many side effects. May
sometimes be used for BTP.
Surgical intervention in the form of spinal cord stimulators or transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) may be an
Option for certain patients with refractory, severe neuropathic pain
Many patients will benefit from referral to chronic pain or palliative care clinics to ensure continuity and close monitoring.
'Always remember to manage the side effects of the medications being used (i.e., oversedation, nausea, and constipation with
opiates and the need for gut protection in the form of Proton Pump Inhibitors when using NSAIDs).
Pain Management
Acute Pain (<3mo) Chronic Pain (>3mo)
1
Non-pharm and pharm Rx
I 20
ESSENTIAL DERMATOLOGY •
Current Editor: Yan Fel Chen
pi ne
Common Conditions
• Acne vulgaris, atopic eczema, psoriasis vulgaris, actinic keratosis, seborrheic keratosis, basal cell carcinoma, androgenic alopecia,
vitiligo. melasma
High Mortality/Morbidity
• Melanoma. Stevens-Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, necrotizing fasciitis, pemphigus vulgaris
HISTORY
PHYSICAL
WENN
21
BOX 2: Primary Lesions BOX 3: Secondary Lesions
• Macule flat, non-palpable lesion. <1 cm • Scales: excess keratin (e.g., psoriasis)
- Patch: flat, non-palpable lesion, >1cm (e.g.. vitiligo. café au lsit spot) • Crusts. dried serum, scab (e.g., impetigo)
• Papule: palpable lesion, elevated above the skin, <1 cm • Erosion: loss of epidermis, heal without scarring (e.g..
(e.g., molluscum contagiosum, acne vulgar's) dermatophyte infection)
- Plaque. palpable lesion, elevated above the skin, >1 cm • Ulcer. loss of epidermis and dermis, heal with scarring (e.g.,
stasis ulcer)
(e.g., psoriasis)
• Fissure: linear loss of epidermis and dermis
• Vesicle: <1 cm blister (e.g., varicella, contact dermatitis)
• Atrophy. thinning of epidermis or dermis causing depression
• Bulla: > 1 cm blister (e.g., bullous pemphigoid) (e.g., morphea)
• Pustule: superficial cavity of the skin that contains a purulent • Scarring: abnormal formation of connective tissue after
exudate (e.g., folliculitis) dermal injury (e.g., keloid)
• Nodule: <1 cm deep palpable solid lesion within the skin; depth • Special Lesions:
and size differentiate a nodule from a papule: often better felt than
• Excoriation: scratch mark; if lesions occur at site of
seen (e.g., lipoma)
scratching it is called Koebner's phenomenon
• Tumor: >1 cm nodule
• Comedone: hair follicle plugged with sebaceous and
• Cyst: cavity containing fluid or semi-solid (e.g.. pilar cyst) keratinous material (e.g., acne)
• Petechiae: <0.5 cm deposits of extravasated red blood cells
• Wheal. rounded or flat-topped papule or plaque that is evanescent
due to edema of the dermis (e.g., hives, angioedema) (RBC) suggestive of vasculitis
• Purpura: >0.5 cm petechiae (e.g., senile traumatic purpura)
• Telangiectasias: dilated superficial blood vessels (e.g.,
rosacea, basal cell carcinoma. CREST syndrome)
INVESTIGATIONS BASED ON CLINICAL SUSPICION
Investigations
• CBC, ESR, CRP; ANA if suspicious of connective tissue disease
BOX 4: Hair, Scalp, and Nail Examination
• TSH, fasting glucose, blood culture; LFTs and organ specific
labs if suspicious of other systemic disease • Hair and Scalp: texture, scars, thinning, absence (alopecia)
• Imaging as relevant for systemic disease or melanoma staging or excess (hypertrichosis), infestations (lice), masses (on
• CXR (heart or lung pathology) scalp), plaques, crusting
• Skin scraping for fungal KOH test • Nails: clubbing, thickness. pitting (psoriasis), separation
• Wood's lamp for depigmented lesions from nail bed (onycholysis), yellow discoloration of nail bed
• Surgical/Diagnostic Interventions (oil drop sign for psoriasis), other discoloration. periungual
• Biopsy: shave (epidermal), punch (extends into dermis and erythema, splinter hemorrhages (endocarditis)
subcutaneous tissue), or excisional
Biopsy is indicated in lesions suspected of neoplastic, bullous
disorders or unclear diagnosis with clincial exam alone
TREATMENT
Emergent
• Stop offending agent if drug reaction (e.g., Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis)
• Start antimicrobials for infection (e.g., cellulitis) or immunosuppressive agent for immune mediated disease
Treatment Options
• Topical: steroids, antibiotics, antifungals, emollients, retinoids, etc.
, steroid strength depends on dosage and vehicle
steroid examples: weak (hydrocortisone acetate 0.1% cream), moderate (mometasone furoate 0.1% cream), strong
(clobetasol 0.05% ointment)
• Systemic medications: immunosuppressives (oral/IV steroids. methotrexate), retinoids. ATBx. antimalarials
• Light: narrow band ultraviolet B, ultraviolet A (PUVA), laser therapy
• Surgical: curettage, cryotherapy. electrotherapy, scalpel
Follow-up
• Monitor skin findings over time to evaluate progression, monitor for medication side effects
Referral as indicated
22
FLUID RESUSCITATION
Authors: Malgorzata Ejsmont MD. Adam Dryden MD. Timothy Yeh MD FRCPC
ISOM
FLUID BALANCE
Fluid Distribution
Basics
TBW 421
• Fluid makes up 50-60% total body weight (TBW)
• Water movement: mainly osmotic forces (Na, K) IFC 2/3 EFC 1/3
I
Interstitial 3/4
• Note: Intravascular volume ECF (plasma 3-3.5 L) + ICF (RBC 2-2.51)
in 70kg male IntraYascular 1/4
FLUID THERAPY IV
CRYSTALLOID
• Aqueous solution of salts t glucose (see table below: Common Crystalloid Solutions)
• Equilibrate in entire ECF: given as 3-4 x volume deficit
• Initial resuscitation in hemorrhagic/septic shock, burns --1.- maintain cerebral perfusion
, Isotonic (replacement): if H20 and electrolyte deficit (distribute ECF)
, Hypotonic: if free H20 deficit only (distribute ICF/ECF)
, Hypertonic: in severe, symptomatic hyponatremia (shift ICF —0. ECF)
, Blood derived: albumin (5% and 25%), plasma protein fraction (5%)
, Synthetic: Dextran— (40 and 70), Hetastarch'" (6%). Pent aspan' (pentastarch),Voluvee(hydroxyethyl starch)
BLOOD • PRBC: compensate for anemia, not volume deficit
• Give when anemia risks 'risks of transfusion (Hgb 70-80 g/L)
• 1 unit: Hgb + 10 g/L, warm to >370if need >1-2 units
hyperchloremic acidosis
Ringer's 273 6.5 130 109 28' 3 lactic acidosis
4 _
- -
hyponatremia
3% Saline 1026 5.0 513 513 - - - -
hypernatremia, hemolysis
'converted from lactate
23
FLUID THERAPY ORAL
• Preferred in pediatric patients with mild-moderate dehydration (equivalent to IV therapy)
• Maintenance solutions (Pedialyte`",Ricelyte`"): Na 45-50 mEq/L, glucose 2-3%
• Rehydration solutions (WHO formulation. Rehydralite): Na (60-90 mEq/L) --a. improve water absorption
• Administer slowly to decrease emesis: mild (50 ml/kg over 4 hrs), moderate (100 ml/kg over 4 hrs)
11111 1k ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT
Initial Assessment: ABCs, VS (BP, HR, RR, Temp, Sa02), IV, monitor, SAMPLE Hx
• Assessment of severity (see table)
, Consider DDx (see Trauma [in Surgery] and Shock [in Internal Medicine])
• Fluid resuscitation goals: restore vital organ perfusion, maintain adequate oxygen delivery, limit ongoing loss of RBC
IV Access
• 2 large bore Ns (16/18) in peripheral veins H. investigations, type & cross match (if necessary)
• If severe shock or peripheral IV not achieved large catheter introducer (8-9 Fr) in internal jugular/femoral vein
• If major vascular injury in abdomen/pelvis -04- establish vascular access above diaphragm Isubclavian/jugular)
Hemodynamic Assessment
• Continuous monitoring of V5 (BP. HR. RR, Temp, 5a02). ECG
• Frequent reassessment for signs of decreased perfusion: mental status, capillary refill, temperature of extremities
• Other: urine catheter (end organ perfusion), arterial line (serial ABCs, normalization of lactate). central venous pressure, central
venous oxygen saturation (ScV02 - 02 extraction, global perfusion)
IV Therapy (also see Pediatric Emergency [in Pediatrics])
IMMO
• Isotonic crystalloids: (RL or NS) x 2-3 L wide open (adult)
Hemodynamically unstable: suggests >15-20% blood volume lost or significant ongoing loss -..transfusion
Adequate response -4w continue crystalloid, monitor hemodilution
• Blood transfusion
, If not typed/cross-matched -r- transfuse 0+ (male), 0- (female)
Severe hemorrhagic shock -a. transfuse initially
, Bleed controlled-I- target Hgb >70 g/L
4M 44 • Hemorrhage, large volume resuscitated: dilutional coagulopathy
, Massive transfusion protocol: 6u PRBC, 6u FFP, 1 pool PLTs
Referrals
• Surgery (control bleed), ICU if need for vasoactive drugs to support arterial pressure or cardiac output, circulatory instability
unresponsive to volume replacement, decreased LOC, need for invasive monitoring, etc.
24
INTERPRETATION OF ABDOMINAL RADIOGRAPH
Authors: Babak Maghdoori MD, Christopher Fung MD. Ed Wiebe MD FRCPC
HISTORY
Determine the following prior to acquiring/reading the radiograph:
• Patient's name, age, gender, and date of image
• HPI: acute/chronic, level of progression of the disease
• Availability of previous imaging
• Determine the type of the image (supine/prone/decubitus)
• Ensure completeness of the abdominal film series (i.e., ''the 3 views": supine AXR, erect AXR, and a CXR)
, Note: if patient is unable to stand for an upright abdominal radiograph, acquire a left lateral decubitus AXR
INTERPRETATION
Basic approach: ABCD or GreatBigFART Great - gas pattern
• Air (free air/gas pattern) Big - bowel wall air
• Bones (fractures, metastatic disease) F - free air
Technical Quality
• Level of penetration
, Normal penetration: vertebral columns (lumbar and thoracic) can be seen clearly
, Under-penetration: AXR is too white
, Over- penetration: AXR is too dark
• Inclusion: ensure that the entire abdomen (diaphragm to the proximal femoral head) is included in the study
Foreign/Therapeutic Objects
• Comment on any lines. iatrogenic devices, tubes present (e.g., foley. NG tube, ECG leads), and/or swallowed/inserted items
Gas Patterns
• Normal: gas present in the stomach and a few loops of transverse colon/sigmoid, colon/rectum
In a healthy, ambulatory adult the small bowel usually has very little or no air unless the patient has recently eaten
• Abnormal: multiple loops of small bowel and/or large bowel filled with gas (supine); multiple air fluid levels and/or a paucity of
gas in the sigmoid colon/rectum (upright AXR); bubbles of air in bowel wall (pneumatosis)
• DDx for abnormal bowel gas pattern: ileus or mechanical obstruction
• lieus: typically seen in post-operative patients (gas is present in sigmoid colon/rectum)
• Mechanical obstruction: sick patients (no gas in the sigmoid colon/rectum, unless distal obstruction)
DDx for small bowel obstruction: adhesions, hernia, tumor
• DDx for large bowel obstruction: tumor, diverticulitis, volvulus (sigmoid or cecum)
• Extraluminal air:
• Rigler/double wall sign: sign of pneumoperitoneum with air outlining both sides of the bowel wall
• Evaluate underneath the hemidiaphragms for possible free air
• Pathologically significant unless recent intra-abdominal surgery (up to 5-7 days post op)
• DDx: perforated ulcer. diverticulitis, perforated ischemic bowel, etc.
Bowel
• Carefully look for bowel wall thickening and narrowing of the lumen, as well as air in bowel wall
• Small bowel diameter <3.5 cm; large bowel diameter <6 cm (variable): cecal diameter <9 cm
Bones
• Begin with the spine, then study the ribs, followed by the pelvis, and finally the upper femurs
• Determine the proper alignment of the vertebral bodies, pedicles. and spinal/transverse processes
• Evaluate for signs of osteoarthritis, scoliosis, and other degenerative disease in the vertebral column
• Overall, carefully examine the bones for any fractures, lytic/blastic lesions, and/or metastatic disease
• Note: bowel gas patterns, in particular around the pelvis. may closely resemble lytic patterns
Calcifications and Abnormal Densities
• DDx: GU stones, gallstones, chronic pancreatitis. calcified lymph nodes, fibroid tumors, calcified arteries, calcified wall of aortic
aneurysm. etc. Note that phleboliths are commonly seen and generally not clinically significant.
25
Free Fluids
26
'MEM
INTERPRETATION OF ABG
Current Editor: liana Yu MSc MO
BASICS
• Patient 1D/date of test
• Patient demographics: age, gender, ethnicity
• Pre-test data: determine if the test was performed with patient on room air or 02 flow
• Compare: previous ABGs if available
DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
MENNE
SELECTED CAUSES OF ACID-BASE DISORDERS
BASICS OF INTERPRETATION
What is the clinical context?
• Past medical history: CHF. COPD, renal disease, acute overdose, etc.
• Stable or unstable condition
• Is this patient being ventilated? If so, how is 02 being delivered?
How is the patient ventilating? (PaCO2)
• PaCO2 <35 mmHg then suggests hyperventilation
• PaCO2 >45 mmHg then suggests hypoventilation
What is the patient's arterial oxygenation? (Pa02)
OMNI.
• Normal Pa02 is 80-100 mmHg depending on age (Pa02+ with age)
• Causes of low Pa02 include
High alveolar PaCO2 from hypoventilation
+ atmospheric 02 content and/or atmospheric pressure
Ventilation/perfusion mismatch
27
CLINICAL APPROACH TO INTERPRETATION
PaCO2 44 44 4 + -
Partially
Compensated pH 4 4 + 4 - -
PaCO2 44 44 44 44 -
COMPENSATION RULES
Acid/Base Disorder Compensation Rule
Acute respiratory acidosis 4 PCO2: 4 HCO3 = 10:1
Chronic respiratory acidosis 4 PCO2: 4 HCO3 = 10:4
Acute respiratory alkalosis 4 PCO214 HCO3 = 10:2
Chronic respiratory
alkalosis 4 PCO2: 4 HCO3 = 10:5
INVESTIGATIONS
Note: The approach to interpretation presented here focuses on a single acid-base disorder. Real-world clinical scenarios often
involve multiple acid-base disorders and should be interpreted in the context of clinical information.
28
INTERPRETATION OF CHEST RADIOGRAPH
Current Editor Edwin Cheng MD
Width >8 cm PA CXR .-o• "widened mediastinum" DDx: aortic dissection, aortic aneurysm, mediastinal mass
•
Hila/Lymph nodes
, Assess for lymphadenopathy
If thickness of superior vessels 'inferior vessels vascular redistribution (DDx: edema, effusion, Cl-IF, etc.)
Heart
Determine cardiothoracic ratio: lateral width of heart relative to thoracic cage in PA view <50% normal
If enlarged (>50%), possible DDx: cardiomegaly, pericardial effusion
Visualization of right and left heart border (see "Pneumonia" on following page)
•
Great vessels
Assess pulmonary trunk, aortic arch, and descending thoracic aorta for any enlargement and/or calcification
•
Lungs
Ensure examination of the entire lung field, side-to-side comparison
, Airspace disease: DDx: pneumonia (pus), pulmonary edema (fluid), hemorrhage (blood), tumor
, Interstitial disease (lung markings thicker/more prominent): DDx: pulmonary edema, viral pneumonia, inflammation
, Obvious masses: consider lung cancer, tuberculosis, pulmonary nodules
•
Pleura
Blunting of costophrenic angles, suspect pleural effusion
) Look for any abnormalities in the diaphragm (e.g., excessive elevation)
, Pleural calcifications/thickening, pleural-based mass and calcified plural plaques often 2° to asbestos exposure
-
Diaphragm
, Right hemidiaphragm often slightly higher than the left 2° to the liver
, Check for free air under the diaphragm on upright projection for pneumoperitoneum
•
Bones and soft tissues
, Examine bones: look for fractures, lytic/blastic bone processes, or any distortion of normal bone contour
, Cervical and thoracic spine: look for the contour and height of the spinous processes and pedicles
, Examine soft tissues: breast tissues. axillae, subclavicular areas, etc. Check for subcutaneous emphysema, axillary masses.
surgical staples.
, Bilateral breast shadows: axillary staples t ipsilateral loss of a breast shadow
29
LATERAL VIEW
• Examine anatomy as described above, focusing on spine: assess the contour and height of the vertebral bodies
• Follow peripheral parenchyma along spine superior to inferior: lung fields should darken inferiorly. Whitening of lung fields
inferiorly (the "spine sign") suggests pathology (e.g., lower lobe pneumonia).
• Assess the hemidiaphragms for evidence of hyperinflation (flattening)
• Confirm pathology seen on PA, view and determine posterior-anterior location
COMMON RADIOGRAPHIC FINDI GS ON A C R
• Pulmonary edema
r Vascular redistribution to the upper lobes, interstitial edema (thickening of interstitial markings Kerley B lines,
peribronchial cuffing, visualization of fissures), alveolar edema, pleural effusions, cardiomegaly
DDx: CHF, renal failure
Frontal: hyperinflated lungs (>10 posterior ribs visualized), flattened hemidiaphragms, bullae
Lateral: increased retrosternal air space and flattened hemidiaphragms
r In COPD, increased risk of apical pneumothorax
2. Mediastinum
3. Right heart border
4. Left heart border
5. Aortic arch
6. Lung fields
7. Costophrenic angles
8. Hemidiaphragms
9. Breast shadows
12. Scapula
13. Acromioclavicular joint
14. Clavicle
15. 8th posterior rib
16. e anterior rib
30
INTERPRETATION OF CBC-D
Current Editor: Bradiey Brochu MD
HISTORY
• Infection (fever, chills, cough, diarrhea, dysuria, headache, skin infection) & inflammation (joint redness/swelling and rash)
• Malignancy (constitutional symptoms: unintended wt loss, unexplained fevers and night sweats)
• Anemia (SOB, presyncope, sources of blood loss)
• Easy bruising or bleeding
• Identify those patients in need of urgent care [e.g., shock (i.e., tachycardia, hypotension. poor peripheral vascular perfusion),
respiratory distress, cardiac ischemia/infarction, and decreased LOCI
PHYSICAL
• Inspection: pallor, jaundice. petechiae, purpura, ecchymosis, joint redness/swelling, skin rash, local signs of infection
• Palpation: lymph nodes, liver, spleen; digital rectal exam is contraindicated if neutrophil count <1.0. inspect the area only
• Percussion: Castell's sign/Traube's space (splenomegaly), liver margin
• Auscultation; flow murmur (high cardiac output in anemia, fever)
Red Flags
• Combined abnormalities including pancytopenia (anemia, thrombocytopenia. and neutropenia)
• Fatigue, recurrent infections, abnormal bleeding, Wt loss, night sweats
POLYCYTHEMIA
• Hemoconcentration (dehydration. burns, V/D). response to hypoxia (sleep apnea, COPD and
Secondary other cardiopulmonary disease, smoking, CO poisoning, renal artery stenosis. high oxygen-
affinity hemoglobinopathy). and autonomous EPO secreting conditions and tumors
ANEMIA
• TAILS: Thalassemia. Anemia of chronic disease. Iron deficiency, Lead intoxication, Sideroblastic
MICROCYTIC (MCV <80 FL) anemia
• Note: elevated RDW suggests iron deficiency anemia
NORMOCYTIC (MCV 80-100 FL)
• + reticulocytes (>2% of RBC) • Bone marrow response to the 4Hs (Hemorrhage, Hypoxia, Hematinics, and Hemolysis)
• Bone marrow suppression or infiltration (severe nutritional deficiency. ACD, aplastic anemia,
• + reticulocytes (<1% of RBC) bone marrow failure from primary hematologic or metastatic malignancy)
• Megaloblastic anemia (812/folate deficiency), liver disease, Et0H abuse, myelodysplasia,
MACROCYTIC (MCV 3.100 FL)
thyroid dysfunction, reticulocytosis. anti-DNA and folate drugs, some cases of aplastic anemia
31
NEUTROPHI LS
Role in innate immunity, ANC; normal values: 1.8-7.5 x 109/1_, ANC < 1.0 increases general infection risk
• Infection (primarily bacterial), inflammatory disorders (gout, autoimmune, collagen vascular), drugs (steroids,
NEUTROPHILIA
lithium, catecholamines, G-CSF and GM-CSF), tissue ischemia and infarction (MI, stroke), smoking,
pregnancy, post-splenectomy, metabolic (uremia. ketoacidosis), general physiologic stress response,
leukemia and myeloproliferative disease, and hereditary (extremely rare)
NEUTROPENIA
Increased
Destruction • Infection/sepsis, inflammation, autoimmune, drugs
Decreased • Drugs, chemotherapy, bone marrow failure and/or infiltration (including aplastic anemia), cyclic. hereditary
Production • Immunodeficiency
Sequestration • Hypersplenism
LYMPHOCYTES
immin
Role in adaptive immunity; normal values: 1-4.5 x 109/L; reactive lymphocytes in EBV infection
• Viral infection (infectious mononucleosis), pertussis, drugs, endocrine disorders (thyrotoxicosis, adrenal
LYMPHOCYTOSIS insufficiency), allergic reactions. autoimmune disease, lymphoproliferative disorders (CLL=classicl, smoking,
and transient stress lymphocytosis
LYMPHOPENIA
• Immune deficiency syndromes (including HIV), acute/chronic illness, immunosuppressive therapies
(chemotherapeutic agents, radiation). bone marrow failure and malignancy. idiopathic
MONOCYTES
MONOCYTOSIS Chronic infection (such as TB, fungal, bacterial, viral, etc.), inflammatory (sarcoidosis. IBD, collagen vascular
disease), neoplasms (hematologic and non-hematologic), post-splenectomy
EOSINOPHILS
Role in response to parasites (especially helminths) and allergic response; normal values: 0-0.7 x 109/L
• Allergic/hypersensitivity reactions, drug reactions, parasite infestation, autoimmune and collagen vascular
EOSINOPHILIA disease, cutaneous (pemphigus, eczema. atopic dermatitis), pulmonary (sarcoidosis, bronchiectasis.
111MIN. pneumonia, cystic fibrosis) and GI disorders (celiac disease, IBD), neoplasms (Hodgkin's lymphoma, T cell
lymphomas, carcinomas), and certain drugs (cytokine and interleukin therapy)
BASOPHIIS
• Role mostly unknown, likely in allergic response; normal values: 0-0.3 x 109/L
• Basophilia: allergic/hypersensitivity, inflammatory, endocrinopathy (DM, hypothyroidism), chronic renal disease, and
myeloproliferative disorders (especially CML)
IMMIN
PLATELET COUNT
Actual number of platelets per volume of blood; normal values: 150-400 x 109/L
THROMBOCYTOSIS
• Severe nutritional deficiency, infection and inflammation, chemo and radiation therapy, bone
Decreased PLT Production marrow failure (including aplastic anemia) or infiltration (primary hematologic or metastatic
disease), hereditary
32
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est ce pays des forêts, situé par delà les Andes. Il est comme
enfermé entre les grandes solitudes du Brésil occidental et la
gigantesque Cordillère. Le chemin de fer transandin va lui donner la
vie et, plus tard, atteignant l’un des grands affluents de l’Amazone,
l’Ucayali, aura créé une voie directe sur l’Europe, par laquelle
s’écouleront les produits de cet immense territoire.
On peut affirmer que jamais l’établissement d’une voie ferrée ne
présenta pareilles difficultés.
Le chemin de fer de l’Oroya gravit une hauteur de 4,700 mètres,
sur un parcours de 200 kilomètres, ce qui donne une pente moyenne
de 22 millimètres par mètre. La ligne compte 45 tunnels et 25 ponts,
dont l’un a des piles de 79 mètres de hauteur (quatre à cinq fois
l’une des plus hautes maisons de Paris).
Il a fallu une audace et une énergie peu ordinaires pour
entreprendre et mener à bien un pareil projet. L’honneur de son
exécution en revient d’abord au gouvernement du Pérou, puis à M.
Meiggs, ingénieur américain, concessionnaire des deux lignes de
Mollendo au lac Titicaca et de Lima à Oroya, enfin à M. Malinowski,
déjà nommé.
Vers huit heures du matin, notre train commence à attaquer
sérieusement la montagne ; nous sommes entrés dans la région
interandine, la Sierra. Le paysage devient sévère et les précipices se
creusent sous notre route à mesure que s’effectue l’ascension. La
voie ferrée ne peut plus trouver assez de place pour y développer
ses courbes ; alors le train s’engage dans un cul-de-sac sans issue,
s’arrête à son extrémité ; un aiguilleur change la voie, véritable lacet,
et la machine, repartant en arrière, nous pousse sur une nouvelle
pente. Ainsi, tantôt tirés, tantôt poussés, nous escaladons une
succession de terrasses superposées à des hauteurs qui déjà nous
donnent le vertige. Voici le pont de Verrugas, d’une hardiesse inouïe,
jeté entre deux montagnes séparées par un précipice, le tablier est à
claire-voie, et le regard plonge librement dans le vide. Plus loin, le
pont de Challapa, tout en fer comme le premier, construit en France
et ajusté sur les lieux par des ouvriers français. On nous fait
remarquer, sur le revers des montagnes, de larges plates-formes
soutenues par des pierres, travail primitif des Indiens, déjà attirés
par les gisements métalliques.
Le train s’arrête au village de Matucana. Nous ne sommes
encore qu’à quatre-vingt-dix kilomètres de la capitale, et l’altitude est
de deux mille quatre cents mètres. Après avoir été vite, mais
consciencieusement écorchés par des exploiteurs allemands
installés au buffet de la station, nous repartons.
L’aspect de la montagne devient tout à fait grandiose ; notre route
est une course échevelée par-dessus des gouffres invraisemblables,
à travers d’étroits tunnels se succédant presque sans interruption.
Soudain, au sortir d’une profonde obscurité, nous nous engageons
sur un pont jeté en travers d’une énorme crevasse formée par deux
murailles de rochers à pic, dont les bases se perdent dans un
abîme. Le site a un caractère de sauvagerie diabolique, et l’endroit
est bien nommé : el puente del Infernillo, le pont de l’Enfer ! Nous
avançons doucement, nous franchissons ce sombre passage, non
sans quelque émotion, et le train disparaît de nouveau dans un
tunnel qui sert de lit à un torrent qu’on s’apprête à détourner ; les
eaux roulent au-dessous de nous avec un mugissement
assourdissant et sinistre, la machine semble lutter avec peine contre
ce nouvel obstacle. Je ne puis rendre le sentiment d’admiration et de
crainte que nous éprouvâmes en cet endroit. Cette escalade à toute
vapeur de la plus grande chaîne de montagnes qui soit au monde
n’est-elle pas véritablement extraordinaire ? Nous sommes encore
bien plus « empoignés » par ces deux simples rubans de fer que par
les sévères beautés du paysage, et les vers du grand poète des
Odes et Ballades reviennent à ma mémoire :
De tous les pays que nous avons visités, le Pérou est celui dont
l’histoire primitive est la plus intéressante, d’abord parce qu’elle
porte un cachet d’originalité très remarquable, ensuite parce que la
race actuelle tient beaucoup plus de la race indigène qu’en aucune
autre contrée de l’Amérique du Sud.
Tout porte à croire que le continent américain a été peuplé par
des migrations asiatiques, mais je n’oserais m’engager dans une
discussion sur ce point. Ce qui est considéré comme certain, c’est
qu’avant l’arrivée des Incas, dont le premier, Manco-Capac, est tout
simplement descendu du ciel avec sa femme Mama-Oello, vers l’an
1000 de notre ère, le territoire péruvien était occupé par diverses
tribus dont les plus importantes étaient les Chinchas, les Quichuas
et celle des Aymaraës. Cette dernière avait la singulière coutume de
déformer la tête des enfants, le plus souvent de manière à lui donner
une hauteur tout à fait anormale ; une telle distinction ne s’appliquait
qu’aux personnes bien nées, et sans doute il y avait à cet égard des
règles de convenance absolument obligatoires.
On croit que Manco-Capac, avant de descendre du ciel, avait
passé les premières années de sa jeunesse parmi ces guerriers au
crâne pointu.
Cet homme extraordinaire ne tarda pas à devenir grand prêtre et
empereur incontesté de tous ceux qui entendirent sa parole. Il
mourut paisiblement après avoir régné quarante ans ; son fils
continua l’œuvre commencée, compléta ses lois, agrandit ses
domaines, et, successivement, douze Incas s’assirent sur le trône de
Manco-Capac.
Cet empire théocratique, fondé par un seul homme, se
perpétuant et prospérant pendant quatre siècles et sur l’étendue de
douze générations consécutives, est certainement le fait le plus
étrange de l’histoire du monde. Par quelle mystérieuse influence ces
souverains improvisés ont-ils pu faire respecter leur domination sur
plusieurs peuples très différents, occupant un espace de trois
millions de kilomètres carrés ? Nul ne peut l’expliquer. Bien des
livres donnent, avec force détails, des renseignements sur la religion
fondée par les Incas et principe de leur autorité ; malheureusement,
on ne peut avoir que peu de confiance dans ces récits, parce qu’ils
émanent d’Espagnols fanatiques ou de métis convertis au
catholicisme.
Il est vraisemblable que le Soleil, plutôt que l’idéalité par laquelle
ces historiens ont cherché à le remplacer, occupait le premier rang
dans la mythologie des Incas ; l’empereur n’était rien moins que le
petit-fils du Soleil, ce qui le faisait, dans le fait, l’égal de la plus haute
divinité. La coutume des empereurs Incas était d’épouser une de
leurs sœurs ; l’impératrice devenait ainsi la personnification de la
lune (ainsi que le prouvent les statues des temples de Cuzco), et la
succession au trône était dévolue aux premiers enfants mâles issus
de ces mariages.
Si les Incas s’étaient bornés à ces joies de famille, constamment
isolés au milieu de leur peuple, ils eussent vraisemblablement été
renversés ou abandonnés avant la venue des Espagnols. Mais le
prudent fondateur de la dynastie avait eu le soin de laisser, en
dehors de ses enfants légitimes, une postérité des plus nombreuses,
officielle sinon régulière, en sorte que, imité par ses successeurs, la
famille impériale devint bientôt une nation dans la nation, multipliant
avec une incroyable rapidité, grâce au pouvoir absolu dont
jouissaient tous ces descendants d’Apollon.
Bien que les empereurs fussent, de droit divin, maîtres de leurs
sujets et de leurs biens, législateurs et justiciers, autocrates dans
toute la force du mot, ce n’est pas par la terreur qu’ils avaient assis
et maintenu leur puissance. Leur despotisme allait jusqu’à défendre
de changer de lieu et jusqu’à interdire absolument l’écriture. On ne
peut donc imaginer un esclavage plus étroit que celui de ces
malheureux peuples ; cependant il n’y eut, pendant la domination
des Incas, que peu d’exécutions, et les idoles ne réclamaient que
rarement des sacrifices humains. Ces tyrans ne manquaient jamais
de proclamer bien haut les principes de droit et « d’égalité », de
protester de leur respect pour les anciennes coutumes, de leur
tendresse à l’égard de leurs sujets, du souci qu’ils avaient de leur
bien-être. Mais ce n’étaient là que de vaines déclamations ; leur
fantaisie était la loi, le sol et ses habitants leur propriété ; nul ne
pouvait se mouvoir, parler, trafiquer, aimer, vivre, en un mot, sans la
permission du maître.
Il suffit d’une poignée d’aventuriers pour renverser le colosse.
L’empereur mort ou prisonnier, il ne devait plus rester de ce
monstrueux état social qu’un troupeau d’esclaves à la merci du
premier venu ; aussi ne fut-ce que par précaution qu’après le
meurtre d’Atahuallpa, Pizarre le remplaça par un fantôme
d’empereur, dont il ne s’embarrassa guère, malgré ses tentatives de
révolte. Ce dernier des souverains Incas se nommait, ainsi que le
premier, Manco-Capac.
Après la bataille vint le pillage. L’Espagne, pendant trois siècles,
recueillit avidement le butin que quatre années de combats (1532-
1536) lui avaient acquis. La rapacité brutale des conquérants réveilla
parfois le courage endormi des vaincus ; il y eut des rébellions, qui
furent réprimées avec une terrible cruauté. La race indienne,
écrasée, épouvantée, se mourait ; mais une race nouvelle venait de
naître et grandissait chaque jour : fille des Indiens et des Espagnols,
maîtresse du pays et par droit de naissance et par droit de conquête,
jeune, ardente, impatiente, il lui tardait de venger à son profit les
aïeux opprimés des aïeux oppresseurs.
Les temps de Charles-Quint étaient passés ; l’aigle espagnole
combattait ailleurs, non plus pour sa gloire, mais pour sa vie. Bientôt
le Chili se soulève au nom de la liberté ; l’illustre Bolivar accourt du
fond de la Colombie et vient pousser le cri de l’indépendance jusque
dans les murs de Lima ; le peuple entier prend les armes ; et le
drapeau victorieux du Pérou remplace à jamais celui de la métropole
(1826).
Ainsi qu’on pouvait le prévoir, ce fut au milieu des troubles et des
désordres politiques, des pronunciamientos, dans le tourbillon d’un
changement perpétuel des hommes et des institutions, que grandit
la jeune république. Elle grandit cependant ; elle a franchi
aujourd’hui l’ère redoutable du travail trop facile et des fortunes trop
rapides ; l’or et l’argent ne sont plus à la surface du sol, et le
président ne pourrait, pour entrer dans son palais, s’offrir la fantaisie
de faire paver toute une rue de Lima en argent massif, ainsi que le fit
le vice-roi espagnol, duc de La Palata. Le Pérou a payé très cher
une chose dont le prix n’est jamais trop élevé : l’expérience, et, s’il
lui en reste à acquérir, il est encore assez riche pour le faire.
Nous voici depuis deux jours installés sur un des beaux steamers
de la Pacific Mail Navigation Company, qui fait le service de l’isthme
de Panama à New-York. Après avoir visité les États-Unis, nous irons
rejoindre la Junon à San-Francisco.
Le lendemain de notre départ du Callao, nous avons eu
l’occasion d’observer un phénomène très curieux et assez rare, que
les marins appellent « la mer de sang. » Quoique la côte ne fût pas
très éloignée, elle était cependant hors de vue, le temps presque
calme, un peu couvert. Aux environs de midi, et sans transaction,
nous vîmes les eaux passer du vert à un rouge peu éclatant, à
reflets faux, mais absolument rouges. La teinte n’était pas uniforme ;
le changement de couleur se produisait par grandes plaques aux
contours indécis, assez voisines les unes des autres. De temps en
temps, l’eau reprenait sa teinte habituelle ; mais, poursuivant
toujours notre route, nous ne tardions pas à entrer dans de
nouvelles couches d’eau colorée, et nous naviguâmes ainsi pendant
plus d’une heure. La couleur primitive, d’un vert pâle, reparut alors
brusquement, et peu de temps après nous avons revu l’eau tout à
fait bleue.
On explique ce phénomène d’une manière aussi claire
qu’insuffisante, en disant que la coloration accidentelle de la mer est
due à la présence d’un nombre infini d’animalcules ; s’ils sont blancs,
on a la mer de lait ; s’ils sont phosphorescents, on a la mer
lumineuse ; s’ils sont rouges, on a la mer de sang. Voilà qui est bien
simple. Mais pourquoi ces petites bêtes sont-elles là et non ailleurs ?
Ah ! dame ! Elles sont là… parce que…
On n’a pas pu m’en dire davantage.
Du Callao à Panama, la distance est d’environ 1,500 milles ;
nous l’avons franchie en six jours et demi. Ce n’était pas trop de
temps pour mettre un peu d’ordre dans nos cerveaux fatigués. Cette
revue du monde entier à toute vapeur laisse tant d’idées et rappelle
tant de souvenirs qu’il est nécessaire de se recueillir un peu pour
classer dans l’esprit et la mémoire ces fugitives images.
Je constate cependant que nous commençons à nous faire à ce
« diorama » de pays et de peuples. Nous voyons mieux, nous nous
attardons moins aux détails ; nos surprises sont moins grandes
lorsque nous nous trouvons en présence de tableaux nouveaux et
en contact avec d’autres êtres ; de même qu’en regagnant le bord
nous possédons le calme du marin qui supporte la tempête avec la
même insouciance que le beau fixe. En résumé, notre éducation de
voyageur est en bonne voie, et j’espère qu’elle sera terminée
lorsque nous atteindrons les rivages asiatiques.
Le 10 novembre, nous avons coupé l’équateur pour la seconde
fois, mais sans aucune fête ni baptême, puisque nous sommes tous
devenus vieux loups de mer et porteurs de certificats en règle,
délivrés, il y a deux mois et demi, par l’estimable père Tropique. Le
charme des magnifiques nuits étoilées nous a fait prendre en
patience la chaleur parfois accablante des après-midi, et, sans
fatigue ni mauvais temps, nous avons atteint, dans la nuit du 13 au
14, les eaux paisibles du golfe de Panama.