Coordination

Coordination is a process by which an organism’s activities are organized to increase its chances of
survival.

The Nervous system

The nervous system coordinates and regulates body functions by sending and receiving electrical
impulses around the body.

The principle of detecting and responding to changes

- The receptors are groups of specialized cells.

- They detect a change in the environment and stimulate electrical impulses.
- Sense organs contains groups of receptors that detect specific stimuli.
- Electrical impulse is sent to the central nervous system through the sensory neurone.
- The CNS receives sensory impulse, interprets information and send motor impulse to effector
through the motor neurones.
- The effector produces the correct response to a specific stimulus.

Stimuli Receptor Coordinator Effector

Light
Eyes Relay
Sound Sensory nerves Nerves Motor nerves
Ears Muscle
Chem in air Brain
Nose Voluntary Glands
Chem in food Sensory impulse Motor impulses
actions
Tongue
Touch/temp
Skin Spinal cord
Involuntary
actions

1
Basics of Nervous system

Neurone: A single nerve cell.

Nerve: Group of neurones or nerve cells.

Stimuli: Changes in the environment.

Receptors: Detect stimuli and convert it into electrical impulses.

Effectors: They respond to a stimulus, E. muscles and glands.

Axon: this is the part of the nerve fibre that carries electrical impulse away from the cell body.

Dendron. this is the part of the nerve fibre that carries electrical messages towards the cell body.

Cell body: The main part of neurone containing cell organelles and nucleus.

The nervous system

Peripheral nervous system(PNS)

Contain sensory and motor neurones (nerve cells connect all parts of the body to the CNS.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord: Role coordination. The coordinator decides what to do.

Types of neurones

A sensory neurone transmit electrical impulses from the receptors to the central nervous system.
Motor neurone transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
Relay neurone (intermediate): They receive impulses from the sensory neurones and pass them to the
motor neurones. They are found in the Brain and the Spinal cord.).

2
Neurones are covered with a myelin sheath, which insulates the neurones to prevent loss of electrical
impulses and ensure their quick transmission.

The cytoplasm (mainly axon and Dendron) is elongated to transmit the impulse for long distances.

Differences between Sensory and Motor neurones

Feature Sensory neurone Motor neurone

Cell body On the side of the nerve fibre without dendrites It is terminal with dendrites

Nerve fibres It has both the Axon & Dendron It has Axon only

Nerve endings Attached to sensory organs Attached to the effector organ.

The spinal cord

Functions

Conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain.

It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs.

It is responsible for coordinating reflex action involving body structure below the neck.

3
Exercise 1

Figure 1 shows a motor neurone.

1. (a) Label the structure A and B. (1)

(b)How does the mylin sheath help the motor neurone to carry its function. (1)

(c)Suggest how lack of oxygen could affect the operation of the cell membrane of the

motor neurone. (2)

The synapse

- A synapse is a gap where two neurones connect.

- An electrical impulse travels along the first axon, when the impulse reaches the dendrites at the
end of the axon, chemical messengers called neurotransmitters are released.
- The chemical diffuse across the synapse and when it reaches the dendrites of the second neurone
it changes into an electrical impulse and the dendrite transmits the message towards the cell body.

Types of response

4
Voluntary action: Making conscious action using the brain to think.
Involuntary action: Quick, automatic responses which require no thinking. The spinal cord is
involved but not the brain.

Reflex actions

A reflex action is quick automatic response to a stimulus which does not involve the use of brain or
to prevent our body cells from damage.

A reflex action occurs in an emergency situation where a spontaneous, quick response is required.
E.g. a pin prick in a hand or foot, sensation of burning hand, knee jerk, quickly removing your hand
from a hot metal surface.

A reflex action differs from a deliberate action, it is produced in an emergency situation, it is sudden
and spontaneous which is involuntary action. The deliberate action occurs due to voluntary
movements; in this case the brain is involved in coordinating the impulse received. The brain takes
time in thinking and deciding, the person acts in willful manner.

Describe the part played by each of this in a reflex action.

Sensory neurone

This receive an impulse generated by receptors due to a specific stimulus and passes it on to a relay
neurone in the spinal cord.

Relay neurone.

This receives an impulse from a sensory neurone, it is part of the central nervous system

Motor neurone

This receive an impulse from a relay in the spinal and passes it to an effector which may be a muscle
or gland that gives respond to a specific stimulus.

Differences between reflex and voluntary action

Reflex action Voluntary action

Response is rapid, quick, fast Response may be slow.
Nerve impulses take the shortest route. Nerve impulses take the longest route.
Spinal cord involved hence no thinking. Brain is involved hence thinking.
Effectors are glands Effectors are skeletal muscles.

A reflex arc is the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a stimulus in a reflex action.
How the reflex arc works?

A stimulus affects a receptor that converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse. An electrical impulse
carried from the receptor to the spinal cord by the sensory neurone. Relay neurone carries impulse
across the spinal cord (brain not involved) to the motor neurone. Motor neurone carries impulse from
the spinal cord to the effector. Effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out the response

5
Exercise 2

The figure shows a pathway of electrical impulse in a reflex action.

(a) Identify the structure labelled Y. (1)

(b) On the diagram draw arrows to show the direction in which impulses travel at X and Z (1)
(c) What is the role of the effector (1)?

Exercise 3

Figure 2 shows the relationship between receptor, neurone and effector organ.

(a) Name the neurone in the central nervous system that links A and B. (2)

A person touches a hot metal plate and quickly removes his hand.

(b)Name the receptor and effector in this action. (2)

(c)How is the mode of transmission of message in the figure different to hormonal transmission. (2)

6
For pure biology

Brain

Four main areas in the brain

Cerebrum: controls memory, personality and conscious thought

Cerebellum: controls balance and co-ordination of movement
Medulla: controls heart rate and breathing rate
Hypothalamus: regulates temperature and water balance

The
cerebrum is split into left and right hemispheres. Each cerebral hemisphere has discrete areas
that perform specific functions.

Exercise 3

The diagram below shows a section through the human brain

7
 a) Identify the parts A to D. (4)
b) With reference to A to D, Describe the main functions of the brain in terms of coordinating and
regulating bodily functions.

Hormonal coordination

A hormone chemical messenger, produced by a gland and alters the activity of one or more specific
target organs.

Exocrine glands secrete hormones through a duct.

8
Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into a bloodstream.

Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands

They mostly enzyme secreting glands. They are hormone secreting glands.
The activity of the enzymes is short term The action of released hormones is prolonged.
They have ducts leading to target organ. Have no ducts The secretions are released into
blood stream.

The Endocrine system

This is made up of a series of glands that produce hormones. Hormones are the chemical messengers
of the body. Hormones are changed into inactive compounds by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.

Main endocrine glands

Gland Hormone Some functions

9
 Pituitary Follicle stimulating hormone Stimulates egg development and oestrogen secretion
(FSH) in females.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates ovulation in females.
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) Controls the water content of the blood
Growth hormone (GH) Speeds up the rate of growth and development in
children.
Thyroid Thyroxin Controls the body’s metabolic rate
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon Raises blood glucose
Adrenals Adrenaline Prepares body for physical activity
Testes Testosterone Controls development of male secondary sexual
characteristics
Ovaries Oestrogen Controls development of female secondary sexual
characteristics and regulates menstrual cycle
Progesterone. Controls menstrual cycle

Response to Adrenalin

Target Effect of Adrenaline Biological Value

Heart Beats Faster More glucose and oxygen supplied to muscles for
respiration.

Lungs Breathing rate increases. Increased uptake of oxygenation by red blood cells and
removal of carbon dioxide.

Liver Conversion of glycogen to Increased respiration for more energy release.

glucose

Eyes Dilation of the pupil Increases sight

Negative feedback and glucose regulation.

The Incoming message triggers the release of another message, which brings about a negative change
(of opposite effect).

Example

When the blood sugar level is high, the pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin which in term
stimulates the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen and reduce the blood sugar level.

Comparison between Nervous and Endocrine systems

Nervous Endocrine

10
 Depends on transmission of electrical impulses and Depends on t transmission of chemicals (hormones)
chemicals called Neurotransmitters. only

Depends on the neurons (nerve cells) for transmission Depends on the circulatory system for transmission

Rapid transmission of information. Slow transmission of information.

There is a direct/quick response to stimulus. Act as a general response.

Response is short lived Response last longer.

Response is usually localized. Response may affect more than one target organ

Action may be voluntary or involuntary Action always involuntary

Exercise 1

The diagram below shows the endocrine glands on the female human body .

i) Define the term hormones(2)

ii) Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands (2)

iii) On the the diagram label glands Pand Q.

iv) Complete the table by naming the hormone produced by P,Q,R and S and state their
targets and function.

Gland Hormone Targets Function

P
Q
R
S

11
Exercise 2

(a) Define hormone (2)

(b) Complete the table below to show hormones , their sources and their functions.
Hormone Source Function in the body
(i) Pancreas (ii)
(iii) Adrenal gland Prepare the body for action.

(3)

Exercise 3

Insulin is a hormone produced to control blood glucose levels. Diabetics do not have a natural ability
to control these levels.

(a) With reference to the pancreas and the liver, describe the role of insulin in controlling blood
glucose levels. [4]

(b) Insulin is a protein. Diabetics can control their blood glucose levels artificially by injecting
insulin.

Many medicines are swallowed as tablets. Explain what would happen to the insulin in the stomach if
it was swallowed as a tablet. (2)

12