Coordination

Coordination is a process by which an organism’s activities are organized such that they occur at the
same time to increase its chances of survival.

The Nervous system

The nervous system coordinates and regulates body functions by sending and receiving electrical
impulses around the body.

Basics of Nervous system

Neurone: A single nerve cell.

Nerve: Group of neurones or nerve cells.

Stimuli: Changes in the environment.

Receptors: Detect stimuli and convert it into electrical impulses.

Effectors: They respond to a stimulus, E. muscles and glands.

Axon: this is the part of the nerve fibre that carries electrical impulse away from the cell body.

Dendron. this is the part of the nerve fibre that carries electrical messages towards the cell body.

Cell body: The main part of neurone containing cell organelles and nucleus.

The principle of detecting and responding to changes

The receptors are groups of specialized cells. They detect a change in the environment and stimulate
electrical impulses. The sense organs contain groups of receptors that detect specific stimuli.

Electrical impulse is sent to the central nervous system through the sensory neurone.

The CNS receives sensory impulse, interprets information and send motor impulse to effector through
the motor neurones.

The effector produces the correct response to a specific stimulus.

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The Nervous system

Peripheral nervous system(PNS)

Contain receptors, effectors, sensory and motor neurones (nerve cells connect all parts of the body to
the CNS.)

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord: Role coordination.

Types of neurones

A sensory neurone transmit electrical impulses from the receptors to the central nervous system.
Motor neurone transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors.
Relay neurone (intermediate): They receive impulses from the sensory neurones and pass them to
the motor neurones. They are found in the Brain and the Spinal cord.).

Neurones are covered with a myelin sheath, which insulates the neurones to prevent loss of electrical
impulses and ensure their quick transmission.

The cytoplasm (mainly axon and Dendron) is elongated to transmit the impulse for long distances

Differences between Sensory, Motor neurones and relay neurones.

Motor Relay Sensory

Structure Cell body with short Cell body with short Cell body smooth, no
dendrites. dendrites.
Cell body located at the Cell body between Cell body located along
other end of neurones Dendron axon the nerve fibre.

Has a long axon. Has short axon. Has a short axon and long
dendron.
Axons end in effector Axons synapse with other Axons synapse with relay
neurones in the CNS and other neurones in
CNS
Functions Transmit impulse from CNS Connect sensory and motor Transmit impulses from
to effector. neurones receptors to CNS.

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Exercise 1

Figure 1 shows a motor neurone.

1. (a) Label the structure A and B. (1)

(b)How does the myelin sheath help the motor neurone to carry its function. (1)

(c)Suggest how lack of oxygen could affect the operation of the cell membrane of the

motor neurone. (2)

The role of Neuro transmitters.

Neurones do not actually come into direct contact with each other.

Where the dendrites of two neurones to make a (connection between the neurones) a junction know as
synapse is formed.

At a synapse, there is a very small gap between neurones known as synaptic cleft or synaptic gap.

Electrical impulse cannot travel from one neurone to the next due to the synaptic cleft (electric cannot
jump the gap)

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Electrical impulse travels along the first axon, when it reaches the dendrites at the end of the axon,
electrical signal is converted to a chemical signal (called neurotransmitters) that diffuses across the
synaptic cleft.

When the neurotransmitter reaches the dendrites of the second neurone it changes into an electrical
impulse which can then pass along neurone.

Types of response

Voluntary action: Making conscious action using the brain to think.

Involuntary action: Quick, automatic responses which require no thinking. The spinal cord is
involved but not the brain.

Reflex actions

A reflex action is quick automatic response to a stimulus which does not involve the use of brain to
prevent our body cells from damage.

A reflex action occurs in an emergency situation where a spontaneous, quick response is required.
E.g. a pin prick in a hand or foot, sensation of burning hand, knee jerk, quickly removing your hand
from a hot metal surface.

A reflex action differs from a deliberate action, it is produced in an emergency situation, it is sudden
and spontaneous which is involuntary action. The deliberate action occurs due to voluntary
movements; in this case the brain is involved in coordinating the impulse received. The brain takes
time in thinking and deciding, the person acts in willful manner.

Describe the part played by each of the following in a reflex action.

Sensory neurone

This receive an impulse generated by receptors due to a specific stimulus and passes it on to a relay
neurone in the spinal cord.

Relay neurone.

This receives an impulse from a sensory neurone and passes it to a motor neurone.

Motor neurone

This receive an impulse from a relay neurone in the spinal and passes it to an effector that respond to
a specific stimulus.

Differences between reflex and voluntary action

Reflex action Voluntary action

Response is rapid, quick, fast Response may be slow.
Nerve impulses take the shortest route. Nerve impulses take the longest route.
Spinal cord involved hence no thinking. Brain is involved hence thinking.

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A reflex arc is the pathway of an electrical impulse in response to a stimulus in a reflex action.
How the reflex arc works?

A stimulus affects a receptor that converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse. An electrical impulse
carried from the receptor to the spinal cord by the sensory neurone. Relay neurone carries impulse
across the spinal cord (brain not involved) to the motor neurone. Motor neurone carries impulse from
the spinal cord to the effector. Effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out the response

The spinal cord

Functions

- Conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain.

- It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs.
- It is responsible for coordinating reflex action involving body structure below the neck.

Exercise 2

The figure shows a pathway of electrical impulse in a reflex action.

(a) Identify the structure labelled Y. (1)

(b) On the diagram draw arrows to show the direction in which impulses travel at X and Z (1)
(c) What is the role of the effector (1)?

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Exercise 3

Figure 2 shows the relationship between receptor, neurone and effector organ.

(a) Name the neurone in the central nervous system that links A and B. (1)

A person touches a hot metal plate and quickly removes his hand.

(b)Name the receptor and effector in this action. (2)

(c)How is the mode of transmission of message in the figure different to hormonal transmission. (2)

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For pure biology

Brain Structure

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

The brain is responsible for all complex behaviour, e.g. consciousness, speech, memory, movement,
breathing.

It is made up of billions of interconnected neurones and has different sections that all carry out
specific functions within the body:

 Cerebrum – Highly folded outer part of the brain that is split into two hemispheres. It controls
things like, intelligence, memory, consciousness, language and personality.
 Cerebellum – Found underneath the cerebral cortex and responsible for co-
ordinating movement, balance, and muscle activity. alcohol affects the cerebellum leading to
staggering movement and loss of balance.
 Medulla – controls unconscious activities such as breathing and keeping the heart beating.

 Pituitary gland – ‘master gland’ that releases essential hormones and controls other glands
around the body.

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  Hypothalamus – regulates temperature and water in the body.

Exercise 3

The diagram below shows a section through the human brain

a) Identify the parts A to D. (4)

b) With reference to A to D, Describe the main functions of the brain in terms of coordinating and
regulating bodily functions. (11)

The spinal cord

Functions

- Conducts sensory impulses from the muscles to the brain.

- It carries motor impulses from the brain to the trunk limbs.
- It is responsible for coordinating reflex action involving body structure below the neck.

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 Hormonal coordination

A hormone chemical messenger, produced by a gland and alters the activity of one or more specific
target organs.

Exocrine glands secrete hormones through a duct.

Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into a bloodstream.

Difference between exocrine and endocrine glands

Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands

They mostly enzyme secreting glands. They are hormone secreting glands.
The activity of the enzymes is short term The action of released hormones is prolonged.
They have ducts leading to target organ. Have no ducts The secretions are released into
blood stream.

The Endocrine system

This is made up of a series of glands that produce hormones. Hormones are the chemical messengers
of the body. Hormones are changed into inactive compounds by the liver and excreted by the kidneys.

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Main endocrine glands

Gland Hormone Some functions

Pituitary Follicle stimulating hormone Stimulates egg development and oestrogen secretion
(FSH) in females.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) Stimulates ovulation in females.
Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) Controls the water content of the blood
Growth hormone (GH) Speeds up the rate of growth and development in
children.
Thyroid Thyroxin Controls the body’s metabolic rate
Pancreas Insulin Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon Raises blood glucose
Adrenal Adrenaline Prepares body for physical activity
s
Testes Testosterone Controls development of male secondary sexual
characteristics
Ovaries Oestrogen Controls development of female secondary sexual
characteristics and regulates menstrual cycle
Progesterone. Maintains uterus wall during pregnancy.
Target Effect of Adrenaline Biological Value
Heart Beats Faster More glucose and oxygen supplied to muscles for
respiration.

Lungs Breathing rate increases. Increased uptake of oxygenation by red blood cells and
removal of carbon dioxide.

Liver Conversion of glycogen to Increased respiration for more energy release.

glucose

Eyes Dilation of the pupil Increases sight

Response to Adrenalin

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Negative feedback and glucose regulation.

The Incoming message triggers the release of another message, which brings about a negative change
(of opposite effect).

Example

When the blood sugar level is high, the pancreas is stimulated to produce insulin which in term
stimulates the liver cells to convert excess glucose to glycogen and reduce the blood sugar level.

Comparison between Nervous and Endocrine systems

Nervous Endocrine

Depends on transmission of electrical impulses and Depends on t transmission of chemicals (hormones)

chemicals called Neurotransmitters. only

Depends on the neurons (nerve cells) for transmission Depends on the blood for transmission

Rapid transmission of information. Slow transmission of information.

There is a direct/quick response to stimulus. Act as a general response.

Response is short lived Response last longer.

Response is usually localized. Response may affect more than one target organ

Action may be voluntary or involuntary Action always involuntary

Exercise 1

The diagram below shows the endocrine glands on the female human body .

i) Define the term hormones(2)

ii) Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands (2)

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 iii) On the the diagram label glands Pand Q.
iv) Complete the table by naming the hormone produced by P,Q,R and S and state their
targets and function.

Gland Hormone Targets Function

P
Q
R
S

Exercise 2

(a) Define hormone (2)

(b) Complete the table below to show hormones , their sources and their functions.
Hormone Source Function in the body
(i) Pancreas (ii)
(iii) Adrenal gland Prepare the body for action.

(3)

Exercise 3

Insulin is a hormone produced to control blood glucose levels. Diabetics do not have a natural ability
to control these levels.

(a) With reference to the pancreas and the liver, describe the role of insulin in controlling blood
glucose levels. [4]

(b) Insulin is a protein. Diabetics can control their blood glucose levels artificially by injecting
insulin.

Many medicines are swallowed as tablets. Explain what would happen to the insulin in the stomach if
it was swallowed as a tablet. (2)

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