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 SOIL-WATER
INTERACTIONS
 BOOKS IN SOILS, PLANTS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 1, edited by A. D. McLaren and G. H. Peterson

Soil Biochemistry, Volume 2, edited by A. D. McLaren and J. SkujinS
Soil Biochemistry, Volume 3, edited by E. A. Paul and A. D. McLaren
So/7 Biochemistry, Volume 4, edited by E. A. Paul and A. D. McLaren
Soil Biochemistry, Volume 5, edited by E. A. Paul and J. N. Ladd
So/7 Biochemistry, Volume 6, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G. Stotzky
Soil Biochemistry, Volume 7, edited by G. Stotzky and Jean-Marc Bollag
Soil Biochemistry, Volume 8, edited by Jean-Marc Bollag and G. Stotzky

Organic Chemicals in the Soil Environment, Volumes 1 and 2, edited by C.

A. I. Goring and J. W. Hamaker
Humic Substances in the Environment, M. Schnitzer and S. U. Khan
Microbial Life in the Soil: An Introduction, T. Hattori
Principles of Soil Chemistry, Kim H. Tan
Soil Analysis: Instrumental Techniques and Related Procedures, edited by
Keith A. Smith
Soil Reclamation Processes: Microbiological Analyses and Applications,
edited by Robert L. Tate Ml and Donald A. Klein
Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation Technology, edited by Gerald H. Elkan
Soil-Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, edited by Shingo
Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P. Warkentin
Soil Analysis: Modern Instrumental Techniques, Second Edition, edited by
Keith A. Smith
Soil Analysis: Physical Methods, edited by Keith A. Smith and Chris E.
Mullins
Growth and Mineral Nutrition of Field Crops, N. K. Fageria, V. C. Baligar,
and Charles Allan Jones
Semiarid Lands and Deserts: Soil Resource and Reclamation, edited by J.
SkujinS
Plant Roots: The Hidden Half, edited by Yoav Waisel, Amram Eshel, and
Uzi Kafkafi
Plant Biochemical Regulators, edited by Harold W. Gausman
Maximizing Crop Yields, N. K. Fageria
Transgenic Plants: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by Andrew Hiatt
So/7 Microbial Ecology: Applications in Agricultural and Environmental
Management, edited by F. Blaine Metting, Jr.
Principles of Soil Chemistry: Second Edition, Kim H. Tan
Water Flow in Soils, edited by Tsuyoshi Miyazaki
Handbook of Plant and Crop Stress, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Genetic Improvement of Field Crops, edited by Gustavo A. Slafer
Agricultural Field Experiments: Design and Analysis, Roger G. Petersen
Environmental Soil Science, Kim H. Tan
Mechanisms of Plant Growth and Improved Productivity: Modern Ap-
proaches, edited by Amarjit S. Basra
Selenium in the Environment, edited by W. T. Frankenberger, Jr., and Sally
Benson
Plant-Environment Interactions, edited by Robert E. Wilkinson
Handbook of Plant and Crop Physiology, edited by Mohammad Pessarakli
Handbook of Phytoalexin Metabolism and Action, edited by M. Daniel and
R. P. Purkayastha
Soil-Water Interactions: Mechanisms and Applications, Second Edition, Re-
vised and Expanded, Shingo Iwata, Toshio Tabuchi, and Benno P.
Warkentin
Stored-Grain Ecosystems, edited by Digvir S. Jayas, Noel D. G. White, and
William E. Muir
Agrochemicals from Natural Products, edited by C. R. A. Godfrey

Additional Volumes in Preparation

Seed Development and Germination, edited by Jaime Kigel and Gad Galili

Nitrogen Fertilization in the Environment, edited by Peter Edward Bacon

Phytohormones in Soils: Microbial Production and Function, W. T. Franken-

berger, Jr., and Muhammad Arshad
 SOIL-WATER
INTERACTIONS
M e c h a n i s m s and
Applications
Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded

Shingo I w a t a
Ibaraki University
Ibaraki, Japan

Toshio Tabuchi
Tokyo University
Tokyo, Japan

Benno P. W a r k e n t i n
Oregon State University
Corvallis, Oregon

Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York • Basel • Hong Kong

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Iwata, Shingo
Soil-water interactions: mechanisms and applications / by Shingo Iwata.
Toshio Tabuchi, Benno P. Warkentin. — 2nd ed. rev. and expanded.
p. cm. — (Books in soils, plants, and the environment)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8247-9293-9
1. Soil moisture. 2. Soil physics. 3. Soils—Japan.
I. Tabuchi, Toshio. II. Warkentin, Benno P. III. Title. IV. Series
S594.I86, 1994
631.4'32—dc20 94-22883
CIP

The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities. For
more information, write to Special Sales/Professional Marketing at the address
below.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Copyright © 1995 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming,
and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.

Marcel Dekker, Inc.

270 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016

Current printing (last digit):

1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 Preface to Second Edition

Soil has three unique physical characteristics. The first and most conspicuous
is that soil is a porous medium, and consequently possesses a filtering function.
Soil consists of particles with various shapes and sizes—clay, silt, sand, and
larger gravel and stones. Different mechanical composition and different
arrangement of the same particles result in different pore structures, and these
pore structures determine the water retentivity and permeability of soils.
Moreover, natural soils have individual soil profiles, including macropores such
as cracks and pores formed by soil fauna and plant roots, each of which has a
complicated effect on water movement through soil. Second, soil has a very
large specific surface area, which leads to a large interaction between ions and
water molecules with the soil particles. Accordingly, soil possesses the ability
to adsorb electrically neutral solutes. Both the first and second characteristics
produce a high water retentivity in soil. Third, soil contains a high concentration
of electrical charges due to clay and organic matter, a characteristic that allows
soil to retain a high concentration of ions. This characteristic produces a
repulsive force, which plays an important role in the prevention of an irreversible
combination between particles. Swelling is also induced by the existence of this
force.
These characteristics present particular problems that are different from those
in other scientific fields. The first problem is related to physical heterogeneity,
such as nonuniform distribution of ions in the soil solution. The second is
concerned with complicated physical and physicochemical phenomena such as
frost heaving and soil swelling. The third is connected with peculiarities of
water movement such as infiltration into soil with macropores, unsaturated flow
in soil under a near-saturated condition, and unsaturated flow at low water
content.
This book provides a stimulating discussion of these problems, based on new
viewpoints developed in the very useful interdisciplinary study of the interactions
between soil and water. It will be of interest to the many scientists dealing with
water in the vadose zone—soil scientists, agricultural, civil and environmental
engineers, geologists, geochemists, hydrologists, agronomists, and pollution
control scientists. Few books discuss advanced topics in soil water from
different viewpoints. This book will serve that need for scientists from many
fields who find they need an understanding of the interactions of soil and water.
The modeling of these interactions, for example in descriptions of contaminant
transport in soils, requires an understanding of the mechanisms that are discussed
in this book. The interaction of soil particles with water is involved in most of

iii
iv Preface to the Second Edition

the fundamental processes in soils. It is relevant not only to soil science, but
also to the many technologies that deal with clays.
Each topic in this book is developed from fundamental concepts. No prior
knowledge of soil science is assumed, although the reader will need some
background in mathematics, physics, chemistry and thermodynamics. The
authors begin at the atomic level and proceed to the field scale. For example,
water adsorption on clay surfaces is developed from consideration of the nature
of forces holding water at the surface, and then applied to phenomena such as
water flux during frost heaving. The discussions of mechanisms of salt sieving
or of clay swelling begin with the nature and characteristics of charges on clay
particles, then are carried to the field scale in the management of water.
Concepts and measurements on interaction of water with soil particles date
from about 50 years ago, when modern descriptions of soil water potential and
physicochemical interaction of charged surfaces were developed. During
subsequent years our understanding of the mechanisms of interaction has
improved and applications have been made to various problems. Applications
have been made in different scientific disciplines. The authors evaluate this
work and then draw attention to those areas where our understanding is very
incomplete, for example, flow of water and solutes through clay layers.
Some special features add to the value of this book. There is a thorough
discussion of physical and chemical properties of allophane. The electric
potential distribution around allophane particles is used to explain characteristics
such as the development of a highly stable soil structure or fast flocculation.
The differences between variable charge and constant charge mineral surfaces are
discussed. There is a discussion of both capillary and surface forces in the
description of water retention and water flow in soils and clays. The discussion
of water fluxes shows the need to consider different physical processes for flow
at different water saturation levels in the soil. The water regimes of paddy fields
are discussed—a technology not familiar to most people working with soil water.
Much of the material is based in part on the authors' own research.
Another distinct strength of this book is that it draws on the Japanese and
Russian literature as well as English language research papers. Too many books
written in English ignore the findings and ideas published in other languages.
There is an extensive bibliography on many of the topics.
This revised edition, six years after the appearance of the first edition, gave
us the opportunity to treat some topics now being developed in the soil physics
literature, and to delete some topics available in other textbooks. About a third
of the book has been rewritten, and about a quarter of the figures are new.
Some of the main revisions are:
Preface to the Second Edition v

1. The importance of the physical meaning of the concept of "representative

elementary volume" (REV) has been developed recently. A soil property
can be treated as a continuum only if the REV is much smaller than the
volume under consideration. Discussions based on this concept are included
in new sections on "Heterogeneity of Hydraulic Conductivity in Soil" (6.2)
and "Solute Movement in Field Soils" (6.3), and in a revised section 3.14
on "Other Forces of Interaction Between Charged Surfaces."
2. The existence in nature of heterogeneities in physical quantities is a barrier
blocking development of research studies related to natural phenomena.
While the best way to deal physically with heterogeneities has not yet been
found, some considerations on this topic are included in sections 6.2 and 6.3.
3. The application to soil science of theoretical developments in a fundamental
science has long been a way of understanding processes in soils. A new
section 6.4 on "Application of Fractal Theory to Solute and Water Flows in
Field Soil" is included.
4. Reviews have been made in research areas in which considerable under-
standing has accumulated in the past five years. Thus, new sections 2.5 on
"Physicochemical Properties of Adsorbed Water" and 5.6 on "Recent
Developments in Fingering Research" are added.
5. Material available in other textbooks that has been deleted in this second
edition includes discussions on "Heat of Immersion," "Application of
Darcy's Law to Unsaturated Flow," "Dependence of Unsaturated Soil Water
Transport on Temperature," and "Application of Thermodynamics of
Irreversible Processes."
6. Updated materials are added in many other sections, e.g. topics on electrical
potentials at clay surfaces; effect of clay dispersion and swelling on
permeability to water; state of the soil solution; forces between clay
particles; solute and water flows in soil; and field water regimes.

We hope this revised edition will continue to serve a need in the literature
of soil physics.
The authors acknowledge the important assistance of Pam Wegner, who
prepared the manuscript for publication.

Shingo Iwata
Toshio Tabuchi
Benno P. Warkentin
 Preface to the First Edition

Physical, chemical, and biological changes proceed ceaselessly in the soil. These
changes make the existence of life in the soil possible; plants and animals of the
field cannot live without these changes. Soil water is not only indispensable for
life, but plays a most important role in the changes through its movement. Ion
exchange and transfer of heat and solutes are brought about in the processes of
wetting and drying of soil. In spite of the importance of soil water, there are yet
many problems that must be solved in scientific fields related to soil water. The
clarification of these problems is of great importance for the existence of
humankind.
During the past three decades, significant developments have occurred in
science fields connected with soil water. Mechanisms of flocculation and
dispersion of soil particles in soil solution, soil freezing, and soil swelling have
been clarified with concepts from physical chemistry. Analyses of water uptake
by plant roots, water movement due to temperature differences, water movement
under a near-saturated condition, and flow of solution through clay layers have
developed to a notable extent. It is regrettable, however, that a systematic
account of the results obtained from this research has yet to be written. In
Japan, the phenomena related to water movement in paddy fields, such as
unsaturated percolation, capillary flow, and outflow of fertilizers from paddy
fields, have formed the subjects of investigation for many researchers over a
number of years. Some of their achievements have attracted a great deal of
attention; however, since their research papers have been reported in Japanese,
soil scientists in other countries have been less able to benefit from this new
knowledge.
We hope that this book will help to satisfy both the need for a clear and
systematic description of the phenomena in question and a basic introduction to
pioneering achievements that have recently come to the fore in science fields
connected with soil water.
The eager and generous support of Dr. Benno P. Warkentin of Oregon State
University has encouraged the authors to write this book in a way that will
interest and stimulate researchers from many fields to open new directions in the
rapidly expanding theoretical and empirical notions of soil physics. Thus, the
appearance of this book owes much to Dr. Warkentin.

vi
Preface to the First Edition vii

We wish also to acknowledge the late Dr. A. D. McLaren of the University

of California, Berkeley, and Dr. T. Hattori of Tohoku University, who provided
the opportunity to write this book. Finally, we recall with gratitude the early
influence of our teacher, Dr. F. Yamazaki of Tokyo University.

Shingo Iwata
Toshio Tabuchi
 Contents

Preface to Second Edition iii

Preface to the First Edition vi

1 ENERGY CONCEPT AND THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER IN

SOIL 1

1.1 ENERGY CONCEPT OF WATER IN SOIL 1

1.1.1 Historical Review of the Energy Concept 1
Capillary Potential 1
Establishment of the Energy Concept 4
1.1.2 Potential of Water in Soil 6
Total Potential and Its Components 6
Physical Meaning of Tensiometer Pressure 7
Difficulties with the Total Potential 8
Envelope Pressure Potential or Overburden Potential . . . . 11
1.1.3 Weakness of the Energy Concept 13

1.2 THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER IN SOILS 13

1.2.1 Thermodynamic Terminology Relating to the Solution Phase
in Soil 14
Types of Work Relating to Water in Soil 14
General Differential Forms of Gibbs Free Energy and
Chemical Potential (Total Potential) 16
1.2.2 Chemical Potential Water in Soil 18
Factors Affecting Chemical Potential 19
Variables of State for Water in Soil 26
Dependence of Chemical Potential on Position in the Soil
Solution 30

1.2.3 Chemical Potential as a Driving Force for Liquid Water Flow

Under Nonisothermal Conditions 36
Temperature Dependence of the Tensiometer Pressure-
Water Content Relationship 36
Driving Forces 38

ix
x Contents

1.3 HYSTERESIS IN SOIL WATER PHENOMENA 39

1.3.1 Hysteresis 39
1.3.2 Mechanisms for Hysteresis 44
Different Pore Sizes 44
Adsorbed Water on Clay Surfaces 48
Contact Angle 50
1.3.3 Theory of Hysteresis Based on the Concept of Domains . . . . 50
Fundamental Independent Domain Theory 50
Application of the Domain Theory to Hysteresis in Soil
Water Phenomena 54
Further Developments of Domain Theories 58
Controversial Points in the Application of the Domain
Theory to Hysteresis in Soil Water Phenomena 59
1.3.4 Other Theories 60
1.3.5 Thermodynamics of Systems Exhibiting Hysteresis 61

REFERENCES 62

2 INTERACTION BETWEEN SOIL PARTICLES AND SOIL

SOLUTION 69

2.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES TAKING PART IN

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SOIL SOLUTION AND SOIL
PARTICLES 69
2.1.1 Water 69
Structure of the Water Molecule 69
Hydrogen Bond 70
Structures of Ice and Water 71
2.1.2 Hydration of Ions 72
2.1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Clays 73
Structure 74
Specific Surface Area 78
Electric Charge 78

2.2 INTERACTION BETWEEN WATER AND AN UNCHARGED

SOIL PARTICLE 82
Contents xi

2.3 DISTRIBUTION OF IONS IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF A SOIL

PARTICLE 83
2.3.1 Balance of Forces on Ions, and the Ionic Distribution 83
2.3.2 Gouy Theory 86
Infinite Distance Between Plates 87
Finite Distance Between Plates 90
Unusual Distribution of Electrical Potential Near an Edge
Surface of Montmorillonite 92
2.3.3 Problems in Application of the Gouy Theory to Clay-Water
Systems 94
Assumption of Point Charge . 94
Distribution of Electric Intensities in the Vicinity of a
Clay Surface 96
Diffuse Layer Terminated by an Air-Water Interface 96
Other Factors Neglected in the Gouy Theory 104
2.3.4 Force Acting on Water Molecules in a Diffuse Ion Layer . . . 104
2.3.5 Significance of the Interaction Between Soil Particles and
Soil Solution on Soil Properties 105

2.4 SOIL FREEZING 107

2.4.1 Water-Ice Equilibria 107
Chemical Potentials of Water and Ice 107
Super-cooling 108
Freezing-Point Depression 109
2.4.2 Unfrozen Water in Frozen Soils Ill
Dependence of Unfrozen Water on Original Water
Content 114
2.4.3 Frost Heaving 116
Water Movement in Frost Heaving 117
Driving Forces for Water Migration in the Frozen Soil . . 119
Soil Freezing 119
Driving Forces at the Freezing Front 123
Heaving Pressure 124

2.5 PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ADSORBED WATER . 125

2.5.1 Preliminary Knowledge Related to Physicochemical
Properties of Adsorbed Water 126
Physicochemical Properties of Adsorbed Water and Film
Thickness 126
Distribution of Electric Intensity Near a Clay Surface . . . 128
Interaction Between an Ion and Water Molecules 128
Interaction Between a Clay Surface and Water Molecules 128
xii Contents

2.5.2 Physicochemical Properties of Water Adsorbed by Clays . . . 130

Degree of Dissociation of Adsorbed Water 131
Interactions Between a Clay Surface and a
Water Molecule 131
Entropy 133
Viscosity 136
2.5.3 The Range of Influence for Surface Forces 139

REFERENCES 142

3 INTERACTION BETWEEN PARTICLES THROUGH WATER 154

3.1 DLVO THEORY 154

3.1.1 Potential Energy Due to the Interaction of Two Double
Layers 154
Repulsive Force Acting Between Two Plates 155
Potential Energy Due to the Repulsive Force 157
Differences Between VR° and V/ 160
Factors Determining the Repulsive Potential Energy . . . . 161
Charge-Regulation Model for Particles with Variable
Charges 161
3.1.2 Potential Energy Due to van der Waals Forces Between Two
Particles 163
Attraction Energy Due to van der Waals Forces 163
Hamaker Constant 165
3.1.3 Total Potential Energy 166
3.1.4 Other Forces of Interaction Between Charged Surfaces . . . . 167
Swelling Clays 167
Discrete Charges 169
Forces Between Mica Surfaces 171
Other Forces 173

3.2 TOTAL POTENTIAL ENERGY BETWEEN TWO CLAY

PARTICLES 175
3.2.1 Montmorillonite 175
Repulsion Energy VR 175
Attraction Energy VA 177
Total Potential Energy VT 177
Flocculation of Montmorillonite 178
Contents xiii

3.2.2 Allophane 180

Repulsion Energy VR and Attraction Energy VA 180
Total Potential Energy 181
Flocculation of Allophane 181

3.3 SWELLING OF CLAYS 184

3.3.1 Crystalline Swelling 184
3.3.2 Mechanism of Macroscopic Swelling 186
Chemical Potential of Water 186
Swelling Under Unsaturated Conditions 188
3.3.3 Application of the DLVO Theory to Macroscopic Swelling . 189
3.3.4 Swelling Theory Based on Structural Forces 192
3.3.5 Effect of Clay Dispersion and Swelling on Permeability to
Water 194
Effect of Electrolyte Concentration 194
Effect ofpH 196

3.4 FLOW OF SOLUTIONS THROUGH CLAY LAYERS 198

3.4.1 Characteristics of Solution Flow Through Clay Layers 198
Salt Sieving and the Salt Sieving or Rejection Coefficient 199
Reflection Coefficient or Osmotic Efficiency Coefficient . . 201
Characteristics of Solution Flow Through a Clay Layer . 203
3.4.2 Theoretical Analyses of Solution Flow Through Clay Layers 205
Rejection Coefficient (Salt Sieving Coefficient) 205
Streaming Potential 206
3.4.3 Relationships Between Factors Influencing Solution Flow
Through Clay Layers 209
Streaming Potential and Hydraulic Pressure Gradient . . . 209
Pressure-Induced and Electrokinetic Flows 210
Dependence of Rejection Coefficient on Applied Pressure
Gradient and Surface Charge Density 212
3.4.4 Application of Irreversible Thermodynamics to Solution Flow
Through Clay Layers 212
3.4.5 Future Research Effort 217

REFERENCES 218
xiv Contents

4 CAPILLARITY 229

4.1 AIR-WATER INTERFACES 229

4.1.1 Laplace Equation 229
4.1.2 Capillary Rise in a Tube 230
4.1.3 Lens Water Between Spheres 232
4.1.4 Meniscus Within a Pore Cell 234

4.2 CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS 238

4.2.1 Capillary Rise 238
4.2.2 Capillary Moisture Distribution Under Suction 241
4.2.3 Suspended Capillary Water in Soil 242

4.3 CAPILLARY THEORY FOR NONUNIFORM CELL SYSTEMS . 244

4.3.1 Neck Size Distribution Function 244
4.3.2 Connecting Systems of Pore Cells 248
4.3.3 Drainage Curves 252
4.3.4 Capillary Moisture Distribution Curve After Drainage or
After Wetting 253

REFERENCES 255

5 WATER FLOW THROUGH SOIL 257

5.1 GENERAL CONCEPTS OF WATER FLOW 257

5.1.1 Historical Review 258
5.1.2 Darcy's Law 260
5.1.3 Equation of Continuity 262

5.2 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION DURING WATER FLOW 264

5.2.1 Steady Vertical Downward Flow in a Uniform Soil 265
5.2.2 Horizontal and Upward Flow in a Uniform Soil 267
5.2.3 Flow in a Layered Soil 268

5.3 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 270

5.3.1 Temperature Effect 270
5.3.2 Particle Size 271
5.3.3 Pore Properties 271
5.3.4 X-Ray Stereoradiograph Method 277
5.3.5 Other Approaches to Permeability 277
5.3.6 Hydraulic Gradient Effects 279
5.3.7 Average Hydraulic Conductivity of Layered Soil 279
5.3.8 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity 280
Contents xv

5.4 SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS 282

5.4.1 Entrapped Air 282
5.4.2 Capillary Syphon Flow 284
5.4.3 Capillary Fringe and Water Flow 286
5.4.4 Unsaturated Downward Flow in Layered Soil 286

5.5 INFILTRATION 291

5.5.1 General Concepts 291
5.5.2 Downward Infiltration into a Uniform Soil 292
5.5.3 Downward Infiltration into a Layered Soil 296
5.5.4 Horizontal Water Flow 304
5.5.5 Upward Flow 305

5.6 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN FINGERING RESEARCH 307

5.6.1 Characteristic Features of Fingering 307
5.6.2 Criteria for Wetting Front Instability and Finger Width . . . . 311
5.6.3 Mechanism of Finger Persistence 313

REFERENCES 317

6 UNSATURATED WATER MOVEMENT 324

6.1 LIMITATIONS ON THE VALIDITY OF DARCY'S LAW 324

6.1.1 Darcy's Law and the Capillary Model 324
6.1.2 Experimental Results 326
6.1.3 Other Theories of Water Flow 330
Unsaturated Flow Theory Including Interfacial Phenomena . 330
Non-Newtonian and Bingham Flow 330
Film Water Flow 331

6.2 HETEROGENEITY OF HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY IN SOIL 333

6.2.1 Introduction 333
6.2.2 Scale Effect and Representative Elementary Volume in Soil . 336
Scale Effect 336
Estimation of REV 337
6.2.3 Determination of Range of Influence 343
The Semi-Variogram 343
Estimation of Parameters in the Semi-Variogram Function 344
Effect of Sample Size on Range of Influence 346
6.2.4 Spatial Dependence of Hydraulic Conductivity in the Field . 346
6.2.5 Stochastic Theory for Water Flow in Heterogeneous Soil . . . 348
xvi Contents

6.3 SOLUTE MOVEMENT IN FIELD SOILS 354

6.3.1 Historical Review 354
6.3.2 Limitations on the Validity of the Convection-Dispersion
Equation 358
Experimental Results 358
Theoretical Results 364
Investigation of Conditions in the Theoretical Derivation
of the Convection-Dispersion Equation 366
6.3.3 Physical Meaning of REV in Solute Movement 370
Does Asymptotic Behavior Exist? 370
REV for Solute Transport 374

6.4 APPLICATION OF FRACTAL THEORY TO SOLUTE AND WATER

FLOWS IN FIELD SOIL 377
6.4.1 Concepts of Fractal Geometry 377
6.4.2 Estimation of Fractal Dimension 379
Fractal Dimension of a Curve 380
Fractal Dimension of the Distribution Pattern of an
Object Distributed in Space 380
6.4.3 Examples 382
Use of Fractal Dimension for Predicting Bypass Flow . . 382
Estimation of the Brenner Number Using the Fractal
Dimension 382
An Explanation of Scale-Dependent Dispersivity Based on
Fractal Geometry 384

REFERENCES 385

7 FIELD WATER REGIMES 396

7.1 WATER IN UPLAND SOILS 396

7.1.1 Physical Properties 396
7.1.2 Water Regimes in Upland Soils in Japan 401
7.1.3 Water Movement in Upland Soils 404

7.2 WATER BALANCE IN RICE PADDY FIELDS 406

7.2.1 Types of Paddy Fields 407
7.2.2 Water Requirement in Paddy Fields 408
7.2.3 Percolation and Rice Growth 410
7.2.4 Soil Properties of Paddy Fields 411
7.2.5 Control of Percolation in Paddy Fields 413
7.2.6 Puddling 414
Contents xvii

7.3 DRAINAGE OF CLAYEY RICE PADDY FIELDS 415

7.3.1 General Pattern of Drainage in a Clayey Paddy Field 415
7.3.2 Drainage Conditions in a Clayey Paddy Field 418
7.3.3 Effect of Subsurface Drains 418

7.4 INTERACTION OF CHEMICALS AND WATER IN PADDY

FIELDS 421
7.4.1 Improvement of Paddy Fields Contaminated by Cadmium . . 421
7.4.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Concentrations in a Paddy Field . . 421
7.4.3 Nitrogen and Phosphorous Budgets in Paddy Fields 424
7.4.4 Nitrogen Removal in Paddy Fields 426

REFERENCES 428

Index 435
 1
ENERGY CONCEPT AND
THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER IN SOIL

1.1 ENERGY CONCEPT OF WATER IN SOIL

1.1.1 Historical Review of the Energy Concept

Capillary Potential

Buckingham (1907) introduced the concept that flow of water results from a
difference in capillary potential between two points in the soil. He considered
that the soil exerts an attraction sufficient to hold water against the action of
gravity, and that this attraction decreases as the amount of water held by the soil
increases. He proposed the term "capillary potential," \|/, to describe this
attraction. \|/(0) was defined as the work required to pull a unit mass of water
away from the large mass of soil whose water content is 0, the volume fraction
of water. He introduced the equation

*=gx (1.1)

where x is the height above a water surface in a column of soil standing in

water, at equilibrium.
By measuring water content at different heights in these columns, he could
obtain the relation between capillary potential and water content for various soils.
He obtained curves of the type shown in Fig. 1.1, which have proved to be of
enormous value in the study of soil water. Before that time, only "water
content" had been used to express the state of water in soil. But if the water
contents of two soils are equal, the state of water in each soil need not be the
same. The concept of capillary potential enabled scientists to compare
quantitatively, with the same scale, the state of water in various moist soils.
Buckingham established the foundation for scientific studies on soil water. It
should be noted that the sign of g in Eq. (1.1) should be negative, as pointed out

1
2 CHAPTER 1

125

_ 10C
^j
"o>
2 75
o>
TO
<1>
o 5C
.o
«J
JZ
g>
x<l> 2e

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Water content (percent)

Fig. 1.1. Distribution of water in 48-in. columns of soil after 53 to 68 days.

(From Buckingham, 1907)

by Gardner et al. (1922). Consequently, Eq. (1.1) should be written

* = -g x (1.2)

This equation always shows a negative capillary potential.

The capillary potential as defined by Buckingham has weaknesses from both
theoretical and practical points of view. He was aware of some of these
deficiencies. Consider the system shown in Fig. 1.2, with the soil column in
contact with a free water surface. Assuming that the system comes to equilibri-
um with pure water in the soil, the combined force acting on an infinitesimal
mass of water in the soil is zero. One of the forces is gravity, whose direction
is perpendicular downward. The force, equal to the magnitude of gravity and
opposite in direction, may be the capillary force. As gravity can be expressed
by gravitational potential, so the capillary force could also have a potential that
is numerically equal to the gravitational potential and opposite in sign. This
capillary force, however, does not have a potential in the mechanical sense. The
capillary force's field, or capillary potential considered by Buckingham, can
appear only under conditions where the system reaches an equilibrium state in
the gravitational field. Then the work required to move an infinitesimal mass of
THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER IN SOIL 3

Fig. 1.2. Soil column at moisture equilibrium with a free water surface.

water from one point to another is zero, as pointed out correctly by Buckingham.
On the other hand, when a soil column of infinite height is brought into contact
with a free water surface, and if the gravitational field does not exist, water
continues to rise by capillary force. The capillary force field or capillary
potential does not exist in this system.
The same conclusion is recognized in a system where a soil column with a
free water surface is placed in a centrifugal force field. A capillary potential
appears to exist, which is numerically equal to the potential of the centrifugal
force and opposite in sign.
Capillary potential, as used by Buckingham, should have been related to a
physical quantity other than a potential in the mechanical sense. A potential
whose existence is possible only under conditions where the system comes to
equilibrium in an external force field should be related to the change of state of
the substance in the system. Buckingham did not recognize this point. The
theoretical analysis of the system shown in Fig. 1.2 can be performed exactly by
use of a chemical potential, as discussed by Russell (1942). That is,

Au. w = g x = 0

Therefore,

AH W = -gx

where Aj^ is the chemical potential of water in soil, based on that of bulk water.
4 CHAPTER 1

This inability to relate capillary potential to a state quantity of water in soil

prevented effective application of the concept of capillary potential to analysis
of various phenomena connected with soil solutions in the field and the
laboratory. In most cases, water in soil is not in contact with a free water
surface. One cannot measure the value of capillary potential of such water with
the concept of capillary potential proposed by Buckingham.
This problem was solved to some degree by Gardner et al. (1922), who
proposed an equation that shows the relationship between the pressure of water
in soil (a state quantity of water) and its capillary potential.

* = / ^ d.3)
J
P

where p is the density of water in soil and P is the pressure of water in soil
relative to atmospheric pressure. In the general case, p is a function of pressure;
however, assuming that water is incompressible, \\t becomes equal to P/p. The
introduction of this relationship between \|/ and P led to the development of
tensiometer and suction plate apparatus for measuring capillary potential of water
in soil which was not in contact with a free water surface.

Establishment of the Energy Concept

The further development of studies on soil water required a more general concept
to express the state of water in soil. Studies of the relationship between plant
growth and soil water could not ignore the existence of solutes in soil solution.
Moreover, research into the physical and mechanical properties of soil needed a
concept to compare the state of water over the whole water content range from
saturation to oven-dry.
Various concepts were proposed in the decade after 1935 to satisfy this
demand. They include pF by Schofield (1935), water potential by Veihmeyer
and Edlefsen (1937), osmotic potential and pressure potential by Day (1947), and
soil moisture stress, the sum of water suction and osmotic pressure, by Wadleigh
and Ayers (1945). Although these concepts have different names, they are all
expressions of chemical potential (total potential) of water in soil relative to free
water at the same temperature. pF is the base 10 logarithm of the absolute value
of chemical potential expressed in a gravitational system of units, assuming that
solutes are negligible. Water potential is the chemical potential of water.
Pressure potential and osmotic potential are equivalent to the decrement of
chemical potential due to surface tension effects and/or electric and van der
Waals force fields, and due to solutes. Water suction and osmotic pressure are,
respectively, equal to the value of pressure potential and osmotic potential
divided by the partial volume of water in soil.
THERMODYNAMICS OF WATER IN SOIL 5

Schofield defined pF as the logarithm of the specific Gibbs free energy of

water in soil expressed in gravitational units. He indicated that the use of pF
allows removal of the word "capillary" from the energy concept. This is most
advisable because the capillary force is only one of the forces influencing the
state of water in soil. Also, the logarithmic scale permits the expression on one
graph of the energy over the entire range of water content.
Schofield apparently thought of soil water as pure water, as Buckingham had
done, and did not develop the idea that the energy was actually a function of
many variables of the state of water in soil, such as temperature and concentra-
tion of solutes. This is brought out by the fact that he applied Gibbs specific
free energy instead of chemical potential in his energy concept. In spite of this
weakness, high value should be set on the work done by Schofield. By applying
Gibbs free energy, it became possible to use new methods of measurement, such
as vapor pressure or freezing-point depression, in measuring the relationship
between water content and the free energy of water in soil.
In 1943, Edlefsen and Anderson published a highly valuable report entitled
"Thermodynamics of Soil Moisture." It was the first systematic study of
thermodynamics of water in soil, and it emphasized the importance of the use of
chemical potential. The authors pointed out the advantages of using the chemical
potential:

1. If a heterogeneous system arrives at equilibrium, the chemical potential of

each substance involved in the system shows the same value through all
phases. Therefore, one can measure the value of the chemical potential of
water in soil under a certain water content by allowing the soil to arrive at
equilibrium with ice or water vapor whose chemical potential is already
known.
2. If the chemical potential of any substance is greater in one part of the
system than in anther, that substance will pass from the former to the latter
place. Therefore, the direction of water movement between two points in
a soil or between a soil and a plant can be determined. This point plays an
important role in understanding water absorption by roots.
3. It becomes possible to estimate the change of the state quantity of water in
soil resulting from a temperature change.

The state of water in soil can be described exactly on the basis of thermody-
namic concepts such as chemical potential. Buckingham (1907) wrote: "It is
obvious that a rigorous treatment of the subject, with no restrictions imposed on
either the water content or the soluble salt content of soil, would have to use
thermodynamic reasoning. But the simple conception will suffice for the present
purpose, though it is not impossible that with more comprehensive experimental
data available we should have to use thermodynamic potential or free energy."
6 CHAPTER 1

However, a long period of 36 years was required to establish this general energy
concept.
In the early 1980s, a noteworthy thermodynamic analysis of unsaturated soil
was done by Sposito and Chu (1981, 1982). They attempted to describe the state
of an unsaturated soil with a set of independent variables: the masses of the
three components of soil—solids, water, and air—together with the applied
pressure and absolute temperature. At the present stage the analysis is not
sufficiently complete to be used for practical purposes such as a thermodynamic
study of the total soil system, including not only the water but the solids and air.
Such an analysis will be important in future research on soil water. In addition,
the balance of internal energy for water in soil has been studied (Hassanizadeh
and Gray, 1979a,b, 1980; Sposito and Chu, 1981), and the fundamental Richards
equation was deduced as a special case of internal energy balance for water in
an unsaturated soil (Sposito and Chu, 1982).

1.1.2 Potential of Water in Soil

Total Potential and Its Components

In 1974, the second Terminology Committee of Commission I of the Internation-
al Society of Soil Science (ISSS) (1976) adopted the total potential as an energy
concept to express the state of water in soil. The total potential was defined as
follows:

The total potential, \|/p of the constituent water in soil at temperature T{), is
the amount of useful work per unit mass of pure water that must be done by
means of externally applied forces to transfer reversibly and isothermally an
infinitesimal amount of water from the state S0 to the soil liquid phase at the
point under consideration. It is convenient to divide the transfer process
referred to above into several steps, by introducing substandards.

S,: a pool of pure, free water as in S0, but situated at the same height as the
soil liquid phase under consideration, hx, i.e., S, is at T0, hx, P0.

S2: a pool of free solution identical in composition with the soil liquid
phase at the point under consideration, having an osmotic pressure, ft, but
otherwise identical with S,, i.e., S2 is at T0, hx, P0.

The total potential is composed of three potentials: the gravitational

potential \|/g, the osmotic potential \|/0, and the tensiometer-pressure potential (the
pressure potential) \|/p, which are all defined by the concept of useful work in the
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
reducing it to quarter inch lengths, but we find that after the first few
days of feeding the hens show a decided preference for Sprouted
Oats, and now we make it a rule to feed the Timothy and Clover one
day and the Sprouted Oats the next. This works very well, and the
“Biddies” seem to enjoy the different rations on alternate days.

TWO WEEKS OLD CHICKS IN BROODER HOUSE RUNS

The Colony Range is so cared for and fertilized that the growing
pullet, for the Spring and Summer months, finds an unlimited supply
of succulent green food at her door.
 CHAPTER XI
Anthracite Coal Ashes—A Substitute for Many
More Expensive Necessities
The feather of a bird is composed almost entirely of phosphorous,
and phosphorous is a great aid to the bird in digesting food. In fact,
there are manufactured “grits” offered on the market, which base
their efficiency on the amount of phosphorous they carry.
Anthracite, or hard, coal ashes, carry a considerable quantity of
phosphorous, and this is the reason chickens in all stages of their
existence are so fond of them. Our attention was first called to this
fact by observing the large number of pullets on the Colony Range,
where some loads of ashes had been used the previous season in
mixing with the fertilizer for the growing of potatoes. It was noticed
that these small heaps of ashes were very soon consumed, and
when they were replenished the pullets were never absent from the
piles. The experiment was then made of placing a small heap at the
extreme end of the chick runs from the Brooder House, and to our
surprise we found one was unable to see the ashes because of the
moving mass of yellow which covered them. It was necessary to
replenish these heaps almost daily. As ashes are perfectly sanitary
we decided to cover the entire chick run with them, which we did,
and every few days, through the brooding season, a fresh coating is
necessary, as the youngsters consume so much of the surface
constantly.

Better Than Charcoal

Next, we sifted ashes and filled the hoppers in the Laying Houses
with them. The layers ate them in the same way in which they
consumed wheat. For an experiment we stopped feeding charcoal
entirely, and found that the ashes supplied everything that the
charcoal did, with none of the dangers, for there seems to be no
doubt that where hens consume large quantities of charcoal they are
very susceptible to colds.
Large heaps of Anthracite ashes are now kept within a short
distance of every Colony House on the Range, and the use of these
ashes has very materially reduced the quantity of Grit and Shell
consumed, thus representing a considerable economy.
Until the use of Anthracite ashes came in on the Range we placed
Grit in receptacles near each Colony House, and the amount
consumed was really remarkable. As soon as the ashes were placed
there the Grit was deserted, and there practically was no
consumption of it at all, and after a few weeks we ceased to supply it
and have not done so now for years.
Since the use of the sifted ashes in the Laying Houses a soft
shelled egg is almost a curiosity on the Farm.
In the Brooder House runs, beside supplying the phosphorus to
the youngsters for their digestion, and the making of their feathers, it
does away with the fear of contamination of soil, of which so much is
now written, and it presents a surface which dries almost before the
rain storm is over, and there is no possibility of the youngsters being
let out into a muddy run.
 CHAPTER XII
Eggs for Breeding Should be Laid by a Real
Yearling Hen
Having heard many stories told by Breeders who were sellers of
eggs for hatching, and also the tales by purchasers, we were
somewhat loath to embark in this branch of the Egg Trade. The
Breeders told stories of letters which would “raise your hair” from
people who had purchased from them and met with poor success,
and of course, from their point of view, the only person at fault was
the man who sold the eggs.
For the season of 1910 our breeding pen had reached a size
which allowed us, for the first time, to offer eggs to the public, and
we decided to try it out. To everyone we stated that we would not
guarantee fertility, but, as they were getting eggs from exactly the
same pens which were supplying our own incubators, we were able,
at all times, to tell what the customer was receiving. But we went
further, and agreed that anyone claiming a low fertility, if he would
send us the eggs which he claimed to be clear, and prepay the
expressage, we would, if his claim was substantiated, send him
another lot of eggs and pay the expressage both ways.

90,000 Orders for 40,000 Eggs

During the season of 1910 we sold something over 40,000 eggs
and returned money for about 50,000 beyond our ability to supply.
The result was that many people who were disappointed booked
orders at very early dates in 1910 for hatching eggs for the season of
1911.
Our experience was quite the reverse from the stories we had
been told. Of course, in doing a large business, it is not possible to
satisfy everyone, and then, unfortunately, there are some people
who are extremely fond of attempting to get something for nothing,
and you receive statements regarding orders which have been filled,
which when investigated, prove to be somewhat different from what
you were at first led to believe.
The fertility of our eggs was such that it was almost impossible for
anyone to make a complaint, and the hatching season of 1910, both
at the Farm and for our customers, was a most successful one.
For the season of 1911 we were able to increase our breeding
facilities considerably over 1910, but we were even more unable to
meet the demands upon us for hatching eggs, than in the previous
season. The results of this year were quite as satisfactory as for the
previous, and for the season of 1912 the Farm will be in a position to
fill more orders than ever before, as we have been able to make a
still greater increase on the breeding side.

YEARLING HENS IN BREEDER HOUSE BEFORE MATING READY FOR 1912

Orders for hatching eggs are booked by such a system that people
receive them when we agree to deliver the goods, and the illustration
herewith plainly shows the plan.
$ ........ SUNNY SLOPE FARM No.
THE GREAT CORNING EGG FARM
BREEDERS OF THE STRAIN OF S. C. WHITE LEGHORNS
WHICH CANNOT BE SURPASSED

BOUND BROOK, N. J. .................... 191

Received of.............................................
....................................................Dollars
FOR ........... S. C. W. LEGHORN EGGS FOR HATCHING. THESE
EGGS ARE TO BE SHIPPED BY EXPRESS ON OR ABOUT THE

.................. DAY OF .................... 191..

THE CORNING EGG FARM

BY ....................
 CHAPTER XIII
Policing the Farm—With Bloodhounds,
Searchlights and Rifles
In the Fall of each year, from almost every part of the Country,
come reports of what seems to be organized thieving in the poultry
line. Both large and small farms are generally sufferers. For a
number of years people in the vicinity of the The Corning Egg Farm
have met with losses, and in the year 1910 an organized gang was
unearthed, which had a camp on the adjacent hills, and made nightly
raids, then shipped the birds by crossing the Watchung Mountains
and reaching railroad communication on the other side, sending their
stolen feathered plunder into the New York Market.

Shoot First—Investigate Afterwards

The Corning Egg Farm takes a great many precautions in regard
to efficient policing, and has earned a reputation for straight
shooting, not with a gun carrying bird shot, but with rifles. It is
thoroughly understood for miles around that we shoot first and
investigate afterwards. The farm carries some of the finest Blood
Hounds in the Country, all trained man-trailers, and it is thoroughly
understood that if the rifle fails to stop a thief, and it becomes
desirable to see him, the hounds will take up the trail the next day,
and no matter where he may have gone there will be no difficulty in
reaching him. Should he take train the dogs will tell the fact, and then
it will be only necessary to try each station until the one is reached
where he left the train. Should he leave by means of a horse, when
he either gets into the wagon, or mounts the horse, the hound will
take the scent, and carry it until he again takes to the ground.
 “SOCRATES,” THE GREAT BLOODHOUND WHICH HEADS THE CORNING
KENNELS

Socrates, the Great Bloodhound

The head of the kennel, “Socrates,” No. 127320, (his registered
name is “Ottawa’s Major”) is a direct descendant from Rosemary and
Delhi, the two great dogs of Mr. Burgh, of England, who for years
has been the leading breeder of man-trailing Blood Hounds.
Altogether the Farm to-day is carrying seventeen dogs. Fifteen of
them are pure and grade Blood Hounds; two are Fox Terriers. The
Fox Terriers are kept for a breed of thieves other than the two-legged
kind, and rats have no place on which to rest the soles of their feet.
The dogs, every night, are distributed at different points of the
Farm, and one of the great qualities of the Blood Hound is its
marvelous nose, which works just as well in the dark as in the light,
and as watch dogs, because of this peculiarity, they are most
efficient, giving notice of anyone approaching the Farm long before
he could possibly be detected by a dog of another breed. When they
give tongue there is no doubt in the mind of anyone but that he is
approaching a very dangerous zone.
 On the Foreman’s Apartments there is a Tower which connects
with his room, the windows of which command a view of every part
of the Farm. In this Tower there is a searchlight, and at any time of
the night, if the dogs give warning of a possible disturber, any part of
the Farm can be instantly flooded with light. Back of the search light
is the high power rifle.
Throughout the Range there is a trolley system which is used, the
overhead wire being so divided that each dog has a run of one
hundred feet, and the leash attached to the sliding pulley gives him
twenty feet on either side of the wire. This makes a complete circuit
of the Colony Range, so that it is impossible for anyone to cross in
among the Colony Houses without being reached by one of the
dogs.
We have been breeding some grade hounds, which make a rather
more ferocious animal than the pure breed, so far as natural
disposition goes. The nose quality, however, is all retained, thus
enabling these grades to become perfect trailers.

SOCRATES II AND DIOGENES

Sons of the Great Socrates
 BUSTER, AMERICA’S GREATEST RATTER

It is well on any egg farm to establish a reputation for being in a

position to always place a marauder behind the bars, and nothing so
insures protection as the knowledge that on the Farm there are
carried dogs which are capable of trailing a trespasser wherever he
may go.
 CHAPTER XIV
The Necessity for Pure Water—An Egg is
Chemically 80% Water
Eighty per cent. of an egg is water. If a sanitary egg is to be
produced it is most essential that pure water should be accessible to
the hens at all times, and not only should the water be pure, but the
drinking fountains must be of such a nature that they can readily be
kept in a pure state, and that the cups, into which the water flows
from the main fountain, cannot be fouled by the birds.

Automatic Fountains Essential

On The Corning Egg Farm the supply of water is placed before the
birds in automatic fountains, which work on air pressure, and contain
five gallons each. The water feeds down through a pipe into the
cups, the feeding pipe shutting off by the turning of a small cock,
thus permitting the removal of the cup, so that it can be thoroughly
cleansed each day at the time of filling the fountain, by the use of a
small brush, or swab. Once a week a quarter of a teaspoonful of
Potassium Permanganate is put into each fountain, just enough to
give the water a slight coloring. It is a mistake to have the color so
deep that it verges on the purple. This purifies the fountain and acts
as a preventive of colds.
 CORNING AUTOMATIC DRINKING FOUNTAIN

It is a very good practice also to occasionally put a few drops of

Kerosene oil into the bottom of the cup and then allow the water to
run in. The Kerosene will run over the entire surface of the cup and
then rise to the top of the water. As the birds dip their bills to drink a
small amount of the Kerosene is taken up on the bill, and, when the
head is thrown back to swallow it runs into the nostrils.
The drinking fountains are occasionally thoroughly cleansed with a
strong solution of Washing Soda. This, of course, is carefully washed
out of the fountains before they are filled up and placed in the Laying
Houses.

Hot Water in Cold Weather

In the Breeding and Laying Houses during the cold months, hot
water is placed in the fountains. On The Corning Egg Farm a large
boiler, with a hot water attachment, is maintained for this purpose,
and water is taken to the Laying Houses at as close to boiling point
as it is possible to get it there.

Hens Drink More in Afternoon

At first the watering was done early in the morning, but now the
watering hour has been changed to the first hour of the afternoon.
The reason for this is because, by sitting in the Laying Houses and
watching the birds, it was discovered that from one o’clock to
roosting time more water is consumed than at any other hours of the
day. At first it was thought that Biddy, on leaving her roost,
immediately sought the drinking fountain, but we find the first act,
generally speaking, is to endeavor to fill the crop with grain, and she
vigorously starts to work in the litter.
By placing the hot water in the fountains during the hour after
noon, we find that with the closing of the house for the night, the
water retains its temperature to a remarkable degree, and it is not at
all chilling to the birds in the morning of ordinary cold weather. If the
night has been an extremely cold one we make it a practice of going
through the Houses with boiling water, emptying out what may be in
the cups, and refilling them from the hot water can, thus giving any
bird which may desire a large quantity, warm water to drink at this
time in the morning.
The supply of water for all the stock on The Corning Egg Farm
comes from the deep well, already described in the chapter on
“Building the Farm.”
 CHAPTER XV
Hard Coal Ashes, Oyster Shell, and Grit
As stated in the chapter on “Anthracite Coal Ashes,” ashes have
entirely taken the place of charcoal on The Corning Egg Farm. They
are fed in hoppers with the Grit and Oyster Shell. These hoppers are
divided into three compartments, and are automatic in feeding down
the ingredients, in small quantities at a time, for Biddy’s use.
It is very essential to supply the hen with the proper grinding
material for operation in her mill, for, from the crop, what she takes
into her system in the way of grain, etc., is passed into the gizzard,
where she places a certain amount of hard, sharp stones, to use as
mill stones, and this great muscular organ then puts the food into the
proper condition for her to assimilate it.
The Grit placed in the hoppers is hard and sharp. Ordinary
pebbles are of no use to Biddy in preparing her food for digestion.
There are a great many different grits on the market sold through
Poultry Supply Houses, and by the manufacturers themselves.
Where it is possible to procure Grit having the essentials as already
described, and carrying a good percentage of lime, it adds very
materially to the desirability of the Grit.
Oyster Shell occupies the third compartment of the hoppers, this
supplying the hen with the lime necessary for her own system and
for the shell of the egg. It should be seen to that the Oyster Shell is
free from dust, and rather coarse as to its size. This represents an
economy because there is so little waste by the fowls when the Shell
is fed to them in this condition. The lack of lime in the system of the
hen is one of the reasons for soft shelled eggs, and the lack of lime
in the ingredients fed to a young chick means soft bones, which
shows most decidedly in leg weaknesses.
Where the hen is supplied with the full quantity of the ingredients
which give her lime, she turns out eggs which you might term “well
shelled” and this adds materially to the appearance of the egg, and,
consequently, helps to give it a better grading.
 CHAPTER XVI
Beef Scrap and Green Bone Substitutes for
Nature’s Animal Food
Undoubtedly the ideal animal food for the hen, if it were possible to
procure it in sufficient quantities the year round, would be angle
worms, grasshoppers, and other members of the insect family, which
the early Spring supplies in such liberal quantities. It must be
remembered that in these different worms and insects there is a
large amount of phosphorous, which adds very greatly to the ability
of the hen to successfully digest the large quantity of food which is
necessary, if she is to produce a large quantity of eggs.

Green Cut Bone Nearest Nature

The thing, perhaps, nearest in an artificial way to Nature’s animal
food, is green cut bone, and it is certainly relished by the hens, and a
great assistance in producing Winter eggs. The exercise of great
care, however, in the selection of bone is very necessary, for, if salt
bone, or tainted bone, is cut up and fed to the fowls, it will prove
most detrimental, and in many instances will mean the loss of the
hen.
For those who do not find it possible to set up the necessary bone-
cutting machinery there are numerous brands of “Beef Scrap” on the
market. This is made from green bone and meat which is then
cooked, ground and pressed, so as to preserve it fresh and sweet.
This also is a most successful way to supply the hens with the
necessary amount of animal food. It is readily mixed into the mash,
just as the green cut bone is, and, where the proper mechanical
mixer is used, it is possible to thoroughly coat the entire meal
mixture with the oily condition coming from the beef scrap, and until
one has seen beef scrap mixed into the mash by such a mixer he
has no idea how successful the operation is in preparing a high
grade mash. The beef scrap and also the fresh cut bone carry a high
percentage of phosphorus, and in fact have about all the ingredients
found in animal food secured by the hen while running on Range.
There are now appearing numerous advertisements of a prepared
fish, to take the place of other animal foods, but The Corning Egg
Farm is unable to give any opinion as to the efficiency of this
preparation. It has been the rule at the Farm, when we have
thoroughly tested and found satisfactory any article of food, not to
experiment with the various substitutes which at all times are so
widely advertised.
 CHAPTER XVII
A Time for Everything—Everything on Time
In any business, or occupation, that one attempts to carry on
successfully there must be system. Nature teaches system, and the
hen, as a part of Nature, is a very regular performer. She does
everything on time, and at a given time, and if her routine is broken
in upon she is a very much upset individual. The owner who rudely
disturbs her routine suffers in the loss of eggs.
The schedule of work among the fowls on The Corning Egg Farm
is without variation each day. In Summer the houses are always
open and need no attention in the morning, but in Winter the drops
are raised in ordinarily cold weather, as soon as it is light enough to
enable the hens to work in the litter for grain. On very cold mornings
the raising of the drops is deferred until the Sun is up, and when this
is done the drinking cups in the fountains are filled with hot water.

Fixed Feeding Hours

As close to eight o’clock as possible green food is fed to all the
hens, and, if the ground is in a reasonably dry condition, the green
food for the cockerels is scattered outside their pen, and the entire
flock is driven out of the House, where they are soon busy
consuming the green food and whatever grain may have been left on
the ground from their outdoor feeding of the previous day.
For a number of years it was the method at The Corning Egg
Farm, between the hours of nine and ten o’clock, to make a
gathering of eggs. This has now been abandoned for the reason that
so many birds were disturbed on the nests during such an early visit
to the House for gathering, and the first gathering now on the Farm
is made at eleven-thirty.
 In the study of feeding, extending over a term of years, it has been
found that a considerable economy in time can be made, with
exactly as advantageous results from the layers, by the following
routine. Fresh water is placed in all the laying and breeding pens at
one o’clock, p.m., and it is boiling water during the Winter months.
Directly following the watering the mash is placed in the troughs, and
the grain ration is scattered through the litter, both in Summer and
Winter. It has been found that the hens work just as hard, and
continue to do so, as they did when the mash and grain fed were
given at hours which practically followed the Sun, that is, earlier in
Winter, and later in Summer. In past years, the oats were fed to the
flocks as a separate ration, at eleven-thirty o’clock. This we have
discontinued. The grain ration is made up of cracked corn, wheat
and oats, in varying proportions according to the season of the year.

PART OF THE OLD INCUBATOR CELLAR

The New Building with the 15,600 Egg Machines was not Sufficiently Completed
for Interior Photograph

Four Collections of Eggs Daily