LECTURE 2: METAL FORMING PROCESSES

Rolling is a widely used industrial process to convert steel ingots

into blooms, billets, and slabs, and subsequently into plates, sheets
and strips.

1. Blooms have square cross section 6” x 6” or larger. They are

rolled into structural shapes such as I-sections, channels, rails
etc.

2. Billets have square cross section 1.5” x 1.5” or larger. They

are rolled into bars and rods.

3. Slabs have rectangular cross section 10” x 1.5” or larger. They

are rolled into plates, sheets and strips.
Plate – It is an average thickness of greater than 6 mm

Sheet – It has an average thickness of less than 6 mm

and width greater than 600 mm

Strip – It has an average thickness of less than 6 mm

and width is also less than 600 mm
Flow Stress

For most metals at room temperature, strength increases when

deformed due to strain hardening
Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required to continue
deforming the material

Yf = K n

where Yf = flow stress, that is, the yield strength as a

function of strain
Average Flow Stress

It is determined by integrating the flow curve equation between

zero and the final strain value defining the range of interest

K n
Yf =
1+ n

where Y f = average flow stress; and

 = maximum strain during the deformation process

Stress-Strain Relationship

Average flow stress Y f in

relation to Flow stress Yf
and Yield strength Y
True Stress and True Strain
Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend upon temperature
• Both strength (K) and strain hardening (n) are reduced at higher
temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures

Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces and

power at elevated temperature

Three temperature ranges in metal forming:

a) Cold working
b) Warm working
c) Hot working
Recrystallisation

 Under the action of heat and force, when the atoms reach a
certain higher energy level, the new crystals start forming which
is termed as recrystallisation. The temperature at which this
happens is termed as the recrystallization temperature.
 Recrystallisation destroys the old grain structure deformed by the
mechanical working, and entirely new crystals, which are strain
free, are formed. The grains, in fact, start nucleating at the points
of severest deformation.
Hot Rolling Operation
Cold Working

1. Performed at room temperature or slightly above

2. Many cold forming processes are important mass
production operations
3. Minimum or no machining usually required. These
operations are near net shape or net shape processes
Advantages of Cold Forming

1. Better accuracy, closer tolerances

2. Better surface finish
3. Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
4. Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
5. No heating of work required
Disadvantages of Cold Forming

1. Higher forces and power required for deformation

2. Starting work surfaces must be free of scale and dirt
3. Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done.
a) In some cases, metal must be annealed before
further deformation can be accomplished
b) In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough
to be cold worked
Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room temperature but

below the recrystallization temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm working
is often expressed in terms of melting point:
• Working temperature = 0.3Tm,
where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for
metal
Advantages and Disadvantages of Warm Working

Advantages
a) Lower forces and power than in cold working
b) More intricate work geometries possible
c) Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated
Disadvantage
Work piece must be heated
Hot Working

1. Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization

temperature
2. Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting
point on absolute scale
3. In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm (generally 0.5 – 0.75 Tm)
4. Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above
0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level
Why Hot Working?

This process has the capability for substantial plastic

deformation - far more than possible by cold working or warm
working

Why?
• Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at
room temperature
• Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically)
• Ductility is significantly increased
Advantages of Hot Working

1) Work part shape can be significantly altered

2) Lower forces and power required
3) Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot
formed
4) Strength properties of product are generally isotropic
5) No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening,
Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Lower dimensional accuracy

• Higher total energy required, which is the sum of
a) The thermal energy needed to heat the workpiece
b) Energy to deform the metal
• Work surface is prone to oxidation (scale), thus,
poorer surface finish is obtained
• Shorter tool life - Dies and rolls used in bulk
deformation
Grain Structure in Hot Rolling

Rolling is an effective method to reduce grain size and refine the

microstructure in metals, resulting in improved strength and
good ductility.
1) Determine the value of the strain-hardening exponent for a
metal that will cause the average flow stress to be 80% of the
final flow stress after deformation.
2. In a tensile test, two pairs of values of stress and strain were
measured for the specimen metal after it had yielded: (1) true stress
= 225 MPa and true strain = 0.30, and (2) true stress = 259 MPa and
true strain = 0.68. Based on these data points, determine the strength
coefficient and strain-hardening exponent.
 Solution: Solve two equations, two unknowns:
ln K = ln  – n ln ε
(1) ln K = ln 225 – n ln 0.30 ; ln K = ln 259 – n ln 0.68
(2) ln K = 5.4161 – (–1.2040)n = 5.4161 + 1.2040 n
(3) ln K = 5.5568 – (–0.3857)n = 5.5568 + 0.3857 n
n = 0.1719 ;
ln K = 5.4161 + 1.2040 (0.1719) = 5.6231 K = 276.8 MPa
ROLLING MECHANICS
Flat Rolling

Side view of flat

rolling, indicating
before and after
thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and
other features
Flat Rolling Terminology

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d = t o −t f

Reduction ratio = draft expressed as a fraction of

starting stock thickness:
d
r =
to

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; tf = final

thickness, and r = reduction ratio
Flat Rolling Terminology

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d = t o −t f

Reduction ratio = draft expressed as a fraction of

starting stock thickness:
d
r =
to

where d = draft; to = starting thickness; tf = final

thickness, and r = reduction ratio
Factors influencing Angle of Bite

1) Rolling temperature (Hot rolling/ cold rolling)

2) Surface roughness of rollers

3) Diameter of rollers
Torque and Power Requirements

Roll Force = Flow stress x length of contact x width of plate

Assuming that the roll force is centered on the work as it passes

through the rolls, and it acts effectively at ½ the contact length,

Torque ‘T’ for each roll = (F x L)/2

Power required to drive each roll = Torque x Angular velocity

P = 2𝝅𝑵𝑭𝑳
Where P = Power in Watt
N = rotational speed , rev/s
F = rolling Force, N
L = contact length, m
Methods to increase the Draft

1) Larger diameter rolls and higher coefficient of

friction allow heavy draft
2) It is possible to roll with greater draft if the work is
pushed between the rolls
3) Radius of the rolls must be small to increase the
length of contact, and subsequently draft
1) The maximum thickness reduction in the rolling of slab
is from 25 to 20 mm, in a single pass. If the roll diameter is
500 mm what is the coefficient of friction. Also determine
the length of contact between the rolls and the workpiece.
Coefficient of friction = 0.1414

Lc = 35.35 mm