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· THE IDEA OF ·
THE LABYRINTH
· THE IDEA OF ·
THE LABYRINTH
All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts
thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from
the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House,
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Jacket illustration: Photograph courtesy of the Soprintendenza Archeologica, Milan.
F or GrahamEric Parker
worthy companion
in multiplicitous mazes
and in memory of
JudsonBoyceAllen
and
Constantin Patsalas
Contents
List of Plates lX
Abbreviations XVll
PART ONE
THE LABYRINTH IN THE CLASSICAL
AND EARLY CHRISTIAN PERIODS
PART Two
THE LABYRINTH IN THE MIDDLE AGES
PART THREE
LABYRINTHS OF WoRDs:
CENTRAL TEXTS AND INTERTEXTUALITIES
8. Virgil's Aeneid 227
g. Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy 2 54
1 0 . Dante's Divine Comedy 27 1
The labyrinthine landscape 2 8 1
The labyrinthine journey 2 8 7
The myth transformed and reenacted 294
P
EOPLE who wander in mazes for twenty years need a lot of
help along the way. But if labyrinths are icons of difficult
process, by the same token they are occasions for generosity,
and I have encountered more than my fair share of gracious guides.
Pliny tells us that four labyrinths existed in ancient times. Taking up his
clue, I thank those who have eased my passage through the four mazes I
have experienced while imagining and then writing The Idea of the
Labyrinth.
First came the magnificent, many-folded labyrinth of medieval stud
ies, endlessly attractive precisely because of its multitudinous difficulties.
It was probably Geoffrey Chaucer, English Daedalus "with his playes
slye," who enticed me into this maze, but he had wily accomplices, not
least the late R. W. Ackerman of Stanford University, who persuaded me
to become a medievalist even though I had no interest in Old Norse.
Classical and medieval mazes typically begin where they end and end
where they began, as Boethius told Lady Philosophy ; hence, appropri
ately, my point of entry into medieval studies, the origin of this book,
and the final chapter all coincide in that brilliantly eclectic poem
Chaucer's House of Fame, which is not only a beginning and ending but
also an eccentric thread of Ariadne to the labyrinth of medieval litera
ture. B . J. Whiting introduced me to the poem at Harvard University,
where English 1 1 5 began with his wry line-by-line commentary. Al
though our approaches to Chaucer are fundamentally different, it was
he who first revealed to me the charm of a work that has captivated me
ever since and who inspired me to begin my own Chaucer courses with
that poem. (It was while teaching The House of Fame to a group of baffled
undergraduates in 1 970 that I hit upon the idea that the poem was itself
a maze, only to realize how much was yet to be discovered about medieval
XI
xn Acknowledgments
Many people have played Saint Julian, patron of travelers and maze
treaders alike, on my behalf: I thank Ann Kussmaul, Paul and Elaine
Hyams, Harriet Kirkley, and Mahmoud Manzalaoui for their hospitality
in England on my various research trips. To Wendon Dobbs and Clive
Evans, who generously let me and my labyrinthine obsessions invade
their London home for many summers, I owe the deepest gratitude and
affection.
One can neither explore nor build labyrinths without material su p
port, and that I have had in abundance from the John Simon Gug
genheim Foundation, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada, the Glendon College Research Grant Fund, and
York University. Pliny thought the ancient labyrinths were a tremendous
waste of resources, and I hope those who have invested enormously in
this book feel their money has been somewhat better spent. Maze
walkers also need help in the exhausting tasks of searching bibliogra
phies, checking dates and quotations, writing for permissions, pho
tocopying articles, and so on. In this regard, I have been lucky in my
talented and painstaking research assistants : Sheila Barry, Jinnean Ber
nard, Lucia Cino, Colleen Cowman, Nirmal Dass, Brandi Dickman, Pa
trick Johnson, Tom Klubi, Birgit Langwisch, and especially Dyan Elliott.
Would-be architects of a book like this one need special help in design
ing its complex groundplan, and I've been blessed with friends who
helped me see the labyrinth whole. Judson Allen, John Leyerle, and
Brian Stock played the roles of Ariadne and Daedalus, helping me chart
the ground. Still more important, they believed in what I was doing even
when I despaired of ever reaching the end. That this book exists at all is
in large part due to their persistent encouragement over two decades.
If one needs an overview of the maze, one also needs distraction from
its labors now and again. In this respect, I record my gratitude to my
dear friend, the late Constantin Patsalas, who granted me the privilege
of intense involvement in his own Daedalian artistry as a choreographer.
His imagination sparked mine, and I often returned from rehearsals
and excited discussions of his ballets with far greater energy to attack my
own work. We had planned some day to collaborate on a ballet about the
Cretan myth ; his early death ended that hope.
People who create labyrinths need to gain perspective by stepping
back and describing what they have designed so far. For letting me give
papers and lectures on parts of this research over the years and for
valuable feedback, I want to acknowledge Nicholas Mann (Oxford,
1975), Raymond St. Jacques and Douglas Wuertele (Universities of Ot
tawa and Carleton, 1981), John Leyerle (Urtiversity of Toronto, 1982),
Diana Theodores Taplin (University of Waterloo, 1982 ), Otto Gn1ndler
(International Congress of Medieval Studies, 198 2 , 1983, 1985, 1989),
Patricia Briickmann ("Discovering in Wide Landscape," 1983), Thomas
x1v Acknowledgments
xvn
xvm Abbreviations
THE LABYRINTH
• INTRODUCTION •
NCIENT
A
and medieval labyrinths or mazes (the words have
different etymologies but mean the same thing) are charac
teristically double. They are full of ambiguity, their cir-
cuitous design prescribes a constant doubling back, and they fall into two
distinct but related structural categories. They presume a double per
spective : maze-treaders, whose vision ahead and behind is severely con
stricted and fragmented, suffer confusion, whereas maze-viewers who
see the pattern whole, from above or in a diagram, are dazzled by its
complex artistry. What you see depends on where you stand, and thus, at
one and the same time, labyrinths are single (there is one physical struc
ture) and double: they simultaneously incorporate order and disorder,
clarity and confusion, unity and multiplicity, artistry and chaos. They
may be perceived as path (a linear but circuitous passage to a goal) or as
pattern (a complete symmetrical design). They are dynamic from a
maze-walker's perspective and static from a privileged onlooker's point
of view. Their paths are linear, but-since many ancient and medieval
labyrinths are round-their pattern may be circular, cyclical; they de
scribe both the linearity and the architecture of space and time. They
may be inextricable (if no one can find the exit) or impenetrable (if no
one can find the center). Our perception of labyrinths is thus intrin
sically unstable : change your perspective and the labyrinth seems to
change. As images, then, labyrinths are convertible and relative: what
you see and feel and understand one moment can shift completely the
l
2 Introduction
next like a reversible figure, an optical illusion. Thus mazes encode the
very principle of doubleness, contrariety, paradox, concordia discors, as
Wyatt knew. 1
Accordingly, the aims of this book are dual: to reconstruct the idea of
the labyrinth in the western Middle Ages by extrapolation from a wide
variety of sources, both literary and visual, and to see how that idea
informs an array of important literary texts. I use the word idea to mean
the general governing concept of the labyrinth as a visual or verbal sign,
its ruling principles, the theoretical set of characteristics abstracted from
and manifested in the specific labyrinths of art or literature. The idea of
the labyrinth thus encompasses both formal principles (e.g. , circuitous
ness, complexity) and habitual, culturally shared and transmitted signifi
cances of labyrinths (e.g. , artistry, imprisonment). Unlike a Platonic idea,
the kind of idea I'm talking about is not "true," universal, or immutable ;
like other human ideas, the idea of the labyrinth is subject to temporal
change, the most marked change occurring in postmedieval times, when
the presence of false turnings and repeated choice became the laby
rinth's dominant characteristic. But because there is considerable con
stancy in the idea of the labyrinth over many centuries, including those
spanned by this book, I speak of an idea (albeit one with permissible
variations), not of many ideas. Since it allows for certain variations, this
idea is not monolithic, a fixed and perfect template; rather, it includes a
small repertory of attributes and associations among which a maze
maker can select, emphasizing these as opposed to those to shape the
precise significance of this particular maze, which will in turn be inter
preted by readers or viewers in accordance with their familiarity with the
received idea of the labyrinth.
The word idea is also appropriate because I am interested not only in
"real" labyrinths-mazes one can see and touch, things that are labeled
labyrinths-but also in metaphorical labyrinths and in the very concept
of the labyrinth. Thus I am also concerned with the labyrinthine: with
identifying certain features closely associated with labyrinths (for in
stance, enforced circuitousness ; disorientation; the idea of planned
chaos;2 the bivium or critical choice between two paths ; inextricability ;
intricacy; complexity), and with examining how constellations of these
features operate in things, metaphors, and texts that function like laby
rinths even though they may not be identified as such. In this context, I
have coined the term "labyrinthicity," by which I mean the condition of
possessing significant features habitually associated with labyrinths.
1. See epigraph to this chapter and Ballade 85 in Sir Thomas Wyatt: The Complete Poems,
ed. R. A. Rebholz (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1 978), pp. 1 20- 1 2 1 .
2 . I first encountered this phrase in Alfred David's "Literary Satire in The House of
Fame," PMLA , 75 ( 1 960), 333-339, where it struck me as the perfect definition of a maze.
Charting the Maze 3
3· See, e.g., Janet Bord, Mazes and Labyrinths of the World (London : Latimer New Di
mensions, 1 976) ; Philippe Borgeaud, "The Open Entrance to the Closed Palace of the
King: The Greek Labyrinth in Context," History of Religions, 14 (1974), 1 - 2 7 ; Gaetano
Cipolla, Labyrinth: Studies on an Archetype (New York: Legas, 1 987); Raymond ]. Clark,
Catabasis: Vergil and the Wisdom-Tradition (Amsterdam: B. R. Gruner, 1979); C. N. Deedes,
"The Labyrinth," in S. H. Hooke, ed. , The Labyrinth: Further Studzes zn the Relatzon of Myth
and Ritual in the Ancient World (London: SPCK, 1 935), pp. 3-4 2 ; Kern, Labznntt ; W. F.
Jackson Knight, Cumaean Gates: A Relation of the Sixt� Aeneid to the Initiation Pattern (Oxford :
Blackwell, 1936); Matthews, Mazes and Labynnths ; Jtll Puree, The Mystzc Spzral: Journey of the
Soul (London : Thames & Hudson, 1 974); and Santarcangeli, Livre des Labyrinthes. My short
study "The Labyrinth in Medieval Culture : Explorations of an I �age," University of Ottau:a
Quarterly, 52 ( 1 98 2 ), 207- 2 1 8, based on papers given at Oxford m 1 975 and at Ottawa m
1 981 , is very sketchy in comparison to the present book.
4 Introduction
4· See Hans Robert Jauss, "Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory," pp.
3-45 in Tuward an Aesthetic of Reception, trans. Timothy Bahti, introd. Paul de Man (Min
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1 982), and Jonathan Culler, "Literary Compe
tence," pp. 1 0 1 - 1 1 7 in Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism, ed.
Jane P. Tompkins (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1 980). Culler's essay is
excerpted from his Structuralist Poetics (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1 975).
5 · We encounter a chicken-or-egg question in regard to whether the visual image of the
labyrinth generated myth and metaphor or vice versa. Given the great antiquity of the
typical round, unicursal design, the visual image may have come first, begetting (or attach
ing to itself) myth and metaphor, but the question is really unanswerable.
6. I remain deeply indebted to Matthews' s pioneering work and appreciative of the
valuable studies of Santarcangeli, Kern, and Batschelet-Massini; these works have not
significant ly influenced my own approach or conclusions, but they have made this book
shorter than I expected when I began my research in 1 970, for they cover some ground so
ably that, to paraphrase a medieval commonplace, if in some ways I can see farther and
more accurately, it is because I am standing on the shoulders of giants I can cite in
footnotes.
Charting the Maze 5
phor in mind, or (occasionally) they can select features from both mod
els, or (very rarely) they can describe a transformation of one model into
the other.
Chapter 3 shows how three shared formal characteristics generate a
taxonomy of labyrinth metaphors : because of certain physical attributes,
the labyrinth may be a sign of complex artistry, of impenetrability or
inextricability, and of difficult intellectual, epistemological, and verbal
process. These categories are illustrated and developed by a wide range
of classical and early Christian texts, most of them known in the Middle
Ages. 7 In a general sense, then, Chapter 3 is a case history in how
properties of structural models generate, or at least support, literary
metaphor; more particularly, the chapter documents the specific meta
phorical heritage of the maze on which medieval writers and artists
could, and did, draw in creating their own labyrinthine works and
metaphors.
Part One thus describes the literary, conceptual, and metaphorical
backgrounds of the medieval idea of the labyrinth. Part Two tackles that
idea directly. A brief introduction, Chapter 4, considers Latin etymology
and vernacular terms for mazes and condenses the various ambiguities
of labor intus and domus daedali into three general categories of meaning
roughly corresponding to those outlined in Chapter 3: artistry, morality,
and difficult process. Each of these categories is then explored. Chapter
5 examines the witness of the medieval visual arts (architecture, gardens,
turf and stone mazes, cathedral labyrinths, mazes in manuscripts) to see
how it informs written texts by exemplifying, developing, and populariz
ing certain aspects of the medieval idea of the labyrinth ; in return, the
literary tradition casts light on some puzzling aspects of visual labyrinths,
including the hotly debated function of cathedral mazes. The visual arts
are the major medieval locus of the classical and early Christian concept
of the labyrinth as magnificent artistry, whether human or divine ; they
also provide evidence for a purely secular view of labyrinths in a culture
that moralized most things, including mazes, and give some insight into
the mazes of popular and aristocratic cultures. Thus the interaction of
literature and art enhances our understanding of each and enriches our
perception of the medieval idea of the labyrinth.
Chapter 5 stresses Daedalian artistry, the visual arts, and the labyrinth
in bono ; Chapter 6 turns to morality, literature, and the deceitful, nearly
7. In most of t his book (Part Three is an except ion). I am not concerned wit h est ablish
ing t he direct influence of one aut hor on anot her. Most aut hors cit ed would have known
bot h t he unicursal visual design and t he mult icursal lit erary t radit ion, and I hypot hesize
t hat t he idea of t he labyrint h and it s met aphorical pot ent ial are defined t heoret ically by t he
st ruct ural feat ures, cont rast s , and commonalit ies of t he t wo models. If t hat is correct , t hen
alt hough many writ ers probably borrowed labyrint h met aphors from ot her writ ers, any
writ er could visualize a labyrint h and independently deduce appropriat e met aphors wit hout
t he mediat ing influence of a t ext .
Charting the Maze 7
inextricable mazes of the world and sin. Most of the texts considered
here draw as heavily on the story of the Cretan labyrinth as on the
ambiguous building itself, and that narrative context tends to equate the
structural windings or errores of the maze with moral error. Three sets of
texts are considered. First, several elaborate fourteenth-century my
thographical readings of the Cretan legend illustrate the rich and com
prehensive metaphorical potential of labyrinthine characters, plot, and
structure within the allegorical tradition. Next, fairly casual references
to the labyrinth in selected nonmythographical texts document the
maze's commonplace metaphorical associations as background for more
substantial discussion and fuller appreciation of particularly innovative
works. The chapter concludes with four unrelated texts that draw more
creatively on the plot and cast of the Cretan legend : the story of Gar
dinus in the Gesta Romanorum, Boccaccio's Corbaccio, the anonymous As
sembly of Ladies, and the Queste del Saint Graal. Each text reflects the
medieval idea of the labyrinth and presents the world as a perilous maze
in which one learns how to function only with great difficulty, and in
each the idea of labyrinth serves as a revealing interpretive tool.
Chapter 7 concludes Part Two with the most interesting group of
metaphorical mazes : intellectual and textual labyrinths. Here the maze
becomes a model for the complex processes of creating and receiving
texts as well as for the object of these activities, the text itself as a work of
elaborate art. The chapter addresses the question of a labyrinthine aes
thetic and shows how labyrinthine qualities are privileged in literary
theory and practice even though the term "labyrinth" is most commonly
applied pejoratively to failed art, art that is too complex for its intended
audience and purpose.
Part Three, "Labyrinths of Words," consists of four essays in practical
criticism. Here I apply concepts developed in Parts One and Two to
labyrinthine readings of four interrelated literary texts: Virgil's Aeneid,
Boethius's Consolation of Philosophy, Dante's Divine Comedy, and Chaucer's
House of Fame. Each of these texts plays with received ideas of the laby
rinth, its plot, its characters ; and each text reflects not only the idea of
the labyrinth in its own age but also labyrinthine aspects of the texts that
precede it in this remarkable series. Boethius uses and corrects Virgil's
idea of the labyrinth ; Dante uses and corrects Virgil and Boethius; and
Chaucer makes extraordinarily innovative use of all three masters.
These four works constitute a complex study in labyrinthine intertex
tuality and an appropriate conclusion to my explorations of the idea of
the labyrinth. Thus these chapters illuminate the texts they discuss and
serve as models for readings of other labyrinthine literature. 8
8. I intend to pursue some such readings, most notably of several g� eat English Ricar
dian poems, at a later date. Those who have heard my talks on the l_abyn? ths. of Sz: Gawam
and the Green Knight will have to wait for the appearance of that di scussion m prm t.
8 Introduction
Ce fut un jour très clair, encore doux, qui dorait les toits et les
clochers de la ville. Dès son réveil, Fabien demanda :
— Le courrier est-il arrivé ?
Il n’avait pas dormi et s’était seulement assoupi vers le matin. Il
se leva cependant de bonne heure et une fois habillé, sans rien
vouloir manger, commença de marcher fiévreusement à travers les
chambres. Souvent, il s’arrêtait tout indécis, me fixant sans me voir
ou fixant le mur devant lui. Je m’effrayais alors de retrouver sur son
visage cette pâleur, cette altération, cette souffrance crispée qui le
décomposaient dans les premiers jours de notre arrivée en
Avignon… Et peu à peu, tandis que je l’observais, tandis que
j’entendais sur le carreau sonore le martèlement de son pas,
insupportable et régulier, l’angoisse énervée de cette attente me
gagnait à mon tour. Cette lettre !… allait-elle venir enfin ?… Je n’y
avais plus pensé pendant ces deux jours… — Je croyais bien n’y
avoir plus pensé — mais la certitude qui m’était venue là-bas, dans
le froid et la nuit, sur la route où nous étions seuls, la certitude
qu’après avoir reçu cette lettre, il me dirait tout, il ne pourrait pas ne
pas tout me dire, je la retrouvais maintenant, et si violente, si
profonde que, pendant ces deux journées, elle avait dû à mon insu
ne pas cesser de vivre et de s’accroître au dedans de moi.
Je n’avais pas la préoccupation de savoir ce que contiendrait
cette lettre, et je ne me demandais pas : « Quand il l’aura lue, que
va-t-il me dire ? » mais seulement : « Combien de temps encore va
durer cette attente ?… » Comme la fièvre de Fabien, ma fièvre
augmentait avec les heures qui passaient. Trois fois pendant cette
matinée, il descendit voir si le facteur n’avait rien déposé dans la
petite boîte de tôle, et trois fois je descendis à mon tour. Quand l’un
de nous remontait, l’autre l’interrogeait d’un seul mot :
— Rien ?
— Rien !
Nous ne nommions pas cette lettre. Ce que chacun de nous
attendait qu’elle lui apportât, aucun de nous n’aurait voulu le dire. Et
tout en commandant mal à tous les gestes qui témoignaient de notre
impatience, nous nous efforcions de dissimuler les causes profondes
de cette impatience, presque puérilement…
— Aujourd’hui, me déclara Fabien vers le début de l’après-midi,
je ne sortirai pas. Je sens un peu de fatigue…
Il y avait encore trois courriers avant le soir. C’est par l’un de
ceux-là que généralement arrivaient les lettres de Guicharde, et je
comprenais bien pourquoi il ne voulait pas s’éloigner de la maison…
Cependant, sur ma petite pendule posée au coin de la grande
cheminée de marbre gris à volutes et à coquilles, mes yeux
commençaient de suivre la marche des aiguilles et de regarder,
parmi les chiffres peints en bleu, une heure entre toutes les autres,
l’heure déjà si prochaine où je devais aujourd’hui, au musée Calvet,
retrouver Philippe Fabréjol…
— Et toi, continuait Fabien, me montrant une fois de plus
combien ma présence et mon appui lui étaient nécessaires, sortiras-
tu ?… Je voudrais… Cela me ferait plaisir si tu restais avec moi.
Je crois qu’il avait peur d’être tout seul quand arriverait cette
lettre, il en avait peur. Ses yeux le disaient. Une fois de plus, je
sentais contre moi trembler sa détresse. Et je savais que le moment
allait venir, que le moment était venu de lui dire : « Remets-moi tout
ton mal. Je le porterai avec toi. » — Mais il y avait ces chiffres sur la
petite pendule… il y avait ce chiffre. Et il y avait en moi cette pensée
parmi toutes les pensées : « Il va falloir me préparer… il le faut… Je
ne puis pas le faire attendre. »
Je me levai. Mais peut-être il était encore trop tôt, et j’allai
prendre une autre chaise près de la fenêtre.
— Je puis, dis-je à Fabien, rester avec toi un quart d’heure
encore… Ensuite il me faut sortir… absolument… pour quelques
achats…
Il demanda :
— Lesquels ?
Mais j’oubliai de lui répondre et il ne m’interrogea pas davantage.
Il n’osait pas insister : il n’osait pas montrer trop clairement cette
crainte qu’il avait d’être seul en ce moment. Tout de même, il dit au
bout de cinq minutes :
— Pars tout de suite, alors. — Tu reviendras plus tôt. J’aime
mieux cela.
Je lui obéis. Déjà je commençais d’être toute machinale, déjà
sans doute je savais que dans tout ce qui allait se résoudre ma
petite volonté ne servirait pas de grand’chose.
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