UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING EDUCATION

CIVIL ENGINEERING PROGRAM
Davao City, Philippines

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS IN

BCE221 (5835)

SUBMITTED BY:

AMBOS, MICHAEL
CANLAS, PALOMA V.
VERANO, HERMIONE XOCHIQUETZAL

SUBMITTED TO:

ENGR. ROUMEL SALVADOR ALVAREZ

FEB 2024
INTRODUCTION

Feldspars are anhydrous aluminosilicates that constitute the most abundant

mineralogical group of the earth's crust, covering around 58 % of the composition of many
rocks, being an essential component in igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks.

The abundance of feldspars in nature make that they have received considerable
attention throughout history, having emerged numerous studies trying to characterize their
structural, physical and chemical features by different material characterization techniques, this
includes: Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), High-resolution Transmission Electron
Microscopy (HRTEM), Raman and IR spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction and Analysis (XRD),
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Neutron Diffraction, and Luminescence; in order to
extract valuable information about Earth from these elements that are abundantly presented in
nature.

However, the interest of feldspars goes beyond the basic geology or material science
and owing to their composition, feldspars are widely used as raw materials in the glass, ∼60
%, and ceramic manufacture, ∼35 %. Feldspar raw materials are a source of alumina (Al2O3),
alkali (Na2O and K2O), and silica as well as they are used as fluxing agents to form a glassy
phase at lower temperatures . Alkali feldspars are principally used in glassmaking and ceramics,
sodium-rich plagioclases are mostly used in ceramics while calcium-rich plagioclases in
several construction products, such as fiberglass or to strengthen glass-reinforced plastic
products. However, their application is also extended to other fields: fillers and extenders (in
applications such as paints, plastics and rubber), for biomedical applications (as dental
porcelains) or as dating element in Earth Sciences and Archaeology (K-Ar, Ar-Ar,
luminescence dating etc.).

SYNTHESIS, PRODUCTION, CHARATERIZATION OF SYNTHETIC FELDSPAR

Feldspars are aluminosilicates whose formation occurs when in some silicon tetrahedra
there is a substitution of Si4+ by Al3+, which causes a positive charge defect that will be
compensated by different alkali and alkaline-earth cations. The framework of feldspars consists
of rings of four tetrahedra, where the corners of each one are occupied by oxygens and links
two tetrahedra. In their centers, Si4+ or Al3+ cations are located with a Si4+/Al3+ ratio variable,
depending on the feldspar composition which also conditions the different alkali and alkaline-
earth cations that are located in the interstices between such tetrahedra.
Figure 1: Four-membered tetrahedral ring characteristic of triclinic a) low albite and b) anorthite
structure. Each tetrahedron is centered by Silicon-Si (yellow atoms) or Aluminium-Al (blue atoms),
with a Si/Al ratio of 3:1 in a and 2:2 in b. Tetrahedra is linked by oxygen atoms (red atoms). In a sodium
atom appears in orange, while if it is replaced by potassium one, the triclinic structure of microcline is
depicted. In anorthite, b, calcium atom is depicted in pink.

Table 1: Classification of the three end-members of feldspar group attending to their chemical
composition, Si/Al distribution, structure and space group.

At high temperatures, the solid solution of alkali feldspars occurs, distinguishing

sanidine and anorthoclase, both with a monoclinic structure and belonging to space group
C2/m. Regarding order/disorder, sanidine is usually classified in high and low sanidines, which
are fully and partly disordered, respectively. In the case of anorthoclase, they are generally
disordered feldspars.
Figure 2: Ternary diagram for the solid solution of feldspars.

However, these three components do not have the ability to mix completely and there
is an unmixed zone, as it can be seen in Fig. 2, also known as miscibility gap that appears for
the compositions between anorthite and potassium feldspars. In this range of compositions
there will be no solid solution, but crystals with a composition rich in potassium on the one
hand, and rich in calcium on the other hand. Such unmixed zone will depend drastically on the
physical and chemical conditions of the feldspars involved, being very sensitive to changes in
temperature, composition and pressure.

According to the free energy diagram of the involved solid solution, if a solid solution
is cooled below the "solvus" temperature, which defines its solid solubility limit, a phase
separation occurs. This process is also known as an exsolution or unmixed process and it is
energetically more favorable than a solid solution. This process of exsolution can occur through
a phenomenon called spinodal decomposition or by nucleation and growth. Spinodal
decomposition is a mechanism at atomic level that leads to a coherent growth of the involved
phases. On the other hand, if the end-members of the solid solution have remarkably different
structures, the exsolution is produced by nucleation and growth.

APPLICATION OF FELDSPAR IN CERAMIC INDUSTRY

Apart from their synthesis, the properties of feldspar crystals give rise to a growing
interest in functional applications. As ceramic market started to grow, principally the sector of
ceramic tiles, specific mechanical and thermal properties were started to be analyzed to ensure
that the products met the demands of the market. In recent years, the advance characterization
of the feldspars diversifies its field of application paying attention to as electronic or optic
applications. For these reasons, in this section, electrical properties are reviewed.
 Electrical properties of feldspar minerals have been deeply discussed in literature over
the years, principally their electrical conductivity. Since one of the main application of
ceramics is as dielectric insulator used in many microelectronic devices, the electrical
properties of synthetic feldspars-based materials were studied at low frequency (Table 3) and
in the microwave range (Table 3). The feldspar-based ceramics were studied for Low-
Temperature Cofired-Ceramic (LTCC) technology in microwave applications, which have to
meet some requirements such as low sintering temperature, below 1000 °C, low temperature-
stable dielectric constant (εr), in the range 5−10, to enable high speed signal transmission and
low dielectric losses (tanδ) to improve the frequency selectivity, which is translated into high
quality factors (Q × f) calculated by the expression 1/tanδ × f .

In conclusion, the utilization of feldspar in the ceramic industry holds significant

promise for the Philippines, especially if there is a large-scale production of synthetic feldspar.
The ceramic industry plays a crucial role in the country's economy, serving both domestic and
international markets with its diverse range of products. By adopting synthetic feldspar as a
key raw material in ceramic manufacturing processes, the Philippines can potentially benefit
in several ways.
Christoph Hecker, Mark van der Meijde, Freek D. van der Meer, Thermal infrared spectroscopy on
feldspars — Successes, limitations and their implications for remote sensing, Earth-Science
Reviews, Volume 103, Issues 1–2, 2010, Pages 60-70, ISSN 0012-8252,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.005.

L.M. Anovitz, A. Affolter, M.C. Cheshire, A.J. Rondinone, Lawrence F. Allard, Sol-gel synthesis of
nano-scale, end-member albite feldspar (NaAlSi3O8), Journal of Colloid and Interface
Science, Volume 603, 2021, Pages 459-467, ISSN 0021-9797,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2021.06.026.

V. Fuertes, J.J. Reinosa, J.F. Fernández, E. Enríquez, Engineered feldspar-based ceramics: A review of
their potential in ceramic industry, Journal of the European Ceramic Society, Volume 42, Issue
2, 2022, Pages 307-326, ISSN 0955-2219,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2021.10.017.