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Semester Edition
 [ DID-uh-kay]

TheDidache is the first known Christian catechesis. Written in the first century, the Didache is the earliest
known Christian writing outside of Scripture. The name of the work, "Didache," is indeed appropriate
for such a catechesis because it comes from the Greek word for "teaching," and indicates that this writing
contains the teaching of the Apostles.
TheDidache is a catechetical summary of Christian Sacraments, practices, and morality. Though written
in the first century, its teaching is timeless. TheDidache was probably written by the disciples of the
Twelve Apostles, and it presents the Apostolic Faith as taught by those closest to Jesus Christ. This series
of books takes the name of this early catechesis because it shares in the Church's mission of passing on
that same Faith, in its rich entirety, to new generations.
Below is an excerpt from the Didache in which we see a clear example of its lasting message, a message
that speaks to Christians of today as much as it did to the first generations of the Church. The world is
different, but the struggle for holiness is the same. In the Didache, we are instructed to embrace virtue, to
avoid sin, and to live the Beatitudes of our Lord.

My child flee from every evil thing, and from every

likeness 'of it. Be not prone to anger, for anger leads the
way to murder; neither jealous, nor quarrelsome, nor of
hot temper; for out of all these murders are engendered.
My child be not a lustful one; for lust leads the way to
fornicati~n; neither a filthy talker, nor of lofty eye; for
out of all these adulteries are engendered.
My child be not an observer of omens, since it leads the
way to idolatry; neither an enchanter, nor an as~rologer,
nor a purifier, nor be willing to took at these things; for
out of all these idolatry is engendered.
My child, be not a liar, since a lie leads the way to theft;
neither money-loving, nor vainglorious, for out of all
these thefts are engendered.
M child be not a murmurer, since it leads the way to
bl~sphe~y; neither self-willed nor evil-minded, for out
of all these blasphemies are engendered.
But be meek, since the meek shall inherit the earth.
Be long-suffering and pitiful and guileless and ~entle
and good and always trembling at the words which you
have heard.1

TheDidache is the teaching of the Apostles and, as such, it is the teaching of the Church. Accordingly, this
book series makes extensive use of the most recent comprehensive catechesis provided to us, the Catechism
qfthe Catholic Church. The Didache series also relies heavily on Sacred Scripture, the lives of the saints,
the Fathers of the Church, and the teaching of Vatican II as witnessed by the pontificates of St. John Paul II,
Benedict XVI, and Francis.

1. "The Didache," Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 7. tr. M .B. Riddle. ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe
(Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1886).
 Publish ed in the United States of America by

Midwest Theological Forum

4340 Cross Street, Suite 1
Downers Grove, IL 605 15

Tel: 630-54 1-8519

Fax: 33 1-777-581 9
mail@mw tf.org
www.theologicalforum.org
Copyright© 2014 Rev. James Sodas
ISBN 978-1-936045-95-2
Digital Edition

Jesus the Alpha and Omega. Fourth-century wall

painting from the Catacombs of Commodilla, Rome, Italy.

Author: Very Rev. Peter V. Armenia

Publisher: Rev. James Sodas
Editor in Grief: Jeffrey S. Cole
Editorial Board: Rev. James Sodas, Dr. Scott Hahn, Very Rev. Peter V. Armenia, .Mike Aquilina, Jeffrey S. Cole
Other Contributors: Dan Cheely, Joseph Lechner, Joseph Llnn, Russell Shaw, John Shine, Peter Simek
Design and Production: .Marlene Burrell, Jane Heineman of A pril Graphics, Highland Park, Illinois,
Jerzy .Miszczyszyn of Lyndon Studio, Downers Grove, Illinois

Acknowledgements
English translation of the Catechism ofthe Catholic Oiurch fort he United States of America copyright ©1994, United States Catholic Conference.
Inc.-Libretia Editrice Vaticana. English translation of the Catechism of the Catholic Oiurch: 11odificationsfrom the Editio T ypicacopyright ©1997.
United States Catholic Conference. Inc.-Libretia Edi trice Vaticana.

Scripture quotations are from the Catholic Edition of the Revised Standard Version of the Bible, copyright © 1965, 1966, Nat ion al Council
of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Excerpts from the Code of Canon Law. Latin/English Edition. are used with permission. copyright ©1983 Canon Law Society of America. Washington. D.C.

Gtations ofoffidal Church documents from Neuner. Josef. SJ. and Dupuis, Jacques. SJ. eds.. The Olristian Faith: Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic
Oiurch 5th ed. (New York: Alba House.1992). Used with permission.

Excerpts from Vatican CowidlII: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar DOCTJments. New Revised Edition edited by Austin Flannery. O .P.. copyright ©1992.
Costello Publishing Company. Inc.. Northport NY. are used by permission of the publisher. all rights reserved. No part of these excerpts may be
reproduced. stored in a retrieval system or transrnined in any form or by any means - e lectronic. mechanical photocopying. recording or otherwise.
without express permission of Costello Publishing Company.

Disclaimer: The editor ofthis book has attempted to give proper credit to all sources used in the text and illustrations.
Any miscredit or lack of credit is wiintended and will be corrected in the next edition.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Armenio. Peter V.
The history of the church/ author. Peter V. Armenio; general editor. James Sodas. -- Semester ed.
p.cm
Originally published: 1st ed c200l in series: The Didache series.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-936045-15-0
l Catholic Church--History- Textbook.s. 2. Christian education--Textbooks for teenagers--Catholic. I. Sodas. James. 11 Title.
BX948 .A76 2010
270- dc22 2010018590

This statement applies to the Complete Course Edition of this text.

The Ad Hoc Committee to Oversee the Use of the Catechism, United States Conference of Catholic Bishops,
has found this catechetical text, copyright 2005, to be in conformity with the Catechism ofthe Catholic Church.

iii
 CONTENTS

xi Abbreviations Used for the 34 The Episcopacy

Books of the Bible 34 Priesthood
xi General Abbreviations 34 The Scriptures
35 Sexual Ethics: Abortion and Contraception
431 Doctors of the Church
36 Part VII: hnportant Writings
432 ThePopes of the Early Christian Period
434 Art and Photo Credits 36 Apologists
37 TheDidache
440 Index
37 Tertullian
37 St Hippolytus and The Apostolic Tradition
1 Chapter 1: The Founding of the Church 38 Part VIII: .Martyrdom as the Greatest
and the Early Christians Testimony to Christianity
3 Part I: The Jews 38 Condusion
40 Vocabulary
4 Part Il: The Life of Jesus Christ 42 Study Questions
5 11ap: Palestine in the Time of Christ 43 Practical Exercises
7 Sidebar: The Four Gospels 43 From the Catechism
8 Part ill: Pentecost, the Birth of the Church
10 11ap: The Early Spread of Christianity
45 Chapter 2:Persecution of"The Way"
11 Part IV: The Church and Heresies
13 The Church is One 47 Part I: The First Roman Persecutions
13 The Church is Holy 47 The first Persecution Under Emperor
13 The Church is Catholic Nero (AD64)
13 The Church is Apostolic 49 Persecution Under Emperor Domitian,
14 Part IV: The Apostles "Lord and God"
14 The Call of the Twelve
50 Part Il: "The Five Good Emperors"
15 The Apostolic Tradition and the (AD96-180)
Office ofBishop
50 Trajan's Rescript (AD ll2)
16 The Conversion of St. Paul
51 St Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch
17 An Interlude- the Conversion of Cornelius
52 Hadrian's Rescript (AD 123/124)
and the Commencement of the Mission
52 St Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna
to the Gentiles
53 Sidebar: The Coliseum
18 St. Paul, "Apostle of the Gentiles"
54 Emperor Marcus Aurelius,
20 Sidebar and 11aps: The Travels of St. Paul
the Philosopher-King
22 The Council of Jerusalem (AD 49-50)
54 St Justin Martyr
23 Missionary Activities of the Apostles
55 Part ill: Later Persecutions
26 Part VI: Beliefs and Practices: and the Edict of Milan
The Spiritual Life of the Early Christians 55 St Irenc:eus, Bishop of Lyon
26 Baptism
55 The Edict of Decius (AD 250)
28 Agape and the Eucharist
56 Origen: Theologian and Biblical Exegete
29 Churches 57 Pope St. Sixtus II and Deacon St. Lawrence
30 Sidebar: The Catacombs
57 Persecutions Under Diodetian
31 11aps: The Early Growth of Christianity
58 Four Edicts
32 Holy Days 58 The Church Triumphs
32 Sidebar: Christian Symbols
59 The Edict of Milan (AD 313)
33 The Papacy

iv
 CONTENTS
62 Part IV: Early Heresies
63 Gnosticism
64 .Marcionism U44-400s)
65 .Manich~ism (250s-1000s)
65 .Montanism {ls6-200s)
66 Docetism (30s-100s)
67 Part V: The Ecumenical Councils
69 PartVI:TheChurchFathers
70 St. Ambrose of .Milan
70 St.Jerome
71 Translations of the Bible
72 St. John Chrysostom, the Golden .Mouthed
73 Part VII: Heresies of the Fourth
and Fifth Centuries
74 Christological Heresies
74 Arianism (Fourth Century)
75 The Council of Nic~a
76 The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed
77 St. Hilary of Poitiers:
"The Athanasius of the West"
77 The Three Cappadocians
77 St. Basil the Great
78 St. Gregory of Nazianzus, "The Theologian"
78 St. Gregory of Nyssa
78 Apollinarianism (ca. 360-381)
78 Nestorianism (ca. 351-ca. 451)
80 .Monophysitism (400s-600s)
80 Pope St. Leo the Great
81 .Monothelitism (600s)
81 Dogmatic and Sacramental Heresies
81 Donatism (311-411)
82 Pelagianism (late 300s-431)
82 St. Augustine of Hippo
84 Part VIII: Christianity:
Official Religion of the Roman Empire
84 Constantine's Ascendancy
85 Julian the Apostate
85 Theodosius I the Great (379-395)
86 Condusion
87 Vocabulary
90 Study Questions
91 Practical Exerdses
91 From the Catechism
93 Chapter 3: Light in the Dark Ages
94 Part I: The Collapse of the Roman Empire
95 The Fall of Rome (476)
95 The Germanic Tribes
V
97 Attila the Hun .Meets
Pope St. Leo the Great (452)
98 Historical Interpretation of the
Germanic Invasions
99 11ap: The Barbarian Invasions,
4th and 5th Centuries
100 Part II: The Rise of Monasticism
100 The First Appearance of .Monasticism
101 .Monasticism and the Emergence of a
New Christian Culture
101 St. Benedict: the "Patriarch of
Western .Monasticism"
102 Pope St. Gregory the Great
104 11ap: The Extent of Islam by AD 661
105 Part ill: The Rise of Islam
105 .Muhammad (ca. 570-632) and the Koran
105 The Spread oflslam
106 The Church's Work of Conversion
106 Part IV: Conversion of France,
the "Church's Eldest Daughter"
106 Conversion of the Franks
107 PartV:Spain
108 Part VI: The Conve rsion of the Celts
108 St. Patrick: the "Apostle of Ireland"
109 Irish .Monks: Protectors and Promoters
of Western Civilization
109 St. Columba: the "Apostle of Scotland"
110 St. Columbanus and the Irish on the Continent
ill Part VII: The Conversion of England
ill St. Augustine of Canterbury:
the "Apostle of England"
112 The .Mission in England Continues
ll3 St. Bede: the "Father of English History"
114 Part vm: The Conversion of Germany
and the Low Countries
114 St. Boniface: the "Apostle of Germany"
115 Part IX: The Conversion of the Slavs
115 Sts. Cyril and .Methodius:
the "Apostles of the Slavs"
117 Poland
117 St. Vladimir: the "Apostle of the
Russians and Ukrainians"
118 Part X: Byzantium
118 Byzantium: the Long View
120 Byzantine Christianity
121 .Military Campaigns
121 Codex Justinianus (529)
 CONTENTS

12r Hagia Sophia (538) 149 Sidebar. Life as a .Monk at Ouny

122 .Monophysitism and Justinian I 150 The Influence of the Ouniac .Monks
123 Part XI: The Iconoclastic Controversy 150 Part Ill: The New Temporal Orders
(ca. 725-843) 150 The Ottonian Empire (Holy Roman Empire)
123 Icons 150 Otto l the Great (936-973)
123 First Iconoclasm 151 Otto III and Pope Sylvester II
123 Emperor Leo III. the Isaurian (717-741) 152 Saintly Rulers: Emperor St. Henry II
124 St. John of Damascus and Queen St. Cunegond
124 Iconophile Recovery: The Seventh Ecumenical 152 Capetian France
Council: The Second Council ofNiccea (787) 152 Normandy: The Vikings,
125 Second Iconoclasm (815-843) William the Conqueror. and Lanfranc
125 The Feast of the Triumph of Orthodoxy (843) 153 Lanfranc. the Norman Archbishop
of Canterbury
126 Part XII: The Rise of the Carolingians
and an Independent Papacy 153 Part IV: The Lay Investiture Controversies
126 The Origin of the Carolingian Line 154 Pope St. Gregory VII
126 Establishment of the Papal States 154 The Dictatus Papce
127 Charlemagne (reigned 769-814) 154 "To Go to Canossa":
127 Charlemagne's Relationship to the Papacy the Humiliation of Emperor Henry IV
128 Charlemagne Crowned Emperor (800) 156 Concordat of Worms
128 The Carolingian Renaissance 156 Investiture Conflict and the English
129 11ap: The Empire of Charlemagne, 768-814 Church (1154-ll89)
129 11ap: The Great Schism. 1054 156 Constitutions of Oarendon
157 Frederick I. Barbarossa (ll52-ll90)
130 Part XIII: The Great Schism
158 Innocent III (ca. ll60-1216) and
130 The Emergence of Differences
Frederick II (ll94-1250)
131 Sidebar: Liturgical Practices of the
Eastern Churches 159 Part V: The Cistercians and Carthusians
132 The Filioque Controversy 159 The Ostercians
132 The Photian Schism (857-867) 159 St. Bernard of Oairvaux
l33 The Great Schism (1054) 160 The Carthusians
134 Patriarch .Michael Cerularius
161 Part VI: The Crusades
134 The Actual Schism
161 The Fall of the Holy Land
135 Sidebar: Contemporary Efforts
163 The First Crusade (1095-1099)
to Heal the Schism
165 11ap: The First Crusade, 1095-1099
136 Conclusion
165 Successive Crusades
137 Vocabulary
166 Byzantium's Response
138 Study Questions
167 Outcome of the Crusades
140 Practical Exercises
141 From the Catechism 168 Part VII: The Military Orders:
The Knights Templar, the Hospitalers,
and the Teutonic Knights
143 Chapter 4: Collapse, Corruption, and
169 The Knights T emplar
Reform in Europe and the Church
169 Sidebar: Warrior .Monks
145 Part I: The Carolingian World Collapses 170 The Knights Hospitalers
145 The Rise of Feudalism 171 The Teutonic Knights
146 11ap: Invasions of Europe, 7th to 10th Centuries 171 Legacy of the .Military Orders
146 Feudalism and the Church
172 Part VIII: The Inquisition
147 The Viking Invasions
172 The Origins of the Inquisition
148 Part II: Cuny and Monastic Reform 173 The Inquisitors
148 The Founding 174 Process for Inquisition
148 Ouniac Spirituality 175 The Final Verdict in the Inquisition

vi
 CONTENTS

175 Sidebar: Simon de Montfort 215 Part IX: The Fall of Constantinople
and the Battle of Muret and the Rise of the Italian Free Cities
176 The Inquisition in Spain
216 The Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence
177 Conclusion
(1431-1445) and the End of the Byzantine Empire
178 Vocabulary
179 Study Questions 218 Part X: The Birth of Humanism
180 Practical Exercises and the Flourishing of Arts and Letters
181 From the Catechism 218 Humanism
219 Dante Alighieri (1265-1321)
220 Humanism in Painting and Sculpture
183 Chapter 5: The High Middle Ages:
220 Michelangelo
Scholastic Development
221 Sidebar: Michelangelo and the Popes
and the Flowering of Culture
223 Raphael
186 Part I: The Universities 224 Humanism in the North
187 Origin of Universities 224 St Thomas More (1478-1535)
187 Organization of the University 224 Erasmus of Rotterdam (ca.1466-1536)
188 Academic Coursework
225 Part XI: Popes and Politics
188 The Effects of the University
225 The Renaissance Popes
189 Part Il: Scholasticism 226 Nicholas V (1447-1455)
189 Methods and Mystery 226 Callistus III (1455-58)
190 St ThomasAquinas 227 Pius Il (1458-64)
192 Early Challenges to Thomistic Thought 227 Sixtus IV (1471-84)
228 Innocent VIII, Alexander VI, and Julius Il
192 Part m: The Mendicant Orders
231 Conclusion
193 Sidebar: The Dumb Ox
232 Vocabulary
194 St Francis of Assisi
234 Study Questions
197 St Dominic
236 Practical Exercises
198 The Legacy of the Mendicant friars
236 From the Catechism
199 Part IV: The Flowering of Culture
199 Medieval Architecture
239 Chapter 6: The Reformation:
202 Part V: The Road to Avignon Protestant and Catholic
202 Pope St. Celestine V
240 Part I: The Protestant Revolt
203 Boniface VIIl and Philip IV
240 Martin Luther's Early Life
204 The Avignon Papacy
241 In the Monastery
206 PartVI:TheHundredYearsWar 242 The Ninety-five Theses
(1337-1453) 242 From Debate to Dissension
207 The English in France 244 Luther Develops His Theology
207 The Hundred Years War 246 Sidebar: The Epistle of St. James
208 St Joan of Arc
247 Part Il: ThePeasantRebellion
209 Sidebar: St. Joan of Arc's Impossible Mission
and the Splintering of Protestantism
210 Part VIl: Return to Rome and Schism 247 The German Princes
210 St Catherine of Siena 248 The Peasant Rebellion
212 The Wes tern Schism 248 The Augsburg Confession
212 Resolution of the Schism: Council of Constance 248 The Death of Luther
249 John Calvin
213 Part vm: Decline of Scholastic Philosophy
249 The Institutes of the Christian Religion
and Theology and the Rise of Heresy
250 Predestination
213 William of Ockham
250 Theocracy in Geneva
214 John Wycliffe
251 Ulrich Zwingli
215 Jan Hus

vii
 CONTENTS

252 Part ill: The English Reformation 284 The Spanish Armada
252 Henry VIII 285 War in Ireland
253 Cardinal Wolsey 286 Sidebar: St. John Ogilvie
254 The Act of Supremacy
286 Part VIII: The Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
254 Bishop Sts. John Fisher and Thomas More
288 Map: After the Wars ...
255 Sidebar: St. John Houghton and the Blessed
The Catholic Recovery, 1650
Martyrs of the Carthusian Order
256 Confiscation of Church Properties 289 Part IX: Missionary Apostolate
256 Aftermath of Henry VIII: England Becomes 290 St Frands Xavier
Protestant 292 Sidebar: St. Thomas Christians
257 Edward VI 293 India
258 Mary I 294 China
258 Elizabeth I 295 Japan
295 Sidebar: The Church in China Today
259 Part IV: The Catholic Revival
296 The Philippines and Africa
259 Adrian VI and Oement VII
260 Paul III and Calling of the Coundl of Trent 296 Part X: The New World
261 11ap: Popular Religions in 1560 296 Our Lady of Guadalupe
262 Church's Teaching 298 Spanish .Missions
263 The Coundl of Trent (1545-47): Sessions 1-10 298 Slavery and St Peter Claver
264 The Council of Trent (1551-1553): 299 .Missionary Activity in North America
Sessions 11-16 under Julius Ill 300 Founding the Catholic Colony of .Maryland
264 Paul IV 300 Conclusion
265 The Council of Trent (1562-1563): 302 Vocabulary
Sessions 17-25 under Pius N 303 Study Questions
265 Application of the Tridentine Reform 306 Practical Exercises
266 StPiusV 307 From the Catechism
266 The Turkish Threat and the Battle of Lepanto
267 St Charles Borromeo
309 Chapter 7: The Church
268 Sidebar: St. Peter Canisius
and the Age of Enlightenment
269 Reforming the Orders: Sts. Philip Neri
and Teresa of Avila 311 Part I: King Louis's France
270 St. Ignatius of Loyola and the Society of Jesus 311 Louis XIV, the Sun King
312 Gallicanism
272 Part V: Spain and the Empire of Philip II
313 Jansenism
272 The Crusade of Catholic Spain
314 Quietism
272 The Revolt of the Low Countries
314 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
274 The Council of Troubles and William of Orange
275 Division of the Low Countries 315 Part II: The Stuart Kings of England
276 11ap: The Revolt of the Low Countries 315 James I and Charles I
Against Spain, 1559-1592 316 Persecution of the Irish
317 Rise of Parliamentary Democracy in England
277 Part VI: The Huguenot Wars
277 Three Factions: Guise, Huguenot and Politique 318 Part ill: The Scientific Revolution
278 Francis II and Charles IX and the Age of Enlightenment
278 The St. Bartholomew's Day .Massacre 318 Descartes and Bacon
279 The War of the Three Henrys 320 A New Understanding of the Universe
280 The Edict of Nantes 321 Galileo Galilei and the Scientific.Method
281 Cardinal Richelieu
322 PartlV:TheProtagonistsofthe
281 Part VII: The British Isles Enlightenment and its Effects
281 The First Covenant 322 Deism and Masonry
282 Continuing Persecution in England 323 Voltaire
283 The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots 323 Rousseau

viii
 CONTENTS

324 Febronianism and Josephinism 360 PartIV:BlPioNono

326 Suppression of the Jesuits and the Rise of Nationalism
360 The Revolutions of 1848
328 Part V: From Revolution to Republic
362 Ultramontanism
328 The Old Regime: Three Estates
363 Sidebar: Blessed John Henry
330 The Financial Crisis
Cardinal Newman
330 The Estates General
364 The Immaculate Conception
332 The Bastille
365 Sidebar: Our Lady of Lourdes
332 The Dedaration ofthe Rights of11an
366 The First Vatican Council
and Citizen
368 The Roman Question
333 The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
369 German Unification and the Kulrurkampf
334 Sidebar: The French Underground:
Bl. William Joseph Chaminade 370 Part V: Imperialism
335 The French Republic 370 The Opening of Africa
372 .Missionary Apostolate in the Far East
336 Part VI: The Death of Louis XVI and
the Age of the Revolutionary Republic 373 Part VI: Leo XIIl(l878-1903):
336 The Reign of Terror and the The Church Confronts a Changing World
"De-Christianization" of France 374 The Birth of Secular Humanism
338 The Directory 374 Charles Darwin and the Survival of the Fittest
338 The Election of Pius VII 375 Karl Marx and the Politics of Atheism
339 Part Vll: Napoleon Bonaparte 376 The :Encyclicals of Leo XIIl
340 The Consulate and the Concordat ofl801 376 JnsCT11tabili Dei(April 21, 1878)
341 The Organic Articles 377 Immortale Dei (November 1, 1885)
342 The Coronation of Napoleon I 378 Rerum Novarum (M.ay 15, 1891)
343 Emperor Napoleon Against Pius VII 379 Part Vll:Pope St. Pius X (1903-1914)
344 The French Council ofl811 and the
380 The Pontificate of St. Pius X
Concordat offontainebleau
381 Christian Modernists
345 The Fall of Napoleon
346 Conclusion 382 Part Vlll: War, Revolution,
347 Vocabulary and Persecution
348 Srudy Questions 382 Pope Benedict XV (1914-1922)
350 Practical Exercises 383 The Rise of Soviet Communism
350 From the Catechism 384 Sidebar: Our Lady of Fatima
385 Pope Pius XI (1922-1939)
386 The Encyclicals of Pius XI
351 Chapter 8: The Church Gives Witness
387 The Church and the Rise of Nazism
in Wars and Revolutions
388 Persecution in Mexico and Spain
353 Part I: The Post-Napoleonic Era
389 Part IX: The Pontificate of
353 Metternich's Europe: 1815-1830 PopePiusXII(1939-1958)
355 The Breakdown of the Concert of Europe: 389 The Pope and the World Crisis
1830-1848 390 Two Saints of the Nazi Persecution
391 The Teaching of Pius XII
356 Part Il: The Church in the
392 The Church and the Communist Empire
Post-Napoleonic Era
393 Conclusion
356 Germany and France
394 Vocabulary
356 The United States
396 Srudy Questions
357 The British Isles
397 Practical Exercises
357 Part ill: The Industrial Revolution 398 From the Catechism
358 Social Consequences of Industrialization
359 From Economic to Political Revolution

ix
 CONTENTS

399 Chapter 9: Vatican II 411b The Election of Pope Francis

and the Church in the Modern World
412 Part IV: The Church in the United States:
401 Part I: St. John x.xm and the Council The Colonial Era
401 The Caretaker Pope
414 Part V: Catholicism
403 The Second Vatican Council
and the Birth of a Nation
404 The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church
414 The Revolutionary Years (1775-1783)
404 The Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation
414 The Post-Revolutionary Period
404 The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy
415 Sidebar: The Carroll Family and the Founding
405 The Pastoral Constitution on the Church
of the United States
in the Modem World
416 Part VI: A Church of Immigrants
405 Partll:BlPaulVI
417 The Rise of Anti-Catholicism
and the Postconciliar Years
406 Human~ Vit~ 418 Part VII: Growth and Conflict
407 A Culture of Dissent and Defection
420 Part VIII: The Twentieth Century
407 Part ill: The Restoration 420 The Great War and Years of Depression
of Confidence and Hope 420 World War II and Mer
408 St John Paul II: The Early Years 422 Vatican II and the American Church
409 St John Paul II and the Contemporary World 423 Conclusion: Present and Future
409 St John Paul II and the Church 425 Vocabulary
410 Pope Benedict XVI as Universal Pastor 426 Study Questions
411 Sidebar: St.John Paul II and His Assassin 428 Practical Exercises
411b Pope Benedict's Abdication 429 From the Catechism

St. Benedict blesses one of his pupils, St Maurus, before the monk leaves on a mission to teach in France.
In the background is an event from St. Maurus's life w hen he saved a drowning boy named Placid by walking on the water.

X
 ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE BOOKS OF THE BIBLE
OLD TESTAMENT
Genesis Gen Tobit Tb Hosea Hos
Exodus Ex Judith Jdt Joel JI
Leviticus Lv Esther Est Amos Am
Numbers Nm Job Jb Obadiah Ob
Deuteronomy De Psalms Ps(s) Jonah Jon
Joshua Jos Proverbs Prv .Micah Mi
Judges Jgs Ecclesiastes Eccl Nahum Na
Ruth Ru Song of Songs Sg Habakkuk Hab
! Samuel !Sm Wisdom Wis Zephaniah Zep
2Samuel 2Sm Sirach Sir Haggai Hg
1 Kings lKgs Isaiah Is Zechartah Zee
2Kings 2Kgs Jeremiah Jer Malachi Mal
1 Chronicles 1 Chr Lamentations Lam !Maccabees !Mc
2 Chronicles 2Chr Baruch Bar 2Maccabees 2Mc
Ezra Ezr Ezekiel Ez
Nehemiah Neh Daniel Dn

NEW TESTAMENT

Matthew Mt Ephesians Eph Hebrews Heb

Mark Mk Philippians Phil James Jas
Luke Lk Colossians Col !Peter 1 Pt
John Jn 1 Thessalonians 1 Toes 2Peter 2Pt
Acts of the Apostles Acts 2 Thessalonians 2Thes !John Un
Romans Rom 1Timothy 1Tm 2John 2 Jn
1 Corinthians 1Cor 2Timothy 2Tm 3John 3Jn
2 Corinthians 2Cor Titus Ti Jude Jud
Galatians Gal Philemon Phlrn Revelation Rv

GENERAL ABBREVIATIONS
AA Apostolicam actuositatem GS Gaudium et spes
AAS Acta Apostolica Sedis HV Humanae vit.:e
AG Adgentes IOE Instruction on Euthanasia
CA Centesimus annus LE Laborem exercens
CCC The Catechism of the Catholic Church LG Lumen gentium
CCEO Corpus Canonum Ecclesiarum Otientalium LH Liturgy ofthe Hours
CDF Congregation for the Doctrine of the faith 11.F 11.ysterium fidei
CHCW Charter for Health Care Workers 11.11. 11.ater et magistra
CIC Codex Iuris Canonici (The Code of ND Neuner-Dupuis, The Oiristian Faith in the
CanonLaw) Doctrinal Documents of the Catholic Oiurch
CL Chtistifidelis laid oc Ordo conf1IT11ationis
CPG Solemn Profession ofFaith: OC/1. Ordo celebrancli 11.atrimonium
Credo of the People of God OP Ordo paenitenti.:e
DD Dies Domini PG J.P. Migne, ed., Patrologia Gr.:eca
DRF Dedaration on Religious Freedom (Parts. 1857-1866)
DH Dignitatis human.:e PH Persona human.:e
DIM Decree Inter mirifid PL J.P. Migne, ed.. Patrologia Latina
DoV Donum vit.:e (Parts, 1841-1855)
DPA Declaration on Procured Abortion pp Populorum progressio
DS Denzinger-Schonmetzer, Enchiriclion PT Pacem in terris
Symbolorum. defmitionum et dedarationum RH Redemptor Hominis
de rebus fidei et morum (1965) RP Reconciliatio et p.:enitentia
DV Deiverbum SC Sacrosanctum condlium
EN Evangeli nuntiadi SD Salvifid doloris
EV Evangelium vitre SRS Solidtudo rei sodalis
FC Familiaris consortia STh Summa Theologire
GCD General Catechetical Directory vs Verita tis splendor

xi
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

CHAPTER 1

In the days directly following the crucifixion of Jesus. his disciples were afraid. The Sanhedrin had
condemned their Master to death, and the disciples believed that they would be the next targets
of persecution. Since they no longer had Jesus to guide them they feared for their safety and
were uncertain of the future, being for the first time without their leader. At first the Resurrection
appearances only increased doubt and fear among the disciples. Though their Master had returned
to them. He remained among them for only a short time. After the Ascension into Heaven. the
Apostles. Mary. and other followers of Jesus were again suddenly alone.
But God did not leave his infant Church alone and unguided. Before departing. Christ declared to
his disciples that they would soon receive the Holy Spirit. Ten days later. on the Jewish feast of
Pentecost. the Holy Spirit descended upon the disciples. and subsequently resolved all their doubts.
fears. and worries. The Apostles. through the power of the Holy Spirit, were certain that the Church
of Christ would stand throughout all time as a living sacrament of his love, truth, and power. Christ is
the cornerstone of his Church, and St. Peter is "the rock," Oirist's vicar, upon whom the Church would
be built. In the years following the Resurrection, the Apostles. filled with the grace of the Holy Spirit.
boldly set about the great task of building the Church. They proclaimed the Good News that the long-
awaited messiah had come and that he had paid in full the terrible price required for the redemption
of all mankind. Christianity began to spread quickly through the ardent and intrepid preaching of
the disciples. They carried the message of salvation proclaimed by Jesus all over the known world.
Thus began the history of Christianity-a unique history that. simply stated. reflects Christ's constant
presence in the world through the Church and how he interfaces with human history. The history of
the Church is a record of the life and actions of men and women under the guiding light of the Holy
Spirit acting in the Church. This narrative about the development of Christ's kingdom on earth is
forged as the Church interacts and responds to every culture and historical situation

Jesus begins his pul)ic ministr,,, St. Paul oonYerted to Herod Agrippa arrests St. Peter martyred
calling St. Peter who will be the leader Christianny St. Peterwho escapes in late 64 or mid-68;
of the Twelve Apostles miracul ly Emperor Claudius expels St. Linus is pope
Jesus crucified; St. Chr~tians from Rome; St.
Peter accepted Sl Peter meets Peter presides over Council St. Peter settles n
as head of Church Sl Paul inJerusalem of Jerusalem Rome ca. 56

zo 30 40 50 60 70

2 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

Christ is thecomerstoneof his Church, and St. Peter is "the rock," Christ's vicar, upon whom the Church wou ld be built.

PART I

The Jews
T he history of the Jewish people is partirular to the ancient world. Besides being monotheistic,
the Jewish people believed that they had a special role in God's providential plans to serve as
his chosen people. One of the unique characteristics of the chosen people was their realiz.ation of a
personal God. A long history of suffering and oppression molded a people whose faith stimulated
their expectation for a messiah. Being cognizant of their obligation to worship the one true God and
keep his commandments, they shunned the religions and immoral ways of the Gentiles, typified
especially by the Greeks and Romans.
The Jewish world of Jesus was a crossroads of cultures, under Hellenist, Latin, and traditional Jewish
influences. This Jewish rulture was different than the one depicted in the Old Testament. Influenced
by Greek thought and ideas, many new groups ofscholars, priests, and ascetics developed schools of
Jewish theology. Roman, not .Mosaic Law governed society, and despite some special concessions
for worship, Jews were held as second class to the Roman citizens. Palestine during the life of Orrist
was rife with tension and expectations as many Jewish groups were looking for the messiah to free
Israel from the Roman yoke. In AD 70, the temple would be destroyed and the Jews would be cast
out of Jerusalem.

Chapter One 3
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

PART II
The Life of Jesus Christ
J esus of Nazareth was born in Bethlehem in Judea around the year 4 BC In the humblest of
surroundings, the Word of God became Incarnate; love and mercy found perfect expression. and
the vessel of God's salvation was born into human history. The foundational principles of Christianity
were present there in the quiet little stable in Beil:hlehem with Jesus. .Mary, and Joseph. Peace. simplicity,
material poverty, spiritual abundance, God's love, and sacrifice are the chief message of Christ's birth.
The Bible only records a few key events concerning Jesus· childhood. One of them is the Present-
ation in the Temple. After the birth of Christ. in accordance with the Jewish Law, Joseph and .Mary
took Jesus to the Temple in Jerusalem to be consecrated to God. Through the power of the Holy
Spirit, an old man named Simeon, to whom it had been revealed that he should not die until he had
seen the messiah, recognized the Infant, blessed his parents, and spoke of Jesus· destiny. Anna, an
elderly prophetess. was also present and. recognizing the messiah. began to speak about the child to
all who were waiting for him (Lk 2: 22-39).
Shortly after the birth of Jesus. Joseph was warned in a dream by an angel that Herod, the King of
Judea. had learned of the birth of the messiah and planned to murder the baby. The angel instructed
Joseph to flee to Egypt with .Mary and Jesus immediately, so that the Holy Child would escape
Herod's wrath. When Herod failed to discover the precise location of Jesus, he sent his soldiers to
kill every male child in Bethlehem aged two and under. Known as the "Slaughter of the Innocents,"
this dreadful massacre was the first shedding of blood among countless unnamed martyrs for the
Christian Faith (.Mt 2: 16-18). After some time in Egypt, an angel appeared to Joseph in a second
dream. telling him that it was safe for the Holy Family to return to Israel. Ever obedient. Joseph
began the journey back to Israel with Jesus and .Mary. Upon hearing that Herod's son Archelaus
was now king of Judea, Joseph did not return there, but went to Galilee instead, and settled his
family in Nazareth (.Mt 2: 19-23).
After the Holy Family returned to Nazareth. the
Gospels record very little of their lives. One can
assume that their lives were very ordinary, consisting
of work, observance of the Jewish Law, finding joy
in the company of one another and of their friends.
Joseph was a carpenter. and Jesus most likely trained
in the trade of his father. learning to work wnth wood
and build with his hands. Until the beginning of His
public ministry, the only event the Gospels describe is
the finding of the twelve-year-old Jesus speaking with
the elders in the Temple in Jerusalem. The Holy Family
traveled to Jerusalem for the feast of the Passover.
and when they set out to return home. Jesus was
lost for three days. After frantically looking for their
son, his parents finally discovered the child Jesus in
the temple, which the boy called his "father's house."
The young Jesus was confidently conversing with
the elders. whom he astounded with his wisdom and
understanding (Lk 2: 41-52).

4 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

PALESTINE IN THE TIME OF CHRIST

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Chapter One 5
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

Jesus' New Law taught his followers to love theirenerries and to avoid violence.

Following this event. there is a period of eighteen years before the inaugural event of his public
ministry: Jesus· Baptism at the hands of St. John the Baptist. During this time it is recorded that Jesus
spent time in the desert fasting, praying, and preparing for his public ministry.
Jesus· teaching constitutes part of the Deposit of Faith. that is the heritage of Faith contained
in Sacred Scripture and Tradition. handed down by the Church from the time of the Apostles
(cf. CCC 84, 1202). The most concise and direct collection of Jesus· teaching is given at the Sermon
on the Mount (Mt 5-7). Fulfilling the traditional Law found in the Ten Commandments, Jesus taught
the Beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer. He transformed the Old Testament notion of justice. fulfilling
and perfecting it with the call to charity, which includes compassion and mercy. In contrast to the
Old Law. expressed by the rule of "an eye for an eye," Jesus· New Law taught his followers to
love their enemies and to avoid all forms of violence. drowning evil in an abundance of good. The
institution of mercy to the point of loving one's enemies was radically new. Jesus redirected the
spirit of worship, instructing his followers to serve the Father and each other in "spirit and in truth,"
thereby rejecting a legalistic interpretation of the Law. The New Covenant founded by Christ
would perfect the Old Law through the New Law based on love and grace. His teaching and his
many miracles-from the wedding feast at Cana to the raising of Lazarus- laid the groundwork for
the contents of the Catholic Faith that would develop in response to the circumstances of every
time period.
Jesus· teachings were brought to their fulfillment through the example of Christ's suffering, death.
and Resurrection. Around the year AD 33, Jesus and his followers went to Jerusalem to participate
in the celebration of the Jewish Passover. Despite his initial warm welcome on Palm Sunday, the
Jewish leaders mounted a major opposition against Jesus. They charged him with heresy and
blasphemy, but finally they accused Jesus of being insubordinate to Caesar in order to force the
civil authorities to execute him. Under tremendous pressure and risk of widespread civil dissent
(not to mention his own blindness to the truth of Christ: cf. Jn 18: 38), Pontius Pilate condemned
Jesus to death by crucifixion. Jesus, according to the plan of the Father, willingly submitted himself
to his passion and death on the cross, the perfect sacrifice for the salvation of all mankind. By his
Resurrection three days later, he showed his victory over death thereby calling every person to
repentance and the fullness of filiation with the Father.

6 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

THE FOUR GOSPELS

M ost of what is known about Christ's

life comes from the four canonical
gospels: Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.
by an eagle because of the lofty language
of its opening verses.
These four gospels have always been
The word "gospel," which means "good held as authentic and canonical (officially
news." is applied to these four books that declared as such at a synod in Rome
describe the life and teachings of Jesus. in AD 382) by the Sacred Tradition of
Although all four gospels share the same the Church, though there exist several
subject, each has its own point of view "unofficial" gospels, known as the
and emphasis, depending on the source apocryphal gospels, which appeared in
of the account and the audience for the first centuries of the Church. These
whom it was written. Matthew, Mark and gospels were discredited early in the
Luke are known as the "synoptic" gospels Church's history because of their dubious
(from Greek words meaning "seeing origins and because many are tainted
together") because their accounts are by errant beliefs.
so similar. The gospel of St. John stands
apart because of its more abstract.
theological scope.
Both Sts. John and Matthew were
themselves Apostles. Both gospels seem
to be directed toward a Jewish Christian
audience. St.John's was the last gospel
to be written. St. Mark's is thought to be
the first gospel written. St. Mark. though
not an Apostle. traveled with St. Peter.
who is very likely the primary source for
this gospel intended for the Christians
of Rome. St. Luke. who accompanied
St. Paul, wrote mainly for gentile Christians
and his main source is thought to be
Mary the mother of Christ because this
gospel includes stories about Christ's
origins and early life.
The four authors, known as t he
Evangelists, are often identified with
four symbols. St. Matthew's symbol
is a man because his gospel emphasizes The Book of Kells
Christ's humanity and opens with his "The work not of men but of angels . .. "
genealogy. St. Mark's symbol is a lion (Giraldus Cambrensis, ca. AD1150)
because it opens with the command One of the most famous books in the history of the world
"Prepare the way of the Lord." St. Luke's completed inAD BOO contains the Four Gospels. It was created
by Columban monks who lived on the remote island of Iona, off
symbol is a bull because early on
the west coast of Scotland. The Book is on display at the Trinity
it speaks of priestly duties and temple College Library in Dublin.
sacrifices. St. John's gospel is symbolized

Chapter One 7
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

PART III
Pentecost,
the Birth of the Church
When the day of Pentecost had come, they [the Apostles and Mary] were all together in
one place. And suddenly a sound came from heaven like the rush of a mighty wind, and it
filled all the house where they were sitting. And there appeared to them tongues as of fire,
distributed and resting on each one of them And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit
and began to speak in other tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. (Acts 2: 1-4)

O n the Jewish feast of Pentecost. fifty days after the Resurrection of Christ, Jerusalem was
filled with pilgrims from nearly every nation-from Persia, Rome, Arabia, North Africa, and
all around the Mediterranean. The Apostles were all gathered in one place, most likely still fearing
persecution. Just as Christ promised before he ascended to Heaven, the Holy Spirit descended
upon them, anointing the Church for her mission of evangelization of the world.
On Pentecost. the Father and the Son sent the Holy Spirit. the Third Person of the Blessed Trinity,
to complete and perfect that which Jesus Christ had begun:
By his coming, which never ceases, the Holy Spirit causes the world to enter into the
"last days," the time of the Church, the Kingdom already inherited though not yet
consummated. (CCC 732)
Immediately following the Holy Spirit's descent, the Apostles began to preach the crucified and
risen Christ with great power and authority (Acts 2:5-47). They were given the gift of tongues
and found themselves miraculously speaking to the multitude, each hearing in his own tongue
from among the languages spoken by the many pilgrims present in Jerusalem for Pentecost
(Acts 2:8-11). St. Peter, responding to skepticism that the disciples were "filled with new wine"
(Acts 2: 13), addressed all who were present. He proclaimed the special calling of the Jews in God's
plan of salvation for the world, used the Old Testament writings as proof of Christ's fulfillment of
the prophets and the Law, and. like St. John the Baptist, called his hearers to repentance. St. Peter
invited Jesus· new followers to be forgiven of their sins through the reception of Baptism.
Peter said to them, "Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus
Christ for the forgiveness of your sins; and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit."
(Acts2:38)
Many converts came to the Faith through this first proclamation at Pentecost:
Those who received his word were baptized, and there were added that day about three
thousand souls. And they devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to
the breaking of bread and the prayers. (Acts 2: 41-42)
The annual celebration of this feast is an opportunity to recall all that took place at the first
Pentecost, whereby the Apostles were empowered with the strength of the Holy Spirit to preach
Christ in word and in the heroic witness of martyrdom. Pentecost marks the enduring presence of
the Holy Spirit in the Church that enables Christians to announce the truth of Christ's Gospel. It also
shows that Christ will live in his Church throughout all ages.

8 Chapter One
THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

Pentecost marks the enduring presence of the Holy Spirit in the Church.

Chapter One 9
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

THE EARLY SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY

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10 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

PART IV
The Church
hat is the Church exactly? The Scriptures
W teach that the Church is the Body of Christ and
the Temple of the Holy Spirit (cf. Eph 1:22-23). The
English word "church" etymologically comes from a
Greek word meaning "thing belonging to the Lord,"
which applied originally to the church building. The
Latin word ecclesia derives from another Greek
word that means "assembly" or "congregation" The
origins of these two words help to illustrate the many
meanings the word "church" evokes for followers of
Christ. This section will briefly look at the meaning of
the Church, her aim, nature, names that have been
employed to better understand her. and, finally, her
four marks.
The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that, 'The
Church is both the means and the goal of God's plan:
prefigured in creation. prepared for in the Old Covenant.
founded by the words and actions ofJesus Christ. fulfilled
by his redeeming cross and his Resurrection. the Church
has been manifested as the mystery of salvation by the
outpouring of the Holy Spirit. She will be perfected in the
glory of heaven as the assembly of all the redeemed of The Church forms the Mystical Body of Christ.
the earth (cl. Rv 14: 4)" (CCC 778).
Willed by the Father, the Church founded by Jesus Christ enjoys the presence and guidance of
the Holy Spirit. It is through the Church that God carries out his plan of salvation for all people.
The teaching authority and sanctifying power of the Church serve as a means to bring all men and
women to greater union with God. and with each other as well.
The groundwork for the Church was already being laid down when God made a covenant with the
Jewish people. After this time of preparation in the Old Testament was completed, Jesus instituted
the Church. The Church's foundation. goal. and fulfillment is in Jesus Christ. Through the Church.
Jesus Christ unites himself with all men and women.
The Church has two dimensions: visible and spiritual. The Church is a visible. hierarchical society
that is present in the world. just like any other organization or society. Unlike other societies. the
Church has a spiritual dimension. The governing and teaching authority of the Church enjoys
perennial guidance from the Holy Spirit. Moreover, she is the Mystical Body of Christ, a spiritual
community, imbued with the healing and sanctifying power of God's grace.
The Church is made up of God's people. a people "born" into his family through faith in Christ and
Baptism. The term "People of God" is taken from the Old Testament, in which God chose Israel
to be his chosen people. Christ instituted the new and eternal covenant by which a new priestly,
prophetic. and royal People of God. which is the Church, participates in the mission and service of
Christ (cl. CCC 761. 783 at the end of this chapter). The Head of this people is Jesus Christ. and they
enjoy the dignity and freedom of being sons and daughters of God. who dwells within their hearts.

Chapter One 11
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

The Church is built upon the foundation of the Apostles. The hierarchy of the Church can be traced ba::k to the Apostles.

12 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

This people is governed by the Christ's new commandment: to love each other as Christ loves
them. By living this commandment, the People of God bring the hope of salvation to the world until
the Kingdom of God is fully established and perfected at the end of time.
The Founder of the Church spoke of an intimate communion between himself and his people: "He
who eats my flesh and drinks my blood abides in me. and I in him" (Jn 6: 56). The Church, through
the work of the Holy Spirit, forms the Mystical Body of Christ. This phrase Wzens the Church to the
human body. The Church is united to Christ as a body is attached to a head. Analogous to a spousal
relationship, the people of God are joined to Christ as a bride to her spouse.
The human soul is that which animates the human body; indeed. it is what makes it a living body and
not a corpse. In a similar way, the Holy Spirit gives life to the Mystical Body of Christ. the Church.
Thus the Holy Spirit. as the soul of the Church is its source of unity and life.
The Church in her spiritual dimension reflects both a human and divine reality. As Christ's Spouse.
she enjoys a divine component in her teaching and sanctifying power. Further expressions of her
divine aspect are the Church's charism of infallibility and her durability until the end of time. Nothing
will prevail over the divinely instituted Church At the same time, her members are in constant need
of purification in order to achieve holiness.
The Nicene Creed indudes four marks that correspond to the Catholic Church founded by Christ.
Throughout the course of history. these four marks have always served as the litmus test for the
authenticity of the one. true Church.

THE CHURCH IS ONE

The Church acknowledges one God in Whom she professes one Faith All Catholics adhere to the
same teachings regarding the creed, sacraments. and morals. Lastly, they all recognize the authority
of the pope as Supreme Pastor of the universal Church.

THE CHURCH IS HOLY

The Founder is holy, the means to salvation is holy, and the aim of the Church's teaching and
sacraments is the holiness of its members. Those who live by the Church's teachings in their entirety
become holy. Heroic sanctity even to the point of martyrdom has marked the life of some of the
faithful throughout the centuries.

THE CHURCH IS CATHOLIC

The word "catholic" means "universal." The universality of the Church includes all ages. all races and
nationalities, and every time period. Moreover, all the good traits of every culture are reflected in
the teachings of the Catholic Church.

THE CHURCH IS APOSTOLIC

The Church is built upon the foundation of the Apostles. The hierarchy of the Church can be traced
back to the Apostles. For this reason, the bishops are known as the successors of the Apostles. and
the teaching of the Church finds its source in the very teachings of the Twelve Apostles governed
by St. Peter.

Chapter One 13
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

PARTV

The Apostles
T he word "apostle" comes from the Greek apostolos, a form of apostellein, meaning "to send
away." Thus. an apostle is literally "one who is sent." The designation traditionally refers to the
twelve men chosen by Jesus during the course of his public ministry to be his closest followers.
They were the pillars of his Church and were t o be sent to preach the Good News to all the nations.
Matthias, the Apostle chosen after the Resurrection to replace Judas Iscariot, as well as Sts. Paul of
Tarsus and Barnabas, also enjoyed the status of Apostles. even though they did not hold that title
during Christ's public ministry.

THE CALL OF THE TWELVE

The Twelve Apostles included fishermen. a tax collector. and friends and relatives of Jesus. Upon
hearing Christ's call, these men left their former lives and dedicated themselves to following him.
Matthew's Gospel relates the story of the call of the first four Apostles:
As he [Jesus] walked by the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon who is called Peter
and Andrew his brother, casting a net into the sea; for they were fishermen. And he said
to them. "Follow me, and I will malte you fishers of men." Immediately they left their nets
and followed him. And going on from there he saw two other brothers, James the son
of Zebedee and John his brother, in the boat with Zebedee their father, mending their
nets, and he called them. Immediately they left the boat and their father, and followed him.
{Mt 4: 18·22)
St. Luke's Gospel relates that Jesus selected the Twelve from among his disciples after a whole
night of prayer during his public ministry:
In these days he [Jesus] went out into the hills to pray; and all night he continued in prayer
to God And when it was day, he called his disciples, and chose from them twelve, whom
he named apostles; Simon, whom he named Peter, and Andrew his brother, and James
and John, and Philip, and Bartholomew, and Matthew, and Thomas, and James the son of
Alphaeus, and Simon who was called the Zealot, and Judas the son of James, and Judas
Iscariot, who became a traitor. (Lk 6: 12·16)
Mark 3:13-19 and Matthew 10:1-4 also contain similar passages. It is worth noting that all three
accounts begin by naming St. Peter as the first Apostle. and they end by identifying Judas Iscariot
as the traitor. The selection of the Twelve Apostles coincides with the twelve tribes of Israel, over
which they would sit in judgment (cl. Mt 19: 28; Lk 22: 30).
Besides being the first ones sent directly by Clrrist to all the world. the Apostles were characterized
by another singular quality. They were the first witnesses of Christ's life. message, and Resurrection
Before Pentecost, the Apostles wished to restore their number to twelve. because Judas Iscariot
had committed suicide. In the book of Acts, St. Peter says:
One of the men who have accompanied us during all the time that the Lord Jesus
went in and out among us, beginning from the baptism of John until the day when he was
taken up from us-one of these men must become with us a witness to his resurrection.
(Acts 1: 21-22) [emphasis added]

14 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

"Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men.' (Mt4:19)

The mission of the Apostles therefore consisted in introducing to the world Jesus· message of
salvation through their teaching and witness of Christ's love. It was through the profound influence
of the Holy Spirit that the Apostles could build and extend Christ's Church throughout the world.

THE APOSTOLIC TRADITION AND THE OFFICE OF BISHOP

The title "Apostle" is preeminent among all others because the Apostles, with St. Peter as their head,
received teachings and instructions directly from Christ. They were personally chosen by Christ
during his earthly life and empowered by the Holy Spirit to launch the first evangelization with faith
and courage.
"In order that the full and living Gospel might always be preserved in the Church the apostles
left bishops as their successors. They gave them 'their own position of teaching authority"'
(DV 7 § 2; St. Irenaeus, Adv. haeres. 3, 3, 1: PG 7, 848; Harvey, 2, 9). Indeed, "the apostolic
preaching, which is expressed in a special way in the inspired books, was to be preserved in
a continuous line of succession until the end of time"(DV 8 § 1). (CCC 77)
The Apostles continued Christ's ministry of preaching, healing, and exorcising demons. After his
Resurrection, Jesus commanded the Apostles to spread the Gospel to every corner of the world
(cf. .M.t 28:16-20). They had received instruction with respect to the meaning of the Scriptures
directly from Jesus and were the ultimate authority on the meaning of Christ's message. Upon the
completion of their own earthly journeys, they passed on their priestly powers and mission to their
successors through the office of bishop. A bishop is a successor of the Apostles who has received
the fullness of Christ's priesthood. The Church has successfully transmitted the Apostolic Tradition
down through the line of bishops, and she will continue to do so until Christ returns.

Chapter One 15
 HISTORY OF THE CHURCH

THE CONVERSION OF ST. PAUL

Saul was a pious Jew, well educated in the Law under the tutelage of a Pharisee and renowned
doctor of the Law by the name of Gamaliel. Saul firmly believed, as a righteous and devout Jew, that
the Law was the sacred covenant between God and his people and that the early Church posed an
acute threat to that covenant. The idea that Jesus Christ was the messiah professed by the early
Church deviated from the kind of messiah that was so long expected in Jewish tradition. Therefore,
Saul would certainly see the early Church as dangerous to the integrity of the Jewish faith. He
dutifully set out to persecute the followers of Christ.

After threatening the early Church throughout Jerusalem, Saul set out on a journey to Damascus
to continue suppressing the Church. The Acts of the Apostles tells in detail what happened to Saul
during his journey:

St. Paul's conversion, one of the Church's great ironies, shows how Ch rist even calls sinners to lead his Church.

16 Chapter One
 THE FOUNDING OF THE CHURCH AND THE EARLY CHRISTIANS

As he journeyed he approached Damascus, and suddenly a light from heaven flashed about
him. And he fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to him, "Saul, Saul why do you
persecute me?" And he said, "Who are you, Lord?"And he said, "I am Jesus, whom you are
persecuting; but rise and enter the city, and you will be told what you are to do." The men
who were traveling with him stood speechless, hearing the voice but seeing no one. Saul
arose from the ground; and when his eyes were opened, he could see nothing; so they led
him by the hand and brought him into Damascus. And for three days he was without sight,
and neither ate nor drank. (Acts 9: 3.9)
As he waited in Damascus. blind and troubled by the event that had befallen him. Saul was visited
by a disciple of Christ named Ananias. who. through a vision. was instructed by the Lord to seek
out Saul and restore his sight. The Lord told Ananias that this man. who had done great evils to
the early Church, "is a chosen instrument of mine to carry my name before the Gentiles and kings
and the sons of Israel" (Acts 9: 15). Ananias listened to the Lord, sought out Saul. and laid his hands
on him and spoke: "Brother Saul. the Lord Jesus who appeared to you on the road by which you
came. has sent me that you may regain your sight and be filled with the Holy Spirit" (Acts 9: 17).
Immediately Saul miraculously recovered his sight and was baptized. Filled with the Holy Spirit.
"in the synagogues immediately he proclaimed Jesus. saying. 'He is the Son of God"' (Acts 9:20).
St. Paul's conversion, one of the Church's great ironies. shows how Christ even calls sinners to
lead his Church. St. Paul (his Roman name. as he was known soon after his conversion) became
one of Christianity's greatest evangelizers. traveling and spreading the Gospel throughout the
Roman world. The Feast of the Converstion of St. Paul is commemorated January 25.

AN INTERLUDE: THE CONVERSION OF

CORNELIUS AND THE COMMENCEMENT OF
THE MISSION TO THE GENTILES
The early Jewish Christians. though persecuted by the Jewish community, still considered
Christianity a part of the Jewish tradition. They still followed Jewish laws and customs. though
they had begun to incorporate many of Christ's teachings into their religious worship and practice.
Acceptance of Christ as the awaited messiah did not. in their minds. sever them from their Jewish
heritage. One particular Jewish law created a major problem in the formation of the early Church.
Jewish Law forbade Jews "to associate with or to visit [Gentiles]" (Acts 10:28). However. the
Apostles remembered how Christ reached out to all people during his life. They understood that
Christ's message and salvation are universal. How, if bound by Jewish laws. were the members of
the early Church to spread the Word of God to non-Jews? How could a Gentile be baptized into a
Church whose traditional law forbids any interaction with people foreign to that tradition?
The Acts of the Apostles relates the story of the Roman centurion Cornelius, a "devout and God-
fearing" Gentile in Caesarea. An angel of God came to ihim in a vision and told him to send for Simon
Peter in Joppa. St. Peter at this time also had a vision:
He saw the heaven opened, and something descending, like a great sheet, let down by four
corners upon the earth. In it were all kinds of animals and reptiles and birds of the air. And
there came a voice to him, "Rise, Peter; kill and eat." But Peter said, "No, Lord; for I have never
eaten anything that is common or unclean." And the voice came to him again a second time,
"What God has cleansed, you must not call common."This happened three times, and the
thing was taken up at once to heaven. (Acts 10: ll-16)

Chapter One 17
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Title: The Survey, Volume 30, Number 3, Apr 19, 1913

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE

SURVEY, VOLUME 30, NUMBER 3, APR 19, 1913 ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
The Survey, Volume XXX, No. 3,
Apr 19, 1913
 THE COMMON WELFARE

THE STRIKE OF THE

JERSEY SILK WORKERS
For seven weeks the 27,000 workers in the silk mills and dye
houses of Paterson, N. J., have been on strike for improved
conditions and against a proposed change in method that will, they
declare, alter the character of the industry.
The strike began with the broad silk weavers as a protest against
the introduction of the three and four loom system. They were soon
joined by the ribbon weavers and the dye house men, whose
demands are for an eight-hour day and a minimum wage of $12 a
week. The dye house men have been laboring in two shifts of twelve
hours each. Their work is often carried on under unhealthful
conditions of dampness, high temperature and poor ventilation.
All the strikers joined the branch of the Industrial Workers of the
World which conducted the Lawrence strike. This is one factor which
has caused tension in a situation, in which statutes dating back to
colonial days have been brought to bear on a modern industrial
struggle till a Supreme Court judge denounced the lengths to which
the police have gone.
Back of the police incidents and the spreading of the revolutionary
doctrines of the Industrial Socialists is a profound economic change
involved in the introduction of the four loom system. This is not
merely the substitution of machines for skilled men due to invention,
but the supplanting of high-grade textile manufacture by low-grade
output because of the greater profits in the cheap goods. It is as if a
vineyard were giving way to a hay farm—a change which seriously
affects the working population of Paterson.
In order to make the situation clear it is necessary to take a brief
look at the history of the silk industry in this country. Twenty years
or so ago the competition between Pennsylvania and New Jersey for
the manufacture of cheap silks was keen, but within a few years the
battle was over. Induced, it is said, by real estate companies, the
manufacture of cheap silk on a large scale migrated to Pennsylvania.
Great factories were built and leased on easy terms, and these were
equipped with automatic looms, four of which could be operated by
one girl or boy. There the wives and children of the coal miners
furnished a cheap labor supply.
Since this migration the best grade of silk has been made in
Paterson, and there has been no competition to speak of that the
Paterson manufacturers needed to fear. Yet they have been making
only moderate profits while the Pennsylvania manufacturers of
cheap silk have been making fortunes. Under the system of multiple
looms, the business of Pennsylvania, has expanded 97 per cent in the
last six years; under the one and two loom systems of Paterson its
business has expanded only 22 per cent in the same time. Therefore
the Paterson manufacturers propose to compete in the manufacture
of cheaper silks and consequently decided to introduce the multiple
loom system. To them this is only a natural economic development,
and the opposition of the workers they feel is irrational, as opposed
to progress. This view is made apparent in a statement issued by the
silk manufacturers’ association:
“As regards the three and four loom system, it is applicable only in the case of
the very simplest grade of broad silks and as a matter of fact has for a long time
been worked successfully and on a very large scale in other localities. Paterson
cannot be excluded from this same privilege. No fight against improved machinery
has ever been successful.”
The beginning of the change came in one of the big Paterson mills
about a year ago and the strike of last spring[1] was at first against the
four loom system. The strike became general, however, and this
demand was completely lost sight of before the strike came to an
end. Since then nine or ten other mills have installed the four loom
system and a score have begun to require the weavers to tend three
looms instead of two.
 1. See The Survey of March 16, 1912.
The strikers claim that the new system will cause unemployment,
as did the installation of the two loom system together with other
improvements in the mechanical equipment of the loom some years
ago, and that the logical consequence will be the employment of
unskilled women and children in place of the skilled weaver, and a
forcing down of the level of wages until the Paterson average of
$11.69, as given in the federal report for the year 1908, becomes as
low as the Pennsylvania average of $6.56. As the percentage of
women employed in Paterson mills has increased in the last few
years and as the average of wages given out by the manufacturers
this year is under $10, there is basis for these fears. Nor do the
manufacturers deny these possibilities; they claim that the loss of
skill is an inevitable accompaniment of improved processes, and the
replacing of men by women and children is only in line with the
development in all the textile trades.
Some of the claims of the strikers are thus summarized by the
Paterson Evening News:
“The best information obtainable appears to show that the alleged mechanical
advantages of the new system have not proved themselves sufficient to offset the
additional strain to which the care of three or four looms subjects the weavers; that
the premium wages first paid as an inducement to users of the system have been
pared down; that at present a day’s work under the system is proportionately less
well paid than a day’s work at two looms; and, finally, that the wages of two loom
workers have been depressed with the scaling down of the piece-rate paid to the
three and four loom workers.”
In spite of the fact that it is only the large manufacturers who
propose to install the new system, the strike is general. The multiple
looms, which are large and equipped with automatic devices, can
only be installed in large mills. By this system cheap silks alone can
be made; the smaller mills must use the Jacquard or other small
looms fitted to the making of the fancy grades of silk for which
Paterson is famous. The small manufacturer, therefore, does not fear
the installation of the new system in the large mills; but he does feel
strongly that he has a grievance toward the workers in his mills who
struck sympathetically for a wrong not their own.
But it is a very real fear that the entire industry will be undermined
that has made the workers stand together, regardless of individual
grievances.
 While the desire to keep up with industrial progress and to realize
large profits is the reason for the importing of the four loom system
into Paterson; the desire to save their present standard of living and
prevent their industry from coming into the hands of women and
children like the other textile trades is the reason for the workers’
opposition. Today Pennsylvania and New Jersey present different
phases of the industry, and New Jersey has had a higher wage
standard; tomorrow with the triumph of the four loom system they
may tend to an equalization of conditions.
The outstanding features in the strike now in its seventh week are
lack of violence and disorder, the refusal of the employers to meet or
confer with the strikers, aggressive repression by the police and the
city government and the efforts of citizens to bring about a
settlement. Although practically all the workers in the major industry
of the city are on strike, there has been little disorderly conduct
attributable to the strikers. There have been reports of the breaking
of a window by a stone in a house occupied by a boss dyer and at
least one attempt was made to damage a house by means of a bomb,
but responsibility for these acts has not been fixed.
CITY OFFICIALS ADOPT
REPRESSIVE MEASURES
In striking contrast to the order maintained by the rank and file of
the strikers, there have been actions on the part of the city officials
that leading newspapers outside of the strike district have not
hesitated to characterize as anarchical. Soon after the strike began
and it became known that it was to be conducted under the auspices
of the I. W. W., the police began to arrest strike leaders and others
who addressed meetings of strikers, regardless of whether they had
yet been guilty of any illegal act. Several of them were held in jail for
a time and then so great was the outcry raised that for a period of two
or three weeks these tactics were abandoned.
On Sunday, March 30, however, the police resumed their former
tactics. William D. Haywood, the leader of the strike, had announced
that he would speak at an open air meeting, and a large crowd
gathered to hear him. As Haywood was going to the meeting place to
speak he was approached by members of the police force. They told
him that the chief of police had issued an order forbidding any out-
door meeting. According to all reports, including testimony given by
the police authorities themselves, Haywood acquiesced at once and
passed the word to the assemblage that the meeting would take place
in Haledon, an independent borough just outside the city limits of
Paterson. Accordingly, Haywood started to walk down the street in
the direction of Haledon and he was followed by the crowd. Just
before he reached the city limits, a patrol wagon bore down upon
him. Together with Lessig, another strike leader, he was arrested,
taken before the Recorder’s Court, charged with disorderly conduct
and unlawful assemblage under the English act of 1635. After being
held in jail in lieu of $5,000 bail, both were found guilty of unlawful
assemblage and were sentenced by the recorder to six months’
imprisonment.
A writ of certiorari was immediately sought by Haywood’s
attorneys and a hearing on this appeal was held by Supreme Court
Justice Minturn. When the evidence, most of it furnished by the
police department, was in, Justice Minturn ordered the release of
Haywood and Lessig. He was unable to find that there had been any
unlawful assemblage. The evidence tended rather to show that
Haywood was co-operating with the authorities in an endeavor to
carry out their orders. At the time of this resumption of their activity
the police began also to arrest pickets. From twenty to one hundred a
day were taken to headquarters. After Judge Minturn’s decision, all
those held in jail were discharged. Since then, while the arrest of
pickets has gone steadily on, Recorder Carroll has refused to hold
them.
Throughout the strike to date the manufacturers have consistently
refused to meet with a committee of strikers or to discuss terms with
them in any way. At one time a delegation of clergymen endeavored
to get them to meet a committee of strikers in order to discuss
grievances. This suggestion was instantly voted down. Last week,
when a public meeting of citizens was held to consider whether or
not the strike could be brought to an end, the manufacturers,
through their representative, stated their position in just two
propositions: First, the employers will refuse to meet any committee
of strikers “dominated as they are by the I. W. W.”; second, they will
meet any of their individual employes “who are not dominated by the
I. W. W.”
All along there has been a lively public interest in the strike.
Ministers and public-spirited citizens have at different times
endeavored to ascertain the underlying causes and to co-operate in
restoring harmonious relations. These efforts reached their most
formal stage when last week at the call of the president of the Board
of Aldermen a public meeting was held in the high school auditorium
on Wednesday evening to which employers, strikers, church
organizations, the board of trade, organizations of bankers and
professional men, and the general public were invited.
Representatives of the strikers explained their grievances, a single
representative of the employers stated their position as just quoted,
and the ministerial association came forward with a proposal for a
legislative investigation. Finally, a committee of the Board of
Aldermen proposed in a series of resolutions that a committee of
fifteen be appointed to discuss a basis upon which the strike could be
settled, the committee to consist of five representatives of the
strikers, five representatives of employers and five men to be
appointed from the membership of the Board of Aldermen. The
resolution was passed by the unanimous vote of an audience two-
thirds of which were strikers. The strikers appointed their
committee. But the employers, in line with their official policy which
has been against any meeting with any body of men even to discuss a
settlement, refused to do so.
“A MAN’S
FRIENDS”
“I don’t believe there is a man in the country who will not put
himself or some one he loves above the whole nation if he is put to a
hard enough test.”
These words, spoken by one of the principal characters, contain
the essence of a new play, A Man’s Friends, written by Ernest Poole
and recently presented in New York. Without moralizing on the need
for a wider social consciousness, Mr. Poole seeks to show the limits
of the average man’s circle of human loyalty and how far his loyalty
to the whole people’s welfare is inhibited by his devotion to his own
“crowd.” The play aims to point out that, however much our
attention has been focused on graft in its great anti-social
consequences, a larger factor in thwarting social progress is our
restricted loyalty to groups which are less than the whole people.
A district attorney fights a political machine which, through
bribery, has defeated a new building code. He convicts the bribed
alderman but cannot obtain from him any information as to the
“men higher up.” At last he discovers that his own son-in-law was the
go-between in the matter of the bribe. The intense loyalty of wife to
husband is shown by his daughter who says to her father: “Your life
and principles are nothing now—promise me you’ll keep Hal out of
jail,” and by the wife of the guilty alderman who declares “it is not a
question of right and wrong—it’s what I think of Nick.”
The play brings out the loyalty to one’s circle of intimates, shown
in the refusal of the convicted alderman to divulge incriminating
information; and the loyalty to a political coterie whose watchword is
“You might as well be dead as a squealer,” and concerning whom the
district attorney says: “It is the unwritten law of your system to
perjure yourself to save a friend.” He further remarks to the boss,
“You won’t help those not in your crowd—and your crowd is too
small, even though you can call a hundred thousand people in New
York by their first names.”
 One element in the play is the definite human appraisal of just
what graft and disloyalty to public welfare involve. It flashes out
when the boss after telling how he had given a few dollars to a “down
and outer” is silenced by the district attorney’s daughter who points
out that he owns the gambling place in which the derelict lost his
money. It is again emphasized when the district attorney says to
those who appeal for leniency toward the men responsible for the
defeat of the building code, “All right let’s be human,” and then refers
to the 149 factory girls who lost their lives in a factory fire which the
building code would have prevented. “People vote,” he says at
another time, “with the man who laughs, but the laugh is too
expensive.”
How the district attorney shows his own human qualities in the
end by saving his son-in-law from prison, but in a way to render
important service to the 9,000,000 people of the state, is the climax
of the piece.
The play is intended to show how the absorption of the average
man in his own affairs and in the interests of his small group of
friends is responsible for popular indifference which often makes the
conscientious public servant lonely and disheartened. The district
attorney, as candidate for governor, has returned from a campaign
trip. “There are one million men out for the graft and nine million
who don’t care,” he says. His daughter replies: “That does not seem
like you, father.” “Well,” he adds, “you ought to have seen them all
along the line of my trip; big meetings, cheering, too, plenty of
enthusiasm. But the minute I left each town I felt it all suddenly die
right out. Every man jack of them back to his business, his job and
his friends—the things he really cares about—and I felt as though I
had carried on the cheers of each town. Each town throwing it all at
my head and shouting ‘Go on, be a hero, save the country—only for
God’s sake leave us alone, we have not time, we are busy.’”
BRIEUX’S “DAMAGED
GOODS” PRESENTED
“I didn’t know” bids fair to become an obsolete phrase in
connection with the nature of the social evil, if the ripples started by
the production of Brieux’s Damaged Goods in New York this spring
extend as far as its sponsors intend. The Committee of the
Sociological Fund of the Medical Review of Reviews believe that
syphilis should no longer be regarded as a mysterious disease, whose
ravages are to be shunned but its causes ignored.
Bernard Shaw’s preface to the Brieux play, with its warning against
the usual treatment of the subject as taboo and its appeal for
publicity and legal assistance in coping with the evil, was read by a
clergyman well known for his human contact with every-day social
conditions. The drama itself was simply staged and given a
sympathetic reading by a strong cast. Almost every bearing of the
menace on family and social life is brought out in a way well
calculated to meet prejudice due to indifference, ignorance or
tradition, and to create a conviction that here is a scourge to be
conquered by publicity.
Those who saw the play had come with various mental attitudes.
Some were even vaguely questioning whether they had come to see a
play or hear a sermon. Not a few of the theatrical critics have dubbed
it the latter, but to many parents this very quality made it seem
peculiarly profitable for young men who are breaking loose from
home life. By some it was even felt that the educational value of the
piece would justify its being given a special performance at some
holiday season, and that prevention through knowledge would thus
be promoted.
NEW YORK CHARITIES
AND THE LAW MAKERS
Convinced that the state charitable and correctional institutions
are facing a serious crisis, New York social workers are protesting
against certain of the recommendations of Governor Sulzer’s
Committee of Inquiry which they fear the Legislature may act upon.
This committee, which was appointed by the governor to examine
into the administration of the state’s departments in the furtherance
of economy, has made recommendations, relative to state charities
and corrections, ranging from the repeal of the act establishing the
state industrial farm colony for tramps to the refusal of large part of
the sums asked for repairs on state institutions. The Prison Farm for
Women, Letchworth Village and the State Training School for Boys
are among the institutions that would be most seriously affected. The
Committee of inquiry also recommended that the State Probation
Commission, a non-salaried body, be merged with the Prison
Commission.
All told, there are fourteen state hospitals for the insane and
sixteen state charitable institutions with a total of 42,000 patients
and inmates. The Committee of Inquiry, partly on the alleged ground
that the state has little control over the expenditures of these
institutions, has made sweeping recommendations for retrenchment
on projects to which the state has already committed itself by
legislation. Social workers who dispute the findings of the
commission point out that it had but a few weeks in which to gain an
understanding of the workings and relations of the state institutions
to various supervisory and administrative state bodies and that its
statements as to excessive cost of housing the inmates are apparently
made without a comparison of the situation in other states.
The Committee of Inquiry recommends that the state charitable
institutions in some way ought to be consolidated, This, social
workers urge, could not be done except by putting together state
wards of entirely different types since the only institutions having a
capacity of less than 300 are the State Women’s Relief Home, an
institution for aged veterans and their wives; the Thomas Indian
School; the State School for Blind: the State Hospital for Crippled
Children, and Letchworth Village for the Feeble-minded.
For many years the state has been gradually building up a group of
institutions for the care of the insane and feeble-minded, the
epileptic, and delinquent cases requiring reformatory treatment. The
insane are increasing at the rate of about one thousand a year. There
is an accumulation at the present time of 5,000 patients in excess of
the certified capacity of the fourteen state hospitals. To delay
appropriations for new state hospitals already started, it is claimed,
is only to put off what must be eventually done.
For the feeble-minded and epileptic New York has provided four
institutions in the central and western part of the state which care
altogether for about 4,000 inmates and one, Letchworth Village in
the southeastern part of the state, which as yet has less than 100
inmates. This, when completed, will serve New York city and vicinity
where more than half the population of the state centers.
The next largest group of institutions is the reformatories of which
there are two for women, one at Bedford and one at Albion; one for
girls at Hudson; and two for boys, of which the State Agricultural and
Industrial School at Industry is known the country over as a model of
its kind. This institution for caring for boys outside the metropolitan
district, social Workers urge, should be paralleled without further
delay as suggested by the Committee of Inquiry by one in
Westchester County for the boys of New York City and its vicinity.
The state has also undertaken to round out its reformatory and
penal system by providing a state farm for women over thirty years
of age, the age up to which they may be received in reformatories,
and the state industrial farm colony for tramps. These institutions
are planned to care for offenders who now cause much expense to
localities. Both of these institutions were established after long study
of the subject by organizations and individuals expert in dealing with
dependents and delinquents but the committee recommends the
abandonment of the second and further investigation as to the
desirability of the first.
After discussing the situation at a meeting held in New York on
April 3, a committee consisting of Henry Morgenthau; Homer Folks,
secretary of the State Charities Aid Association; John A. Kingsbury,
general agent of the New York Association for Improving the
Condition of the Poor; the Right Rev. N. G. R. McMahon, supervisor
of Catholic Charities, and Mrs. John M. Glenn, was appointed to
confer with the governor who has given the committee assurance
that he is considering the situation as a whole and will not make
separate judgments on each institution by itself.
A similar meeting was held in Buffalo. At this delegates were also
selected who have interviewed the governor in behalf of the
important humanitarian projects undertaken by the state in the last
ten years which are now threatened.

SLEEPING IN THE LAVATORY

AT BEDFORD
BEDFORD REFORMATORY
NOW FACING A CRISIS
It was not much more than a year ago that, in connection with the
founding of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, the New York magistrates
began to make extensive use of Bedford Reformatory for women as a
means of saving the young prostitute. And yet the reformatory is
already facing a crisis through overcrowding.
The Committee on Criminal Courts of the New York Charity
Organization Society has appealed to the public to write, urging an
appropriation of $700,000 for this institution, to the leaders of the
Legislature: James J. Frawley, chairman Finance Committee of the
Senate; Alfred E. Smith, speaker of the Assembly; Robert F. Wagner,
majority leader of the Senate; Aaron J. Levy, majority leader of the
Assembly. This the committee believes to be a conservative and
economical estimate of what will be needed to put up new cottages
and other buildings to accommodate present inmates, and to provide
for reasonable growth in the next few years.
The letter sent out by the committee reads in part as follows:
“Twelve years ago the state authorities established Bedford
Reformatory to care for women between the ages of sixteen and
thirty, to try and save some, at least, of the young girls who were
otherwise destined to a life of shame and degradation. What Bedford
means to the community, the extraordinary work it is doing and has
done is set forth in the enclosed article by Ida M. Tarbell.[2] That
article is a challenge and a call to every man and woman in the state.
2. Miss Tarbell’s article which appeared in the American Magazine was
reprinted as a pamphlet by the committee.
“Bedford Reformatory now faces a crisis.”
“Today there are 178 more girls there than the place will hold.
They are sleeping on cots in the hallways, in parlors, in the
gymnasium, in the lavatories, in the linen room, everywhere they can
put a bed. Two girls in a room is the rule instead of the exception,
notwithstanding the moral dangers of this.”
 “Chief Magistrate McAdoo and Chief Magistrate Kempner and
their associates in New York and Brooklyn have been asked not to
commit any more girls to the institution and the stream has stopped
for a moment. But the magistrates are now at their wits’ ends. What
are they to do with first offenders? The young girl who is just
embarking on this kind of career—shall they fine her and force her to
work all the harder at her unlawful calling to earn the money with
which to pay the fine? All are agreed that this is objectionable. Fines
neither deter nor reform. Shall they send her then to the work-house
to mingle in close confinement with the hardened offender, there to
become embittered and to have a prostitute’s life fastened more
firmly than ever upon her? They must do this or discharge her to
walk the streets again.”
 EDITORIAL GRIST

THE BATTLE LINES OF CHILD LABOR

LEGISLATION
ANNA ROCHESTER
National Child Labor Committee

A majority of the twenty-nine state Legislatures which have been

considering child labor laws this winter are still in session, so that
many of the most important bills are still pending.
The campaign that is being waged against the most outspoken
opposition is on in Pennsylvania, one of the two strongholds of glass
manufacturers who employ boys under sixteen at night. With the
single exception of West Virginia, where a bill based on the uniform
child labor law was defeated this winter, night work for youths under
sixteen is no longer allowed in the important glass-producing states.
The uniform law was introduced in the present Pennsylvania
Legislature by Representative Walnut and referred to the Committee
on Labor and Industry. The committee reported it to the House with
several amendments. The House rejected all but two of these. Now
the uniform law, with the street-trading age limit reduced from
twelve years to ten, and the age limit for breaker boys reduced from
sixteen to fourteen, has reached its third reading in the House. If its
friends can still protect it from the mutilations desired by the glass
interests, the telegraph companies, the textile manufacturers and
other opponents, Pennsylvania will be in a fair way to protect the
29,170 children employed in manufactories in that state.
The uniform law is also pending in Massachusetts, where it met no
opposition in the hearing before the Committee on Social Welfare.
Massachusetts has now a ten-hour day and the uniform law would
bring her into line with Ohio, New York, Illinois, Mississippi and
twelve other states that have the eight-hour day for all under sixteen.
But Massachusetts would lead the country in one respect if
another bill that is likewise before the Committee on Social Welfare
should pass. This provides for a five-hour day and compulsory school
attendance for all workers under sixteen. If this is put into effect it
will set a new standard for the Uniform Child Labor Law, which has
been drafted by the National Child Labor Committee and endorsed
by the American Bar Association. It is based on the best provisions of
the best statutes now in force in the several states. Yet the National
Child Labor Committee, fearing that two five-hour shifts for certain
minors might tend to fasten on industry the ten-hour day for adults,
would suggest that Massachusetts go one step further and fix a four-
hour day for all under sixteen.
Connecticut, Ohio and Michigan will also advance beyond the
standard of the uniform law if bills now pending are enacted.
Michigan, it is true, is not trying to reduce the working day below
nine hours, but merely to extend it to include canneries and four
other occupations hitherto exempt. But Michigan and Ohio propose
to raise the general age limit for employment from fourteen to
fifteen, while Connecticut is considering sixteen years. Ohio intends
also to increase the compulsory school attendance age from fourteen
to fifteen for boys and sixteen for girls, and to require that boys of
fifteen may not go to work unless they have completed the sixth
instead of the fifth grade, the requirement of the present Ohio law
and of the uniform law.[3]
3. The Ohio law has passed both Houses.
The Ohio bill includes, also, the street trading provisions of the
uniform law. Special street trading bills are pending in Iowa,
Nebraska, New York and also, we understand, in Michigan and
Minnesota. Their outcome is doubtful because the average legislator
seems to be blind to the bad results of street trading and cheerfully
reflects the popular view that these “sturdy, little merchants” are all
supporting widowed mothers and headed straight for the White
House.
Many states are coming to recognize the needs of children over
fourteen. This is evidenced not only by the wide discussion of
vocational schools and the bills before the Legislatures of Illinois,
Indiana, Ohio, Massachusetts, New York and other states, but also by
the extension of child labor laws. Thus California, having proved the
advantage of the eight-hour day for women and boys under sixteen,
is considering the eight-hour limit for all under eighteen. Wisconsin
is proposing to enlarge the list of hazardous occupations forbidden
under eighteen and to provide for continued revision in the future by
the Industrial Commission. The prohibition of night messenger
service for those under twenty-one is included in the uniform law, as
pending in Pennsylvania and passed in Delaware, but not in
Massachusetts and Utah, where it has already been enacted. In
Connecticut, a dangerous trades bill is pending and the bill for a
general sixteen year limit includes an age restriction of twenty-one
years for night messenger service. The same night messenger
prohibition was included also in the bills based on the uniform law
that went down to defeat this year in Utah, Idaho, Arkansas, Texas
and West Virginia. Iowa, the only other state in which a night
messenger law has been introduced this year, proposes an eighteen
year limit.
Regulation of hours for all under sixteen was proposed in Nevada.
In Tennessee, there is a bill now before the House Committee on
Labor, providing for an eight-hour day under sixteen instead of the
present sixty-hour week. A second measure adds mercantile
establishments and the stage to the occupations prohibited to
children under fourteen. Still another bill has passed in Tennessee,
enlarging the Factory Inspection Department by adding a clerk and
two deputy inspectors. The matter of enforcement has not received
as wide consideration as it deserved. Industrial commissions are
under discussion in many states, notably California and Ohio. In
Iowa it is proposed to create within the Labor Department a bureau
of women and children. Montana’s educational bill would provide for
truant officers to enforce the child labor law. In Wisconsin a bill is
pending covering some details of the issuing of employment
certificates and in Utah it was proposed to increase the number of
inspectors. Most important in this connection is the bill in Missouri
to extend the jurisdiction of the Factory Inspection Department over
the entire state (it is now confined to cities of 10,000 or more
inhabitants) and to abolish the present fee system.
 Two of the bills recommended by the New York Factory
Investigating Commission and directly affecting child labor are still
pending: one to prohibit work in cannery sheds by children under
fourteen, and the other to prohibit the manufacture in tenement
houses of dolls or dolls’ clothing and articles of food or of children’s
or infants’ wearing apparel. Other bills recommended by the
commission and already passed and signed standardize the issuing of
employment certificates throughout the state; give the commissioner
of labor power to inquire into the thoroughness of this work as
carried on by local health officers; provide for physical examination
in factories of children fourteen to sixteen. This last provision
promises to be better than the present Massachusetts law because it
permits the cancelling of employment certificates of children whom
the examination reveals to be physically unfit for factory
employment. Following the recommendation of the commission the
present Legislature has also reorganized the Labor Department,
established an industrial board, increased the number of inspectors
and extended the jurisdiction of the Labor Department to cover the
enforcement of the labor law concerning women and children in
mercantile establishments in second class cities.
In a few states there is a fair record of progress in the legislation
already enacted this year. New Jersey and Indiana have brought their
educational requirements and provisions for working certificates up
to the standard of the uniform law. Vermont has established a nine-
hour day and Rhode Island a ten-hour day. The Vermont law also
does away with the twelve year limit in certain occupations and
substitutes the provision that
“A child under sixteen years of age, who has not completed the course of study
prepared for the elementary schools shall not be employed in work connected with
railroading, mining, manufacturing or quarrying, or be employed in a hotel or
bowling alley, or in delivering messages, except during vacation and before and
after school.”
Along with this the law has an absolute fourteen-year limit in
“mill, factory, quarry or workshop, wherein are employed more than
ten persons.” In North Carolina a bill was introduced with a
fourteen-year age limit and a prohibition of night work, but the age
limit was immediately amended back to the old thirteen (twelve for
apprentices), the increased appropriation for inspectors was cut out,
and only the night work prohibition was passed. The Child Labor
Commission in Delaware drafted a bill based on the uniform law,
which, in a much mutilated form, was finally passed and signed.
Only a few backward states show no progress whatever. Georgia
defeated a child labor bill last summer. Alabama has no legislative
session until January, 1915. The Florida Legislature has just
convened and a bill based on the uniform law will be introduced. No
child labor bill was introduced in South Carolina but a compulsory
school attendance law was passed by the Legislature, only to be
vetoed by the governor. The House passed it again over the
governor’s veto, but it failed in the Senate by two votes. In New
Hampshire, the only northern state with a general twelve-year age
limit, a bill providing for a fourteen-year limit has been unanimously
reported to the House and there seems to be a good chance of
passing it.
The National Child Labor Committee is watching the situation and
helping where it can in these campaigns. It hopes to report many
more victories when the legislative season closes. Meanwhile it
appeals to the citizens in every state to aid in the enactment and the
enforcement of these laws.
 [4]
ETERNITY AND A PENNY PILL
RICHARD C. CABOT, M. D.
4. See Courses on Sex Hygiene. By Jane R. McCrady on page 124 of this Issue.
There are some things (chocolate, for instance, or tracts, or paper
drinking-cups) that can be shot out of a slot at you and hit their
mark. You can apply them to their uses at once. It is the same with
the facts fired at you through the window of his booth by the railroad
information man. Such facts set you on your track or your train at
once.
But when people ask for clear directions about the train to
proficiency in violin playing, belief in immortality, or understanding
of sex, they always miss their train. Sometimes they complain of the
officials.
After a course of lectures on sex last year some workers of my
acquaintance handed in written questions beginning “What should I
say to a young girl who,” etc., and were disappointed when no
definite answer was forthcoming. To illustrate the difficulties of an
answer let us ask a few parallel questions:
What paint shall I use for a Madonna?
What are the best words to use in a love sonnet?
What is the best book on being a millionaire?
What kind of bread makes you popular and handsome?
What liniment makes one’s sympathies most supple?
People rush to lectures on “sex hygiene,” sometimes for good
reasons, sometimes to satisfy morbid curiosity, but often with a
pathetic hunger for the bread of life. In the hope of forestalling such
disappointments the lecturer should hang up before them a sign
reading:
“This lecture will not solve fundamental problems. Seek ye the Lord.”
 THE DAWN OF A BETTER DAY
A MANUFACTURER SPEAKS
Dudley D. Sicher
[This poem was read at a banquet of the Cotton Garment Manufacturers
of New York during the last week of March. The author, a representative
manufacturer, dedicated these verses, reflecting a new attitude toward
employes, to his business associates.—Ed.]

Do we purchase Toil at the lowest rate

As we buy our cloth and thread?
Do our workers labor long and late
For the price of their daily bread
In gloomy lofts where shadows frown,
In foul, unwholesome air,
Till Want and Weariness drag them down
Where—we neither know nor care?
If such things be, they must pass away
Ere we hail the Dawn of a Better Day.

Have they wrought us harm in the darker days,

Have they kept the whole truth hid?
Have they told false tales of our works and ways
And of wrongs that we never did?
Be not too wroth at the hiss of shame,
But pass old slanders by.
And cleanse your shirts of the taint of blame
Where e’er the blame may lie.
Old feuds, old sores be forgot for aye
In the hopeful Dawn of a Better Day.

Let us wipe the slate of the bitter score,

Let us turn the blotted page,
And grant that we owe our workers more
Than the dole of a “living wage.”
They give us more than their time and skill
In the health and strength they spend;
And earn the right to the kindly will
And helpful hand of a friend.
We must give them more than the coin we pay
Ere we hail the Dawn of a Better Day.

So, here’s a task that we may not shirk,

For the toiling thousands plead;
We must give them comfort while they work
And help in every need;
We must lend them strength if their souls are weak
And teach them how to live;
Nor let us, all to meanly seek
Return for all we give,
As we lift our eyes for the gladdening ray
Of the golden Dawn of a Better Day.

If this light that leads us shall not dim

They will see, ere the course is run,
That the worker’s weal and the weal of him
Who owns the shops are one.
Then each shall have his rightful gain
Ungrudged—and great and small
Shall give their best of hand and brain
For the good of each and all,—
And we’ll stand together, come what may
In the brighter Dawn of a Better Day!