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Fractures Analysis Using Core Data and Image Logs: A Case Study in the
Dalan-Kangan Reservoir of South Pars Gas Field, Iran

Article in Iranian Journal of Science and Technology. Transaction A, Science · June 2022
DOI: 10.1007/s40995-022-01288-4

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RESEARCH PAPER

Fractures Analysis Using Core Data and Image Logs: A Case Study
in the Dalan–Kangan Reservoir of South Pars Gas Field, Iran
Abouzar Mohsenipour1 • Iman Zahmatkesh1 • Bahman Soleimani1

Received: 25 October 2021 / Accepted: 25 March 2022

Ó The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Shiraz University 2022

Abstract
South Pars Gas Field is the largest gas field in the world. This field in the Persian Gulf and is located on the border of Iran
and Qatar. In it, Dalan–Kangan formations are containing gas reservoirs. Evaluation and study of fractures in carbonate
reservoirs is essential in the process of production and development of hydrocarbon fields. Core data and imaging logs are
the most important tools in achieving this goal.in this study, using core data and image logs, Dalan–Kangan reservoir
fractures in terms of distribution and relative orientation were investigated. Based on the results, both natural and closed
fractures were present in large quantities in the studied well. In core data, the ratio of closed fractures filled with minerals
was higher than other natural fractures. No major faults were observed in the wells studied and only a minor fault with a
displacement of several millimetres was observed. The results of the FMI log showed 120 open fractures as well as 20
closed fractures. Open fractures often had a slope of 50 to 80 degrees and the azimuth was N74W and S80E. Their average
aperture was 0.27 mm in the K4 section. Also, closed fractures were mostly in the two main directions of azimuth N48E
and S84W with a slope of 51 and 63 degrees. The results of this study can be used to discuss field development and
fabrication of fracture models as well as facies models.

Keywords Fracture
Dalan–Kangan reservoir
Core
Image log
Fullbore formation microimager
South pars gas field

1 Introduction direction of the minimum amount of stress. These fractures

It is not possible to study and understand the behavioural
characteristics of a hydrocarbon reservoir without knowing
how to create and propagate its fractures, and it does not
lead to accurate results. Depending on the relative dis-
placement at the fracture plane, all types of tectonic frac-
tures are divided into two main types (Solberg et al. 1977;
Hancock 1985; Pollard and Aydin 1988; Gui et al. 2015;
Einstein 2021). 1- Tension fractures: In this type of fracture
occurs perpendicular to the fracture plane and in the
& Abouzar Mohsenipour
a-mohsenipour@stu.scu.ac.ir
Iman Zahmatkesh
i.zahmatkesh@scu.ac.ir
Bahman Soleimani
soleimani_b@scu.ac.ir
1
Department of Petroleum Geology and Sedimentary Basins,
Faculty of Earth Sciences, Shahid Chamran University of
Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran
are divided into two types of open fractures and closed
fractures. 2- Shear fractures: In this type of fracture, dis-
placement usually occurs parallel to the fracture plate.
These types of fractures are usually caused by shear
stresses and are often called faults. The most common and
well-known types of shear fractures include normal faults,
reverse faults, and strike-slip faults (Gudmundsson 2011).
Fractures can occur before folding, concurrently, or after
folding (Bellahsen et al. 2006). Post-folding fractures are
very rarely detected, perhaps because they are more diffi-
cult to diagnose than pre-folding fractures (Laubach et al.
2009).
In carbonate reservoirs, the characteristics of the frac-
ture network play an essential role in the quality of the
reservoir. Fractures connect separate porosities and
increase the permeability of carbonate reservoirs. If the
fractures are open, they can increase the flow of fluid, and
if the fractures are closed, in addition to reducing porosity,
they can play a role as a barrier to fluid flow. Therefore, it
is necessary to identify and investigate subsurface fractures

123

in hydrocarbon reservoirs. Proper recognition of fractures
significantly reduces uncertainty in reservoir properties,
modelling and simulation (Jenkins et al. 2009).
The most important tools for examining fractures
include the core and the Image log that illustrate them
directly. Cores allow direct observation of fractures and
can provide valuable information as input to reservoir
simulation models (Rider 1986). However, due to problems
such as the high cost and time of core extraction, as well as
the lack of core in old wells, the researchers tried to use
faster and cheaper methods.
Image logs are the most important tool among advanced
logs that can help identify small-scale fractures (Khosh-
bakht et al. 2012). This log developed rapidly due to their
excellent performance in characterizing borehole features
such as fractures, also, using these logs can greatly reduce
the cost of studies (Aghli et al. 2017). One of the most
important imaging tools is the Fullbore Formation
Microimager (FMI) tool with 192 electrode buttons, which
is able to provide 80% coverage in an 8.5-inch hole and can
detect geological features with high quality compared to
other imaging tools. This log developed rapidly due to their
excellent performance in characterizing borehole features
such as fractures, also, using these logs can greatly reduce
the cost of studies (Aghli et al. 2017). Many studies have
been done on the use of image logs in the identification of
reservoir fractures, including (Khoshbakht et al.
2009, 2012, 2016; Zahmatkesh et al. 2015; Nazari Ostad
et al. 2016; Aghli et al. 2017; Aghli et al. 2020; lai et al.
2017; ezati et al. 2018; Saedi et al. 2022).
This study presents the results of fracture study using
core and image log obtained from Dalan–Kangan Forma-
tions in one of the hydrocarbon fields in southern Iran. The
main purpose of fracture analysis of the core materials is to
characterize the occurrence, distribution, and relative ori-
entation of the fractures which presumably affect the
characteristics of the reservoir. In this study, all the natural
fractures in the cores and the FMI imaging log were
examined geologically. Both natural and artificial fractures
were observed in the well. Most natural fractures are filled
with minerals. Several small faults were also visible in the
core and the image log.
2 Geological Setting
The Persian Gulf basin contains the richest oil and gas
reserves in the world, with 55–68% of the world’s oil
reserves and 40% of the world’s gas reservoirs (Konyuhov
and Maleki, 2006). The South Pars gas field on the Iran-
Qatar border has the largest non-associated gas reservoir in
the world (Aali et al. 2006; Khoshnoodkia et al. 2011)
(Fig. 1). In this field, gas storage is located in Permian to
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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci
Triassic stratigraphic units, including Dalan and Kangan
formations. In South Pars gas field (Kashfi 1992; Alsharhan
and Nairn 1994; Ehrenberg et al. 2008; Bordenave and
Hegre 2010; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab 2013)
the Kangan and underlying Dalan Formations form the
Dehram Group (counterpart Khuff carbonates in Arabian
part). In this field, Dalan Formation divided into three
parts: lower and upper Dalan carbonates and Nar anhydrite
par. and consist of medium to thick-bedded oolitic to
micritic shallow-marine carbonates, with intercalations of
evaporites also Kangan Formation is composed of lime-
stone, dolomite with thin shale layers (Ghazban 2009).
Petrophysically, Dalan Formations are divided into K1 and
K2 units and Kangan Formation is divided into K3 and K4
units.
3 Methods and Materials
This study investigates and identifies fractures in Dalan–
Kangan formations using core data and imaging log
(Fullbore Formation Microimager (FMI)) obtained from a
well in South Pars gas field. In the studied well, there were
14 boxes of cores with a length of 386.5 m (195.04 m in
Dalan Formation and 179.89 m in Kangan Formation).
Conventional logs including gamma ray log (GR), neutron
log (NPHI) and density log (RHOB) and FMI imaging log
were also available in these formations.
3.1 Image Log
Knowledge of sedimentary features is important for
determining reservoir geometry and petrophysical reservoir
parameters (Schlumberger 2002). The Fullbore Formation
Microimager (FMI) image tool is Schlumberger’s most
advanced image log. With 80% borehole coverage in 8-in
boreholes and 0.2-in image resolution in the vertical and
azimuthal directions, imaging with the FMI microimager is
the preferred approach for determining net pay in lami-
nated sediments of fluvial and turbidite depositional envi-
ronments (Schlumberger 2002) (Fig. 2). Fractures, beddi
ngand other geological features such as conductive seam
and stolylolite are the main types of structures that can be
identified using image logs (Lai et al. 2017). According to
the mechanism of the FMI instrument, which measures
based on formation resistance, sedimentary features can be
detected based on the contrast of the image due to the
difference in resistivity.
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci

Fig. 1 Subdivisions of the

Zagros orogenic belt.
Abbreviations: AD– Arak
depression; DR– Dezful recess;
EAF– East Anatolian Fault; FS–
Fars salient; GKD– Gav Khooni
depression; KR– Karkuk recess;
LS–Lorestan salient; MAC–
Makran accretionary complex;
MFF– ‘‘Mountain front
flexure’’; ‘‘MZT’’– ‘‘Main
Zagros Thrust’’; OL– Oman
Line; PTC-CCS– Paleo-Tethyan
continent–continent collisional
suture; SD– Sirjan depression;
SRRB– Saveh-Rafsanjan
retroforeland basin; ‘‘SSZ’’–
Sanandaj-Sirjan zone; ‘‘ZTZ’’–
Zagros thrust zone; UDMA–
Urumieh–Dokhtar magmatic
assemblage; ZDF– Zagros
deformational front; ZFTB–
Zagros fold-thrust belt; ZIZ–
Zagros imbricate zone; ZS–
Zagros suture. Hydrocarbon
fields of the region, oil in green
and gas in red, are shown
(Alavi, 2007). And location of
South Pars Gas Field

3.1.1 Fracture Analysis and Fracture Aperture Using Image
Logs
Fracture is a term used for cracks that do not move along
them. In image logs, fractures are shown as a sinusoidal
feature that has a greater slope than the structural slope
(Fig. 3) (Aghli et al. 2017). How to detect fractures in the
FMI image log is based on the performance of the electrical
resistor. In open fracture, because the space between the
fractures is filled with conductive drilling mud, so the
resistance inside the open fracture is less than its sur-
roundings and its conductivity is higher, so these types of
fractures are seen as dark in colour. They have a higher
electrical resistance than the surrounding filling. They are
seen in white in the FMI image logs. To calculate the
aperture of open fractures, the method introduced by Luthi
and Souhaite is used for image tools such as FMI (Luthi
and Souhaite, 1990). In this method, the amount of fracture
aperture can be measured by measuring the amount of
current sent to the formation by each of the electrodes.
4 Results and Discussion
4.1 Fracture Analysis Using Core
Cores and image logs are the only tools that are able to
provide direct information from the reservoir. In this study,
the distribution and morphology of fractures in the Dalan–
Kangan reservoir were investigated. Both natural and
artificial fractures were observed in both nuclei and FMI
image logs. Natural fractures consist of open fractures,
vuggy fractures, mineral-filled fractures, also faults that
detected could be categorized as possible fault. The results
were observed in the following order.
4.1.1 Artificially Induced Fractures
The artificially induced fractures are occurring as a result
of stresses produced by the core extraction process. An
excellent discussion on the characteristics of induced ver-
sus natural fractures is found in Kulander et al. (1990). A
classification scheme defined such terms as hackle, petal,

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Fig. 2 Schematic of Fullbore formation microimager (FMI) image
tool (Schlumberger 2002)
Fig. 3 Continuous open fractures (blue dips) and Closed fractures
(light blue dips) shown by FMI image
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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci
and torsion to classify coring-induced fractures. There are
several ways to form artificially induced fractures within
core samples, such as careless core handling, unloading,
and drill string/rock interaction (Nelson 2001). Core anal-
ysis of Upper Dalan/Kangan formations in studied well has
been displayed many artificially induced fractures.
Throughout the well, the induced fracture usually caused
crushed zones, which mask the natural fracture system
present. (Fig. 4a) shows examples of inductive fractures
observed in the cores of this well.
Also, in the FMI image log of this well, we saw the
existence of inductive fractures that have been created as
vertical features and in the direction of maximum stress on
the well. An example of this is shown in (Fig. 5a).
4.1.2 Natural Fractures
Natural reservoir fractures can have a positive effect if
open and a negative effect on fluid flow in the reservoir if
closed. Fracture morphology is an important factor that
affects fracture porosity and permeability. Main types of
natural fracture plane morphology are including: open
fractures, deformed fractures (gouge-filled fractures, and
slickensided fractures), mineral-filled fractures, and vuggy
fractures. An excellent discussion on the characteristics of
fracture morphology is found in (Nelson 2001). Through-
out the studied well, natural fractures are common, but
sometimes have been masked with intense artificially
induced fractures or crash zones. However, in cores the
most of natural fractures display mineral-filled morphol-
ogy, and can be assigned to extension fractures that usually
filled by anhydrite cement. In the following, different types
of natural fractures in core and image log are discussed.
4.1.2.1 Open Fractures In open fractures, the gap
between the width of the fracture surfaces is not filled by
diagenetic materials, etc. It also this fracture acts as a
channel for fluid flow. The permeability of open fractures is
controlled by numerous factors. However, this morphology
greatly increases reservoir permeability parallel to the
fracture plane. Throughout the studied well, natural open
fractures in core data, are rare and usually masked with
intense artificially induced fractures. Also, in the image
log, we see more open fractures in zones 2 and 4, and zones
1 and 3 have fewer fractures. An example of this type of
fracture in the core and the FMI image log can be seen in
Figs. 4b and 5b, respectively.
4.1.2.2 Vuggy Fractures Vuggy fractures are not so much
a true fracture morphology as they are a matrix alteration
surrounding the fracture. Vuggy fractures form when fluids
enter a low-permeability rock along fracture planes and
dissolution occur. There is a close relationship between
Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci

Fig. 4 Displays the types of

natural and artificial fractures
observed in the studied well
cores. a Artificially Induced
Fracture. b Open fracture.
c Vuggy fracture. d Mineral-
Filled Fracture. e Fault

Fig. 5 Displays the types of

natural and artificial fractures
observed in the FMI image log
of the studied well. a Artificially
Induced Fracture. b Open
fracture. c Vuggy fracture.
d Mineral-Filled Fracture.
e Fault

fractures and this type of porosity. Secondary porosity
associated with these fractures can be quite large compared
to more normal fracture porosity values (Nelson 2001;
Asgarinezhad et al. 2014, 2016; Aghli et al. 2017;
Tadayoni et al. 2020).
Throughout the studied well in cores, macroscopic
vuggy fractures are not common and are usually associated
with the development of karst. Vuggy fractures have usu-
ally been developed in some intervals of K1 and K4. In the
FMI log, these types of fractures are seen as discontinuous
black dots that have a sinusoidal trend. Figures 4c and 5c
show this type in the core and FMI.

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 Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci

Fig. 6 Results of interpretation of FMI electrical image log in the studied well and results of interpretation of fractures marked with blue tadpole
in column 6

4.1.2.3 Mineral-Filled Fractures These fractures are those are permeability barriers, but incomplete filling of a frac-
that have been filled by secondary or diagenetic mineral- ture in the form of either vuggy development or inter-
ization. The minerals that fill this type of fracture are often granular porosity can give some measurable increase in
quartz, carbonate and anhydrite. Usually, filled fractures permeability to the reservoir. These fractures, as mentioned

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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci
Fig. 7 Stereonet and rose diagram for all fractures in the Dalan–
Kangan Formations in the studied well. a Rose diagram of the
azimuth direction of the fracture sets. b Rose diagram related to the
above, appear as a white sinus on the FMI log. Figures 4d
and 5d show this type in the core and FMI.
4.1.2.4 Faulting Fault, by definition, is a fracture surface
or zone along which appreciable displacement has taken
place. Faults or shear fractures form a continuum, as regard
the magnitude of the fracture plane, which extends from
the microscopic to mega-structures which are hundreds, or
even thousands, of kilometres long. The term fault is used
for shear fractures or zones that extend over distances of
metres or larger. Fractures at the scale of centimetres or
less are called shear fractures, and shear fractures at the
scale of a millimetre or less are micro-faults that may be
visible only under a microscope (Gudmundsson 2011).
Throughout the cored section of studied well, major faults
are absent, but there are a few small-scale faults with only a
strike direction of the fracture sets. c Diagram related to the amount
and direction of dip of the fracture sets. d Upper-hemisphere pole
projection for all fracture
few millimetres displacements. The observed faults are
usually sub-vertical with a dipping angle about 60° to 90°.
These minor faults, however, could be identified as Normal
or Thrust Faults, according to their relative displacements.
Moreover, in a few cases, there are a few evidence of slight
striation that may be implied on small-scale shear dis-
placements which have been categorized as Possible Fault.
Figure 7 shows some examples of faults. Figures 4e and 5e
show the faults observed in the core and the FMI log.
4.2 Fracture Analysis Using FMI Image Log
After interpreting the FMI image log, various sedimentary
and structural Features such as bedding, laminate, and
breakout were identified in the studied well. According to
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 Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci

DISCONTINUOUS_OPEN_FRAC
Closed Fracture

CONTINUOUS_OPEN_FRAC
Continuous Open Fracture
Discontinuous Open Fracture

ZONATION

CLOSED_FRAC

FRAC_WIDTH
IMAGE_STATIC
ECGR_EDTC DIP
DEPTH 0 GAPI 100 DEGREES
METRES

1 : 1000 0 127

0 90

Fig. 8 Fracture analysis result, from left: zonation interval, depth column, gamma ray log, image static, dip azimuth of fracture types, closed
fracture density, continuous open fracture density, discontinuous open fracture density, fracture aperture

the purpose of this study, only the characteristics of the
identified fractures were investigated (Fig. 6).
4.2.1 Classification of Fractures
Based on the results of interpreting the FMI log, 120 open
fractures and 20 closed fractures were identified in the
studied well. Open fractures based on the sinusoidal effect
on the FMI log, continuous or not, into two categories:
Discontinuous open fractures and continuous open frac-
tures are divided. Only 1 case of continuous open fracture
was observed in this well and the other 119 fractures were
of discontinuous open fractures type (Fig. 7).
4.2.2 Fracture Strike/Dip
In the studied well, most of the fractures have a slope in the
range of 50 to 80 degrees. Among the open fractures,
continuous open fracture has dip of 60 and azimuth of
N74W degree. Discontinuous open fractures to have dip
and azimuth in difference directions but them more to have
dip of 54 and azimuth of N85E degree in 20 closed frac-
tures Identified, Dip and azimuth of this fractures divided
into two group. First group to have dip of 51 and azimuth
of N48E degree and second group to have dip of 63 and
azimuth of S84W degree.
4.2.3 Fracture Aperture
The aperture of open fractures is associated directly with
the fluid flow. In this well aperture of open fracture varies
between 0.008 and 0.94 mm. The mean of fracture aperture
in total continuous and discontinuous open fractures
0.27 mm. The highest amount of fracture aperture in the
depths 3016 m (K-2) and 3174 m, 3235 m (K-4) (Fig. 8).

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Iran J Sci Technol Trans Sci
4.2.4 Fracture Density
In the studied well, the highest fracture density is related to
the discontinuous open fracture type. Also, the highest
density related to this type of fracture was observed in the
K4 zone (Fig. 8).
5 Conclusions
In this study, the core and FMI Image log were used to
identify and analyse the types of fractures in the Dalan–
Kangan reservoir of one of the wells in the South Pars gas
field. A variety of natural and artificial fractures were seen
abundantly in both brain and FMI data. Most of the frac-
tures seen in the core were closed. Also, no major faults
were observed throughout the cored intervals, and only a
few minor faults of the normal type with displacement of a
few millimetres were observed. In the FMI electrical image
log data, the category of open fractures included 1 con-
tinuous open fracture with a slope of 60 degrees and azi-
muth N74W and 119 discontinuous open fractures with a
slope of 54 and azimuth N85E. The highest fracture density
was related to discontinuous open fractures in K4 zone.
The average aperture of these fractures was 0.27 mm. 20
closed fractures with two categories including 51 and 63
slope and azimuth N48E and S84W. The results of this
study can indicate a very good agreement of FMI data with
the core, which makes it possible to replace these imaging
logs in the wells without the core to interpret fractures.
Acknowledgements The authors consider it necessary to thank the
research department of Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz and the
research department of the National Iranian Drilling Company for
providing the necessary facilities and information for this research.
Author contributions AM contributed to conceptualization, method-
ology, software, formal analysis, and writing – original draft. IZ
contributed to software, validation, and writing- reviewing and edit-
ing. BS contributed to data curation, visualization, and investigation.
Funding The authors state that they did not receive any funding at the
time of writing.
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors of this article state that they have no
interest in competing.
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