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This page intentionally left blank
First published in the United Kingdom in 2014 by
C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers) Ltd.,
41 Great Russell Street, London, WC1B 3PL
© Paulo Fontes, Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda and the Contributors, 2014
All rights reserved.
Printed in the USA
Distributed in the United States, Canada and Latin America by
Oxford University Press, 198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016,
United States of America.
The right of Paulo Fontes, Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda
and the Contributors to be identified as the authors of this
publication is asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act, 1988.
A Cataloguing-in-Publication data record for this book is available
from the British Library.
978-1-84904-417-2 paperback
This book is printed using paper from registered sustainable
and managed sources.
www.hurstpublishers.com
In memoriam of Carlos Eduardo Sarmento
 THE NEW BRAZIL
King ’s Brazil Institute Series
Editors: Michael Hall and Anthony Pereira

In recent decades, Brazil has become a more economically and politically stable country.
As its wealth has increased, and it has become the sixth largest economy in the world,
it has awakened the interest of outsiders. But Brazil is still not well understood. Its
enviable image is one of a laid-back mixture of natural beauty—beaches, mighty rivers,
rain forests, vast plains—and exuberant multiracial humanity, expressing itself in football,
music, Carnival, and sex. This image attracts and seduces, but it also misleads. Brazil is
more complicated than that.

This series is dedicated to exploring the Brazil behind the superficial images that
dominate coverage of the country from the outside. It focuses on some of the country’s
major twenty-first century challenges. Fifty years ago, Brazil was an agrarian country,
dominated by plantation agriculture, in which 70 per cent of the population lived in the
countryside. Since then it has industrialised and urbanised. Large-scale internal
migration and demographic growth, the latter pushing the population to over 200 million,
have reshaped the country. The country has endured a military dictatorship, seen mass
movements demanding a variety of civil, political, and economic rights, and undergone
complicated and contested constitutional, legal, and political reforms. Many of its
contemporary challenges stem from its explosive growth, and the struggle to adapt
economic, social, and political institutions to the new realities of the country. Brazil in the
twenty-first century is a country of contradictions, conflict, change, and growing global
influence.
This series seeks to shed light on some of the most important contemporary issues in
Brazil, and especially those that have played a big part in the recent transformation of the
country. It will highlight Brazil’s history, politics, and society, and examine conflicts that
have made the country what it is today. One objective of the series is to bring some of the
best recent Brazilian scholarship to an English-speaking public. Brazilian universities
have grown and professionalised in recent years, without a corresponding increase in
works in English by Brazilian scholars.
 Contents

Acknowledgements ix
About the Authors xi
Preface Richard Giulianotti xiii

The Beautiful Game in the ‘Country of Football’: An Introduction

Paulo Fontes and Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda 1
1. The Early Days of Football in Brazil: British Influence
and Factory Clubs in São Paulo
Fatima Martin Rodrigues Ferreira Antunes 17
2. Malandros, ‘Honourable Workers’ and the Professionalisation
of Brazilian Football, 1930–1950 Gregory E. Jackson 41
3. Football in the Rio Grande Do Sul Coal Mines
Marta Cioccari 67
4. Futebol De Várzea and the Working Class: Amateur Football
Clubs in São Paulo, 1940s–1960s Paulo Fontes 87
5. The ‘People’s Joy’ Vanishes: Meditations on the Death of
Garrincha José Sergio Leite Lopes 103
6. Football as a Profession: Origins, Social Mobility and the
World of Work of Brazilian Footballers, 1950s–1980s
Clément Astruc 129
7. Dictatorship, Re-Democratisation and Brazilian Football in
the 1970s and 1980s José Paulo Florenzano 147

vii
 CONTENTS
8. Public Power, the Nation and Stadium Policy in Brazil:
The Construction and Reconstruction of the Maracanã Stadium
for the World Cups of 1950 and 2014
Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda 167
9. A World Cup for Whom? The Impact of the 2014 World Cup
on Brazilian Football Stadiums and Cultures
Christopher Gaffney 187

Notes 207
Bibliography 241
Index 257

viii
 Acknowledgements

We would like to express our great appreciation to Professors Michael

Hall and Anthony Pereira for their support and encouragement directed
to the publication of this book.
The generosity and professionalism of the Museu do Futebol in São
Paulo—especially of the Content Director Daniela Alfonsi—was funda-
mental to the identification of the illustrations.
Finally, we want to give our special thanks to Oliver Marshall, whose
herculean, patient and elegant work of revision of the translations,
accompanied by accurate and insightful comments, were decisive for the
publication of this work in such a short space of time.

ix
This page intentionally left blank
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Fatima Martin Rodrigues Ferreira Antunes is a sociologist with a PhD

from the Universidade de São Paulo (University of São Paulo/USP). Her
thesis was a pioneering study on football factory clubs in the early twen-
tieth century. She is currently a researcher at the Departamento do
Patrimônio Histórico da Secretaria Municipal de Cultura de São Paulo
(Department of Historic Heritage at the Municipal Office of Culture of
São Paulo).
Clément Astruc is a French historian with a masters degree from the
École Normale Supérieure in Lyon. In 2012 and 2013 he received a
scholarship from the Embassy of France in Brazil for research into the
development of professional Brazilian football.
Marta Cioccari is an anthropologist with a PhD from Museu Nacional
(National Museum), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ).
She studied rural and urban workers from the south of Brazil. As an
ethnographer, she is interested in the formation of working class values,
such as honour and reputation. She has also extensively studied the
military regime in Brazil, particularly social memory, biographies and
trajectories.
José Paulo Florenzano is an anthropologist with a PhD from Pontifícia
Universidade Católica de São Paulo (Pontifical Catholic University/
PUC-SP). He is a professor and researcher in the Social Science Depart-
ment at the same institution. He is interested primarily in professional
football during the military regime in Brazil (1964–1984).

xi
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Paulo Fontes is an associate professor at the Fundação Getúlio Vargas
(CPDOC/FGV) and a researcher for the Brazilian Scientific Research
Council (CNPq). A historian of Brazilian labour and working-class
culture in São Paulo after World War II, Fontes has studied internal
migration from the north-east to São Paulo, the links between rural and
urban workers, the role of place and communities in the formation of
the working classes, and the cultural aspects of popular organisation and
politics.
Christopher Gaffney is a geographer with a PhD from the University
of Texas. He has experience in urban planning with an emphasis on
sporting ‘mega-events’, and the role of football stadiums. He has
received a Fulbright scholarship in order to pursue his research in Rio
de Janeiro and has been a visiting professor at Universidade Federal
Fluminense (Fluminense Federal University/UFF) since 2011.
Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda is an associate professor at the School
of Social Sciences of the Fundação Getúlio Vargas and a researcher at the
Center for Research and Documentation of Brazilian Contemporary
History (CPDOC/FGV). His main topics of research include literary
history and modernism, social thought and intellectuals in Brazil, the
social history of football and organised soccer supporting groups.
Gregory E. Jackson received his PhD in Latin American History from
Stony Brook University, with a special focus on the relationships
between sport and social categories such as race, ethnicity, gender and
national identity in modern Brazil. He is currently a lecturer at Western
Connecticut State University.
José Sergio Leite Lopes is a professor of social anthropology at the
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (Federal University of Rio de
Janeiro/UFRJ). He has been investigating working class culture for more
than thirty years, including sports in Brazil, and is the author of many
articles and books on the topic.

xii
 Preface

Richard Giulianotti

In world football, Brazil is a nation that fascinates the global audience

like no other. Here is a huge society that has seized upon football, mak-
ing the game its own through a mixture of improvisation, dedication
and celebration. In turn, much of the world seems to have been turned
into ‘football Brazilians’ in appreciation of the perceived Brazilian style
of play. Yet only rarely do international audiences gain a deeper insight
or grasp of the Brazilian game that goes beyond the global stereotype of
Brazil as a footballing nation par excellence.
This book—beautifully crafted by the editors, Paulo Fontes and
Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda—is one of those rarities, offering an out-
standing advancement to our wider knowledge and understanding of
Brazilian football. The book ‘raises the game’, in large part by focusing on
the historical, political and public dynamics of football in Brazil, both at
the societal and the everyday levels. The contributors are leading scholars
drawn from an impressive range of disciplines, notably anthropology,
geography, history and sociology. The book itself is structured in broadly
chronological fashion, so that we gain rich insights into the most signifi-
cant phases in Brazilian football, and the close intersections between
football, politics and society.

xiii
 PREFACE
The book begins by considering the social genesis of Brazilian football,
and the subsequent rapid and popular spread of the game. Charles Miller,
a Scottish-Brazilian, is widely regarded as the founder of the Brazilian
game, having returned from an education in England with a ball and
football boots to organise the first football matches in São Paulo in 1895.
As Fatima Martin Rodrigues Ferreira Antunes explains in the opening
chapter, the game rapidly took off, particularly among Anglophone elites
and then among the masses. Tours by the English amateur team, Corin-
thian FC, accelerated football’s popularity, and of course came to inspire
the name of one of São Paulo’s great teams. More broadly, the popularisa-
tion of football was most significant among the working classes in Brazil’s
industrial towns, cities, factories and other workplaces.
Football was rapidly institutionalised in Brazilian towns and cities in
the early twentieth century with the focus on civic and regional tourna-
ments that were contested by leading clubs. The 1930s through to the
1950s was a crucial period for the game’s development—the era of
Getúlio Vargas’s presidency defined by a political mix of authoritarian-
ism, populism and nation building. As the chapter by Gregory E. Jack-
son details, professionalism came into Brazilian football in 1933 but did
relatively little to change the ‘master-slave’ relationships that had other-
wise characterised so much of Brazilian society, and which remained
largely intact in the relations between players (particularly the vast
majority drawn from the foot of the class and race hierarchies) and the
cartolas who controlled the clubs and wider sports system, and held close
ties with the press and political leaders. At the same time, Vargas utilised
football as a tool for promoting national identity and integration, to
pursue the production of ‘eugenically fit and culturally orthodox citi-
zens’. As Jackson points out, this broader context provides the basis for
understanding the popular and political significance of the Mara-
canazo—the nation’s epic, and in many ways defining, football failure,
in which the Brazilian national team lost the final of the 1950 World
Cup to Uruguay in Rio’s Maracanã stadium before an estimated 200,000
shell-shocked spectators.
It is at the everyday or grassroots level that we come to grasp the
importance of football, or indeed any cultural form, within different
societies. In the case of Brazilian football, the amateur or lower-level
game has a rich and diverse history in both major urban centres and
smaller towns. The chapter by Marta Cioccari reveals how football is a
colourful and dynamic cultural field in which workers (in this case, coal

xiv
 PREFACE
miners) are able to express and to explore themes of identity and belong-
ing, solidarity and differentiation, and physical skill and creativity. Lead-
ing players in industrial towns may acquire local celebrity status,
drawing comparisons, in both positive and negative ways, with the play-
ing skills and turbulent lives of famous professional players. In cities
such as São Paulo, amateur football has also introduced many millions
of young players to the game. The chapter by Paulo Fontes further dem-
onstrates how amateur football clubs were often established in informal
ways by groups of working-class men, and these new organisations pro-
vided a social, cultural and political sphere that was at least partially
separated from leisure activities otherwise controlled by employers.
At the elite level, Brazil is perhaps best renowned for a remarkable
lineage of truly outstanding world-class players, including Leônidas,
Zizinho, Didi, Garrincha, Nilton Santos, Pelé, Rivelino, Zico, Ronaldo,
Ronaldhino, and many others. Yet perhaps the most popular and emble-
matic of these players is Garrincha, who is lesser known outside Brazil
than many others, but whose death in 1983 prompted a remarkable
national response. The paper by José Sergio Leite Lopes sets out in very
vivid detail the events surrounding Garrincha’s death and funeral,
explaining the player’s deeper social significance, particularly as a player
drawn from an industrial-worker background and who slid tragically
into alcoholism and poverty. Most notably, as a player, Garrincha had
an exceptional style that, as Leite Lopes most perceptively reveals, was
shaped by his unusual physiology (being born with bowed legs), remark-
able technical virtuosity, playfulness (seeming to participate only for
fun), and the fact that he fundamentally redefined the role of the out-
side-right within the team. Such qualities underpinned his adulation as
a footballing genius and folk hero.
In broader terms, while most professional players in Brazil in the
second half of the twentieth century were unable to match Garrincha’s
skills and popularity, they tended to have the same demographic char-
acteristics, being drawn particularly from the working and lower-middle
classes, and from ‘mixed-race’ or black backgrounds. As one would
expect to find, football offered these players an obvious vehicle for social
mobility, however fleeting, as the chapter by Clément Astruc explains.
As a collective force in regard to labour relations, Brazilian football play-
ers were little different to those in other countries and continents: rela-
tively fragmented, and unable to mobilise themselves in political terms,
in part due to their competing interests.

xv
 PREFACE
In international terms, Brazil enjoyed years of success from the late
1950s to 1970, winning three World Cup finals and establishing a
global aesthetic in terms of playing style before worldwide television
audiences. Conversely, the 1970s and 1980s, when little international
success was had, might appear as years of austerity. Yet in this period we
find Brazil moving through some major social changes, particularly from
the military regime (1964–1985) to democratic government, and foot-
ball was not silent in these processes, as the article by José Paulo Flo-
renzano makes clear. The military regime had sought to shape football
and other sports according to its agenda, and to exploit for populist
purposes whatever successes Brazil may have enjoyed. By contrast, the
moves towards democratisation featured a marked contribution from
the footballing world, as demonstrated by the explicit criticism of the
military regime by the Atlético Mineiro player Reinaldo, and by the
emergence of the famous ‘Corinthians Democracy’ movement, led by
the players Sócrates, Wladimir, and Casagrande.
Brazilian football is also imbued with the stories and histories of its
stadiums. The Maracanã in Rio is, of course, the most famous example,
but other historic football venues include the Morumbi in São Paulo,
and the Mineirão in Belo Horizonte. Many of these stadiums had vast
capacities and relatively low and affordable admission prices for the
lower classes, enabling huge crowds to gather for fixtures. In such envi-
ronments, with the popular participation of tens of thousands, the
Carnival-esque culture of Brazilian football was able to emerge and to
play out at club and international level. These stadiums also provided
relatively safe spaces for expressions of popular resistance or opposition
to incumbent regimes.
The development of the Maracanã has gone through two major
phases, first in its construction for the 1950 World Cup finals, and then
its ‘redevelopment’ in advance of the 2014 tournament. As the chapter
by Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda details, these processes have been
deeply significant and contested within the public sphere.
The phase of redevelopment needs to be located within the wider
endeavour of powerful political and economic forces to ‘neo-liberalise’
Brazilian football and society. Such processes have also, of course, been
underway in other parts of South America and, for rather longer, in
Europe. The result is a concerted commodification of football, in which
there is a focus on the supporter as a ‘consumer’, and an attempt to

xvi
 PREFACE
reshape the football ‘experience’ in line with the lifestyle and spending
preferences of middle- and upper-class, typically white spectators. Thus
in Brazil, as the chapter by Christopher Gaffney indicates, we have wit-
nessed the establishing of all-seated stadiums with comparatively low
capacities but markedly higher admission prices, and an overall change
in the types of spectator who can attend. For some commentators, this
commercialisation and sanitisation of football stadiums—where the
atmosphere at major fixtures is more akin to a television variety show
than a mass public event—has clearly had a negative effect on the social
and cultural foundations of the game.
The emerging issues here for Brazilian football have been thrown
under the international spotlight in the build-up to the 2014 World
Cup finals. Certainly, the levels of public expenditure on sport-related
construction—the stadiums and infrastructure—are staggering, with the
likelihood that many facilities will be seriously under-utilised after the
tournament. At the same time, the 2013 Confederations Cup tourna-
ment in Brazil was an occasion for nationwide popular public protests
and rioting on a variety of issues, partly on rising living costs (notably
public transport fares), but also on the huge spending and details of
corruption surrounding the hosting of the 2014 World Cup finals.
Indeed, no other sporting mega-event has experienced this scale of
popular national criticism and opposition. And yet, aside from the nor-
mal anticipation prior to any tournament, the special global appeal of
the 2014 World Cup—and, we should note, a crucial attraction for
FIFA and its corporation partners—centres heavily on the extraordinary
grassroots culture of football in Brazil. The long-term danger of course
is that, as commodification and sanitisation take hold, Brazilian foot-
ball’s grassroots cultures will be destroyed, or given some kind of artifi-
cial ‘life’, such as through pre-match entertainment. Our grasp of these
crucial contemporary issues in football is dependent on a full grasp of
the historical context and detail. This collection of outstanding articles
takes us a long way towards providing us with that understanding.

Richard Giulianotti
Professor of Sociology, Loughborough University/Professor II,
Telemark University College, Norway
March 2014

xvii
This page intentionally left blank
 The Beautiful Game in the ‘Country of Football’
An Introduction

Paulo Fontes and Bernardo Buarque de Hollanda

In his occasional but recurring mentions of football, the historian Eric

Hobsbawm made famous the expression that the sport had become the
‘secular religion of the working class’ in the world of the twentieth cen-
tury. Its popularity is associated with a universal dialect or, to borrow an
expression from the Brazilian professor José Miguel Wisnik, with the
‘general idiom of a non-verbal language’.1 With an ability to share sym-
bols, practices and representations across the world, the phenomenon of
football has also become one of the most powerful and profitable busi-
nesses of our time. To use the words of Hobsbawm once again, the sport
bears ‘the essential conflict of globalisation’.
In a growing picture of the ‘globalisation of football’, as well as the
‘footballisation of the world’, Brazil continues to occupy a prominent
position on the international scene. Five times world champion, having
participated in all nineteen FIFA World Cup tournaments held
between 1930 and 2010, and host of the 2014 tournament, the coun-
try has long been seen as the source of many of the world’s most tal-

1
 THE COUNTRY OF FOOTBALL
ented players, including Leônidas and Domingos, Zizinho and Didi,
Garrincha and Pelé, Zico and Sócrates, and Romário and Ronaldo,
amongst many others.
Thus, Brazil has been internationally revered, sometimes rather ste-
reotypically, as the home of a unique, beautiful and inimitable style of
playing. As Eric Hobsbawm observed, ‘who, having seen the Brazilian
national football team in its heyday, can deny its claim to the status of
art?’2 The association between the sport and national identity is so strong
in the minds of many Brazilians that the term ‘the country of football’
has become Brazil’s own metaphor. It is likely that there is no higher
form of recognition of ‘Brazilianness’ on the streets of any city in the
world than the wearing of the shirt of the national team.
The striking link between the national imagined community and the
sport has, however, no consensus or linear trajectory. It has been articu-
lated historically with Brazil’s twentieth-century model of economic and
social development. It was a long process, riddled with social and politi-
cal, racial and cultural tensions, which has been reconfigured and
steadily updated through the narratives associated with the country. In
this sense, it is not a complete surprise that large-scale street protests
erupted in Brazil during the Confederations Cup in June and July 2013.
In the environs of stadiums that had been constructed for the 2014
World Cup, some of the strongest ever popular demonstrations against
a Brazilian government took place, with the protestors incensed by what
they considered the abusive and irresponsible spending for the mega-
sporting event that Brazil was preparing to host.
On the other hand, given the social range of football in Brazil, the
contrast between the popularity of the sport and the belated recognition
of its analytical worth by Brazilian social scientists and historians is strik-
ing. Such an initial framework, however, has been changing rapidly in
recent years. Thus, it can be said that football in Brazil is now very much
a legitimate object of analysis. If the pioneering studies in the 1980s by
the anthropologists Roberto DaMatta, José Sergio Leite Lopes and
Simoni Lahud Guedes aroused academic interest in football with their
interpretive insights,3 it was in the 1990s that the sport truly established
itself as a field of systematic research.
Studies on sport, especially football, have resulted in dissertations and
theses related to various disciplines ranging from physical education to
psychology, media communication to anthropology and history. Beyond

2
 INTRODUCTION
books and articles by individual authors, research groups have been
established in universities and other research institutes in many Brazilian
cities—in Porto Alegre, Curitiba, Belo Horizonte, Rio de Janeiro, São
Paulo and Recife—and collaborative work has led to the creation of
specialised journals.4
In order to familiarise readers with football studies in Brazil, we will
briefly identify its main strengths and major contemporary trends.
Dominating the agenda of most researchers is the relationship between
sport and modernity, or that of sport and nation.5 The objective is to
explain how, historically and sociologically, a leisure market in Brazil was
structured and what role modern sport played within it. In particular,
researchers have sought to understand the way in which football has
become one of the main vectors of condensing the idea of ‘Brazilianness’.
Among this subject’s preferred sub-themes there has been research on
the sport by state apparatus; the strategic and indispensable role of the
media in the popularisation of sports; and debates among intellectuals
and journalists about the significance of the practice of football.
The introduction in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century
of various sports as elite pastimes, and the popularisation of some—
most notably football—have been extensively explored by Brazilian
scholars in parallel with crucial historical experiences since Brazil’s trans-
formation from a monarchy to a republic in 1889 (such as the national-
ism and authoritarianism of the 1930s and the civil-military dictatorship
between 1964 and 1985)6—football’s historical significance forming
another major strand of research activity.
Another theme of great prominence amongst researchers—one which
is reflected in this book—is that of ethnic identity. Relating to the early
decades of football in Brazil, immigrant groups (such as Italians and
Portuguese in the early twentieth century) and their social networks
(including their recreational and sport clubs) have been examined.
Racial integration is also a theme of lively discussion, driven by the
participation in football of people of African-descent which rapidly
increased as the sport transformed in the 1920s and 1930s from an
amateur to a professional pursuit.7
Discussions on Brazilian ‘race’ and ‘culture’ are guided by the writings
of the journalist Mário Filho (1908–66) assembled in the form of the
book O negro no futebol brasileiro (Black People in Brazilian Football),
published in 1947.8 This work is of huge importance, not least because

3
 THE COUNTRY OF FOOTBALL
it includes a foreword by the sociologist Gilberto Freyre (1900–87) who
is well-known for his controversial studies on the historical origins of
race in Brazilian society and his views of racial elasticity.9 If Freyre is
reputed to have overcome the concept of race in favour of a culturalist
approach, learned during his years of study in the United States with the
anthropologist Franz Boas, his essay was accused of being an apology of
the ‘racial democracy’ in Brazil by the academics of the São Paulo uni-
versities, such as USP, in the 1950s and 1960s.
Aside from Brazilian-born authors, mention should be given to one
of the first sports specialists to address the introduction of football to the
country. In the early 1950s Anatol Rosenfeld (1912–73)—a German-
Jewish refugee who spent most of his life in Brazil as a writer and jour-
nalist—produced a significant contribution directly linking issues of
race and football in Brazil,10 and forming a precursor to academic stud-
ies.11 Rosenfeld’s essay ‘Football in Brazil’ provides an accurate overview
of the introduction of the sport to Brazil, with a clear and didactic peri-
odisation, going on to present an excellent panorama of the players’
practices and fans’ representations of the sport during the first half of the
twentieth century.
The specific stories of certain professional football clubs, such as
Bangu, Corinthians and Palmeiras, as well as the anthropological and
sociological analysis of the construction of ‘belonging’ to a club of
organised supporters, are growing and converging themes of research.12
The history of certain sporting institutions, the power structures that
govern football and how sport overlaps with the political history of the
country are topics of increasing exploration.13 Also among the emerging
areas of interest are the intersections between football, architecture and
urban history, demonstrating the vitality and scale of new visions and
new investigations.14
The intersection of the worlds of labour and football is a key field for
intellectual production on sport in Brazil. Historians and social scien-
tists have emphasised the close linkage of the genesis and development
of sports with nationalism, urbanisation and industrialisation. Particular
attention has been given to the processes of the formation of the work-
ing class since the nineteenth century, as well as their connections with
the adoption of modern British sports in the country.15
The Country of Football: Politics, Popular Culture and the Beautiful
Game in Brazil presents a significant part of this important and growing

4
 INTRODUCTION
area of Brazilian academic production. This collection of nine chapters
is made up of groundbreaking work by historians and social scientists,
mainly from Brazil, but also from the United States and France, who
examine, above all, the broad political significance of the sport in which
Brazil has long been a world leader. In a panoramic view, the authors
consider questions such as football’s relation with the workplace and
working-class culture, with the formation of Brazilian national identity,
with race relations, with political and social movements and with social
mobility. The articles range in time from the late nineteenth century,
when the British introduced a modern form of football to Brazil, to the
present day, when the ‘country of football’ has gained even more atten-
tion on the world stage as the host of the 2014 World Cup.
The first chapter of the book, written by Fatima Antunes, is a con-
tinuation of her work on football teams representing factories in the city
of São Paulo in the early twentieth century. Of all the exponents of the
sport in Brazil (church schools, leisure clubs and foreign-owned facto-
ries), Antunes focuses on factories as a way of understanding the success
of football’s spread in the country.
The wider context of these early days of sporting activity in the urban
environment, especially in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, brings to the
fore iconic figures drawn from the elite of these cities, most notably the
young Anglo-Brazilians Charles Miller and Oscar Cox. Antunes also
emphasises the roles in the proliferation of the sport of British engineers,
who oversaw the development of railway lines deep into the interior of
the country; of traveling technicians, who passed through harbour cities
such as Santos; and of Brazilian students, who keenly imitated European
fashions and readily adopted their latest novelties and tastes.
After this contextualisation, Antunes turns to an internal analysis of
football in the industrial setting. The relationship between employers
and employees becomes the focus of the chapter, mediated by the advent
and success of this new game. Such practice soon showed itself to be
effective in building collective identities and in the creation of negotia-
tion spaces in the factory. Football imposed itself in industry and
allowed for the blurring of boundaries, well-marked in the beginning,
between work, leisure and free time in the urban order that was then
flourishing in Brazil. Antunes explores individual cases and describes the
trajectory of British and Canadian companies in São Paulo, a state
marked in the First Republic (1889–1930) by progressive political lead-

5
 THE COUNTRY OF FOOTBALL
ership and extraordinary economic power. Antunes explores the ideo-
logical debates about the meanings of football within factories, seen
either as a means of training workers or as a form of amusement for the
masses.
Finally, before its move towards professionalism in the 1920s and
1930s, football had some bearing on the outbreak of general strikes in
Brazil in the late 1910s, foregrounding Antunes’s analysis of football and
political ideology. The sport was the subject of heated discussions between
communists and anarchists. The polarisation between these two ideo-
logical positions of the international Left would bring into opposition
those who defended the potential benefits of athletic activity and those
who identified it as a barrier to the class-consciousness of the workers.
The following chapter, by the historian Gregory E. Jackson, continues
the book’s broad chronological flow, focussing on the transition of
Brazilian football to a phase of national popularity in the midst of the
Getúlio Vargas government (1930–45). In part thanks to the advent of
radio, a centralised national imagination emerged in the 1930s which
progressively incorporated the football phenomenon. The state’s need
for moral framing grew as this centralisation occurred and vertical power
structures were imposed in the so-called ‘Vargas era’—of which there
were three main periods: the revolutionary (1930–4), the constitutional
(1934–7) and the dictatorial (1937–45).16
While Antunes accentuates the class elements present in the identity
construction of football, Jackson emphasises the ethnic and racial
dimensions. These elements had been the result of the emergence of
black and mestiço players in the Brazilian national team and in the major
clubs of Rio de Janeiro (then the capital of the Republic). To this end,
Jackson makes use of a number of actors, institutions and events that
emerged between 1932 and 1942. In this time frame, internal and exter-
nal factors which contributed to the turn to professionalism of top-level
football in the 1930s are analysed on a domestic and international scale.
Jackson goes back to 1923, when Vasco da Gama, a football club
established by members of Rio de Janeiro’s Portuguese community, won
the state championship with a team of players from working class back-
grounds. Based on the team’s success, the clubs of Rio de Janeiro’s work-
ing class (Vasco da Gama, Bangu and São Cristóvão) began to threaten
and oppose both the amateur teams of the wealthy Zona Sul (Flamengo,
Fluminense and Botafogo) and the long-established clubs of the Zona
Norte (including América and Andaraí).

6
 INTRODUCTION
Jackson follows the struggle for the recognition of football as a legiti-
mate profession, a classification that would introduce contracts and
wages. The clash was fought over and argued about by various sectors of
the sports media, one of the main voices in favour of professionalism
being the Jornal dos Sports (a periodical owned by Mário Filho) whose
commercial interest led it to advocate the transformation of a sport that
still maintained many elite features in a popular mass spectacle. In 1933,
football’s professionalism was for the first time officially recognised.
Opposition, however, continued from amateur proponents until 1937,
when ‘pacification’ was finally reached. Jackson explains how sports lead-
ers, politicians, players, fans, club members and journalists participated
in the confrontations between those favouring the original amateur
spirit of the game and those advocating its new professional ethos.
On the international scene, Jackson illustrates how South American
national teams entering Olympic football in 1924 and the newly inau-
gurated FIFA World Cup in 1930 enhanced nationalist rhetoric.
Professionalism presented itself as the best way to obtain positive results
in international tournaments. The rise of South America as a footballing
powerhouse was confirmed by the major international tournaments that
were won by Uruguay—the Olympic tournament in 1924 and 1928
and the World Cup in 1930. Uruguay’s new dominance and the South
American style of play showcased in international tournaments aroused
the interest of European teams, in particular in Spain and Italy. Players
from South America, some of them immigrants, were hired to play for
European clubs or were even selected to represent European national
teams at the 1934 and 1938 World Cup tournaments.
Based on his archival research and understanding of the wider litera-
ture of football, Jackson offers examples of tours by the Rio de Janeiro
clubs to the so-called ‘Old World’, and describes the emergence of the
first black Brazilian footballing idols, such as Fausto dos Santos. This
description is extended to the changing representations and self-repre-
sentations of Brazil, based on the shift in the meanings of race and cul-
ture, of which the work of the sociologist Gilberto Freyre is the most
emphatic example. In the case of football, this change is represented by
the formation of a multi-ethnic and inter-regional national team, able
to overcome the racist discourse that had previously prevailed and to
transcend regional disputes between Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo for
the control of Brazil’s nationally recognised sports entities and leagues.

7
 THE COUNTRY OF FOOTBALL
Chapter Three, by Marta Cioccari, deviates from the panoramic peri-
odisation of Brazil’s footballing history and instead focuses on anthro-
pological observations. She explores the history of football players of
clubs linked to Minas do Leão, a mining community in Rio Grande do
Sul’s coalfield region of Baixo Jacuí.
Inspired by ethnographers such as Christian Bromberger and by soci-
ologists like Norbert Elias, Cioccari considers the way in which the
workers’ footballing experience is articulated by the construction of
masculinities and social identities. In her doctoral thesis, Cioccari made
comparisons with the case of the coal mines of Creutzwald in France; in
this chapter she reinforces the key role of football in the construction of
‘small honour’, a symbolic and social value among the miners, which
was a complementary extension of the ‘great honour’ associated with
their professional characters.
This highly localised study of the amateur footballing tradition in a
community in southern Brazil is of great value for offering readers a
specific case of an everyday reality that is usually overlooked in the con-
ventional historiography of Brazilian football. Through interviews with
players, ex-players and founders of the provincial clubs, Cioccari reveals
the discourses relating to footballing skills and techniques, and the cases
of valour and prestige that they considered memorable. Cioccari traces
the proliferation of dozens of small street clubs in Minas do Leão, and
some notable cases among the player-workers, whose stories are linked
both to the mining companies that employed them and to political,
urban and wider economic dynamics. Included are tales of extraordinary
players who rose from street football to the amateur teams, managed to
turn professional, and ended up at important clubs such as Internacional
in Porto Alegre and Corinthians in São Paulo.
The competitions between these local clubs extended the web of local
inter-relationships. These came to include not only the immediate neigh-
bourhoods and families of the players, but also other communities near
Minas do Leão (such Arroio dos Ratos, Charqueada and Butiá) that the
town’s two top teams confronted in competition. The internal rivalry of
Minas do Leão’s two workers’ teams—Atlético Mineiro and Olaria (the
former’s reputation ‘elite’, the latter’s ‘popular’)—is indicative of the way
that unions and socio-spatial contrasts in Minas do Leão developed.
Chapter Four, by the historian Paulo Fontes, extends the preceding
chapter’s discussion on amateur street football. The text focuses on the

8
 INTRODUCTION
period between the mid-1940s and the mid-1960s, the decades of so-
called ‘national developmentalism’ and the age of industrialisation
through import substitution. The greatest economic challenge that Brazil
faced at this time was overcoming its delays relative to developed coun-
tries in restructuring according to the dependent and peripheral capitalist
agenda. Industrialisation and urbanisation were accelerated by the state,
the main actor responsible for the implementation of policies to increase
the production of consumer goods and services, especially in the big
cities. To this was added the institutionalisation of democracy, which
lasted, albeit in an unstable and turbulent manner, from 1945 to 1964.
The geographic centre of the chapter is the city of São Paulo, a
metropolis of vast and seemingly ever-shifting proportions. As Fontes
points out, during this period the city’s population grew rapidly, wit-
nessing an extraordinary migratory flow, especially of people from the
northeast of Brazil. Such dramatic urban change had direct effects on
the character of leisure pursuits, free time and football among the work-
ing classes. Fontes places in a historical context the increasing restric-
tions on amateur football that were a consequence of land speculation
and the confiscation of vacant spaces by the state and the booming
private sector; the várzeas—considered the mythical public spaces in the
development of ‘authentic’ Brazilian football, and the birthplace of
many a great footballer—were an example of these spaces.
Fontes also articulates how amateur football was connected, through
the appropriation and corporate recruitment of workers of northeastern
origin who participated in amateur championships, to an expansion of
working-class forms of associations and popular organisations, and the
economic dynamics of industrial capitalism. Cases of this included
important industrial organisations such as SESI (Industry Social
Service) which from 1947 promoted the Workers’ Sports Games (which
were sponsored by specialised sports newspapers that extensively cov-
ered the event).
The relationship between employers and employees in the 1940s and
1950s encouraged competitions tied to the affiliation of certain profes-
sional groups, but Fontes also notes the involvement of labour unions,
the Communist Party of Brazil (PCB) and various local forces in recog-
nising football’s strong appeal to the working classes. Legalised for a
short period of time in the Cold War era, the PCB saw the promotion
of neighbourhood games and amateur championships as something

9
 THE COUNTRY OF FOOTBALL
positive. The games used group identities and provided the PCB with a
means to approach the urban workers of São Paulo without invoking
historical prejudices against football still prevalent amongst many
intellectuals.
Chapter Five constitutes a seminal essay by José Sergio Leite Lopes,
professor of social anthropology at the National Museum of Rio de
Janeiro. The text is devoted to Garrincha (1933–83), one of Brazil’s
great footballing idols. Originally published in French in 1989, the essay
has become a key reference for the study of football in Brazil. ‘The
“people’s joy” vanishes’ begins with an emotional ethnographic observa-
tion of the melancholic death of Garrincha after a long and tortuous
period of alcohol abuse and a series of subsequent hospitalisations.
Through the press, the author follows what he suggestively defines as ‘a
media-age chanson de geste’.
Leite Lopes then focuses on the reconstitution of the history of
Garrincha with a description of his meteoric career in football.
Garrincha’s success endured for just ten years (1953–63) before he
plunged into a state of oblivion, from which he only emerged in 1983
when his death becomes a major public event. By illustrating the ambiv-
alence of common people to individual stars in Brazil, Leite Lopes
emphasises the intrinsic oscillation of the careers of football players.
Transformed into national sporting heroes, they all too commonly fall
suddenly into anonymity, with the loss of the mythical aura that once
surrounded them. Thus, argues the author, the idolatry directed towards
Garrincha—who twice starred for Brazil in World Cups—depended on
newspaper stories which attributed to him stereotypical characteristics
of purity and naivety, the heritage of a man of nature, a descendant of
Indians or a carefree ‘bird hunter’ of the Brazilian rural hinterland.
Leite Lopes’s argument demonstrates, however, that Garrincha was a
paradigmatic athlete from the world of textile factories, a sector of fun-
damental importance in Brazil’s initial industrialisation process of the
late nineteenth to the mid-twentieth century. With this mythical dis-
course revised, Garrincha can instead be considered as a typical repre-
sentative of the ‘player-worker’, alongside the likes of stars such as
Domingos and Didi.
In chapter six, Clément Astruc explores football as a specific profes-
sion, drawing on the testimony of players who were selected to represent
Brazil at World Cup tournaments from the 1950s to the 1980s.

10
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 After this we begin the second stasis in tone v, in which at the end
of a verse we say,
Have mercy upon thy servant.
The choir beginneth, Thy commandments....
Have mercy upon thy servant.
And again the same choir, Thy hands have made me....
After the iind stasis, deacon, Again and again.... Page 142.
And again they begin the third stasis in tone iii.
Thy name, alleluia.
And again the same choir singeth,
Look upon me, and have mercy upon me....
After the iiird stasis, and after the troparia of the undefiled, deacon,
Again and again.... Page 142.
Then troparia, tone v.
Our Saviour rest thy servant with the just, and place him in thy
courts, as it is written, as being good, despising his iniquities, both
willing ones and those unwilling, and all those done in knowledge
and in ignorance, O lover of mankind.
Glory. Both now.
Christ God, who from the Virgin, shinest to the world, who hast
through her made manifest the sons of light, have mercy thou on us.
Then graduals, tone vi.
Unto heaven have I lifted up mine eyes, unto thee, O Word; have
compassion upon me, that I may live to thee.
Have mercy upon us who have been set at nought, appointing us,
O Word, to be vessels acceptable unto thee.
Glory.
To the Holy Ghost belongs every all-saving cause: on whomsoever
he, through worthiness, doth breathe, he quickly taketh him from
earthly things, gives wings, exalteth and appoints his place on high.
Both now, the same.
Then prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is the way wherein thou goest to-day, O soul, because a
place of rest hath been prepared for thee.
Verse. Return O my soul, unto thy rest, for the Lord hath wrought a
good thing for thee.
The message of the holy apostle Paul to the Thessalonians,
section cclxx.
Brethren, I would not have you to be ignorant.... ending, be ever
with the Lord.[35]
Priest. Peace to thee.
Reader. And to thy spirit.
Reader. A psalm of David. Alleluia, tone viii.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Deacon. Wisdom, standing, let us hear the holy gospel.
Priest. The reading of the holy gospel from John, section xvi.
The Lord said unto the Jews that came unto him, Verily, verily, I
say.... ending, the Father which hath sent me.[36]
Then the deacon. Let us pray to the Lord.
Choir. Lord, have mercy.
And the priest the prayer.
Master, Lord our God, who only hast immortality, who dwellest in
unapproachable light, who killest and makest alive, who wentest
down into hades and didst arise therefrom; thou didst in wisdom
create man, and didst turn him again to earth, exacting payment of
his spiritual debt. Thee we beseech, Accept the soul of thy servant,
and rest him in the bosom of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob; and
give unto him the crown of thy righteousness, the portion of the
saved, in the glory of thine elect; that in whatsoever he hath laboured
in this world for thy name’s sake, he may receive a plenteous reward
in the habitations of thy saints; through the grace, and compassions,
and love to man of thine only-begotten Son, our Lord Jesus Christ.
Amen.
Kathisma, tone ii.
To-day I from my kinsfolk sever’d am, and unto thee betake
myself, thou only sinless one: O rest me in the tabernacles of the just
with thine elect.
Then we say psalm xxii.
The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm.
Then the present troparion, tone ii.
Since to the same abiding-place we all are urg’d, and under the
same stone shall come, and in a little time in self same dust shall be,
let us ask Christ for rest for him removed hence. For such our life is,
brethren, this on earth, a toy: that which is not it abides, and that that
doth abide it perisheth. We are a dream that stayeth not, a breath
that is not held, a flight of passing birds, a ship upon a trackless sea.
Then let us cry to the immortal King, O Lord, vouchsafe to him thine
endless blessedness.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Verse. To thee is due a song, O God, in Sion.
The epistle to the Romans, section lxxxix.
Brethren, as by one man sin.... ending, Jesus Christ our Lord.[37]
Alleluia, tone vi.
Verse. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
 The gospel from John, section xv.
The Lord saith unto the Jews that came unto him, My Father
worketh.... ending, but is passed from death unto life.[38]
Then the deacon. Let us pray to the Lord.
And the priest.
We give thanks unto thee, O Lord our God, for thine alone it is to
have immortal life, and inaccessible glory, and unspeakable love to
man, and an uninheritable kingdom, and there is no respect of
persons with thee; for thou hast appointed unto all men a common
limit of life, when life hath been fulfilled. Therefore we beseech thee,
O Lord, Rest thy servant, and our fellow minister, name, who hath
fallen asleep in hope of the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom
of Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob. And as on earth thou hast
appointed him a minister of thy church, so also declare him at thy
heavenly altar, O Lord; and like as thou hast adorned him with
spiritual honour among men, so accept him uncondemned in angelic
glory. Thou thyself hast glorified his life on earth, and do thou thyself
appoint the outgoing of his life to be the ingoing to thy holy righteous
ones; and number his soul among all them that from ages have been
acceptable unto thee.
For thou art the resurrection and the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, who hath fallen asleep, O Christ our God, and to thee
we ascribe glory, with thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most
holy, and good, and life-creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of
ages. Amen.
Antiphon ii.
Were not the Lord with us, we none could have withstood the foe’s
attack; for they that overcome are thence lift up.
As a small bird be not my soul caught in their teeth, O Word: woe
unto me! how from the foe shall I be freed, who am a lover of sin.
Glory.
Through the Holy Ghost divinity comes to all, goodwill and
understanding, peace and blessing; for he is like-effective with the
Father and the Word.
Both now, the same.
The earth is the Lord’s, and the fulness thereof.[39]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating alleluia to every verse of the rest of the
psalm. Glory, alleluia. Both now, alleluia.
Troparion, tone ii.
In faith, and hope, and love, and meekness, and in chastity, and in
the priestly dignity thou piously hast liv’d, thou aye remember’d one.
Therefore the eternal God, whom thou hast served, in a bright and
pleasant place, where rest the just, thy soul hath plac’d; and, at the
judgment-seat of Christ, thou shalt forgiveness gain, and mercy
great.
Kathisma, tone v.
Thou knowest, O our God, that we were born in sin. Therefore we
thee beseech, Rest him who is remov’d from us, o’erlooking, as the
good one, the iniquities, which he, as mortal man, hath done in life,
through the God-bearing one’s entreaties, thou sole lover of
mankind.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Verse. His remembrance is to generation and generation.
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clviii.
Brethren, I declare unto you.... ending, so ye believed.[40]
Alleluia. Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O
Lord.
The gospel from John, section xxi.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the
bread.... ending, at the last day.[41]
Then the deacon. Let us pray to the Lord.
 And the priest this prayer.
O Lord of hosts, who art the joy of the afflicted, the consolation of
mourners, and the aid of all them that are faint-hearted; do thou in
thy tenderness console them that are constrained with grief for him
that hath fallen asleep, and heal every distress that lieth in their
hearts, and rest thy servant, name, who hath fallen asleep in hope of
the resurrection of eternal life, in the bosom of Abraham.
For thou art the resurrection, the life, and the repose of thy
servant, name, O Christ our God, and to thee we ascribe glory, with
thine unbeginning Father, and with thy most holy, and good, and life-
creating Spirit, now and ever, and to ages of ages. Amen.
Antiphon iii.
They that trust in the Lord are terrible to enemies, and wonderful
to all; for they look on high.
Let not the inheritance of the righteous, having thee, O Saviour, as
a helper, stretch forth their hands unto transgression.
Glory.
Of the Holy Ghost is the might in all things: him the hosts above
worship, and everything that hath breath below.
Both now, the same.
How amiable are thy tabernacles, O Lord of hosts....[42]
Alleluia, thrice, repeating also in order the rest of the Psalm.
Then troparion, tone vi.
O my beloved brethren, do ye forget me not, when ye sing unto
the Lord; but remember ye the brotherhood, and beseech ye God
that the Lord may rest me with the just.
Troparion, tone vi.
On me death suddenly hath come, and parted me to day from that
which was mine own; but me, translating, do thou rest, O Christ, in
places of refreshment.
 Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon us; for, destitute of
all defence, we sinners offer unto thee, as Master, this prayer, Have
mercy upon us.
Glory.
O Lord, have mercy upon us; for we have put our trust in thee. Be
not exceedingly wroth against us, neither remember our
transgressions; but, as being loving-kind, look now upon us, and
deliver us from our enemies; for thou art our God, and we are thy
people, we are all the work of thy hand, and we call upon thy name.
Both now. Theotokion.
Open unto us the gates of loving-kindness, O blessed God-
bearing one, that we perish not who put our trust in thee, but through
thee may we be delivered from calamities; for thou art the salvation
of the christian race.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
His soul shall dwell in good things.
Verse. Unto thee, O Lord, have I cried....
The epistle to the Corinthians, section clx.
Brethren, Christ is risen ... ending, God may be all in all.[43]
Alleluia.
Blessed is the man that feareth the Lord.
Verse. His seed shall be mighty upon earth.
The gospel from John, section xxii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, This is the
will.... ending, at the last day.[44]
Then the beatitudes in tone ii.
In thy kingdom remember us, O Lord, when thou comest in thy
kingdom.
Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
 Blessed are they that mourn, for they shall be comforted.
Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth.
Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after righteousness,
for they shall be filled.
Blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain mercy.
For tasting the tree’s fruit of old Adam from paradise was driven;
but for thee owning to be God, when on the cross he hung, the thief
was plac’d in paradise. And, saved by thy passion, Lord, we imitate
the thief, crying in faith, Remember us, when in thy kingdom thou
shalt come.
Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God.
My maker, taking clay from earth, by will divine my body form’d,
but by a holy ordinance he plac’d a soul therein, by breathing breath
that beareth life. And when to sin’s corruption I in evil wise was
bound, me thou recalledst, lover of mankind, by tenderness extreme.
But rest, O God, among thy Saints, him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children
of God.
When soul and body parted are, fearful and dread the mystery is
to all: then wailing goeth forth the soul, and hid the body is, consign’d
to earth. Therefore let us, knowing the final going hence, before the
Saviour come with tears, and cry, When in thy kingdom thou shalt
come, do thou remember us.
Blessed are they that are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for
theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
Why bitterly do ye lament, O men, for me? and why in vain do ye a
murmuring make? he that is gone to all exclaims; for unto all a rest is
death. Then let us hear the voice of Job who saith, Death is the rest
of man. But rest, O God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast
receiv’d.
Blessed are ye when they shall revile you, and persecute you, and
shall say all manner of evil against you falsely for my name’s sake.
 The all-wise Paul hath clearly fore-announc’d the change,
instructing all that uncorrupt the dead shall rise, and we be chang’d
by God’s command. Then shall that trumpet sound in fearful wise,
and they that have from ages slept shall rise from sleep. But rest, O
God, among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward in heaven.
He that is gone and in the grave lies dead, being reconcil’d, to all
exclaims, Come unto me, ye sons of earth, see ye the body’s beauty
render’d dark. Then, brethren, knowing his departure hence, let us
before the Saviour come, and cry with tears, Rest thou, O God,
among thy Saints him whom thou hast receiv’d.
Glory. Both now. Theotokion.
Thou, Queen, didst seedlessly within thy womb in supernatural
wise conceive the God who ere the ages was, and bring him forth in
flesh unchangedly and unconfusedly, himself being God and man.
Therefore we ever owning thee God-bearing one in faith exclaim to
God brought forth from thee, Remember in thy kingdom also us.
Prokimenon, tone vi.
Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The epistle to the Romans, section cxiii.
Brethren, he that regardeth the day.... ending, the dead and living.
[45]

Alleluia, tone vi.

Blessed is he whom thou hast chosen and received, O Lord.
Verse. His soul shall dwell in good things.
The gospel from John, section xxiii.
The Lord spake unto the Jews that came unto him, I am the bread
of life.... ending, at the last day.[46]
Then psalm l. And the canon, tone vi.
 Ode i. Irmos.
Him that beneath the surges of the sea....
Refrain. Rest, O Lord, thy sleeping servant’s soul.
To thee, O benefactor, Christ, and Lord of all, we cast us down
with fervent tears, and wailing cry this funeral song, Thy faithful
servant rest, thou that art loving-kind.
Him that is dead in hope of resurrection grant the holy standing,
Word, at thy right hand with thine elect, prolongedly with voice of
praise we pray, O lover of mankind.
Thy chosen servant from the earth remov’d, O lover of mankind,
count worthy brightly to rejoice within thy kingdom heavenly and
rever’d; and overlook, as loving-kind, his soul’s iniquities.
Glory.
Alas! life’s glory grew as grass, and straightway was dried up.
Where in the grave is honour? and where form or beauty there?
Then spare thy servant, Lord, as being loving-kind.
Both now. Theotokion.
With love, as it behoves, we thee all praise, O Mary, Mother of
God, Virgin most pure; for thou hast ever sleepless eyes—thy
prayers—to save us now from sins, and from the doom of death.
Ode iii. Irmos.
There is none holy like to thee, O Lord my God....
There is no man on earth that hath not sinn’d, O Word. Therefore
accept a prayer from us, the lowly ones: and, Saviour, pardon and
forgive thy servant all iniquities.
And who, O lover of mankind, as thou, Lord merciful, forgivest sins
of quick and dead with great authority? Therefore thy servant do
thou save by this.
Glory.
Of calling from on high, O Saviour, him heritor declare, even him
gone hence in faith, accepting his last tearful prayer, thou only
sinless one.
Both now. Theotokion.
O thou that art our Queen, all holy Virgin, cease not beseeching
God, whom thou didst bear, to count him worthy of his kingdom,
even him who hence in faith hath gone.
Kathisma, tone vi.
Verily everything is vain, and life a shadow is, a dream; for vainly
every earth-born one disquieteth himself, as saith the scripture.
When we have gain’d the world, then dwell we in the grave, where
kings and beggars are as one. Therefore, O Christ, thy servant rest
in tract of living ones, and in the dwellings of the just.
Ode iv. Irmos.
Thy divine exhaustion on the cross....
Since importable is the terrible threatening of that day, let us
unceasingly beseech of Christ forgiveness of all sins for him that
hath in faith and hope of resurrection hither gone.
Since, through penitence, he, thy servant, unto thee a lamp
enkindled brightly ere his death, O Master, Saviour loving-kind,
vouchsafe to him in brightly wise thy bridal-room.
Glory.
When all things hid thou dost reveal, and prove our sins, O Christ,
him whom thou hast receiv’d do thou then spare, remembering his
confession, Lord.
Both now. Theotokion.
Holy God-bearing one, forget not all that cry to thee with ceaseless
wail; and find him rest, thou blessed one, even him, thy faithful
servant, who is gone from us.
Ode v. Irmos.
Of thy divine epiphany, O Christ....
In the elect ones’ choir, and in the joy of paradise, O thou
compassionate one, give rest to him whom thou from us in faith
removed hast; for thou, our Saviour, hast divine repentance laid on
all men who have sinn’d; and him, as Master, of thy kingdom worthy
count.
According to thy might as God, thou art, in lordly wise, unto thy
creature merciful, whom thou subjected hast to human law, O Lord,
sole lover of mankind. Therefore remit, forgive the sins of him gone
hence in faith, and him, O Saviour, of thy kingdom worthy count.
Glory.
None there escape the fearful sentence of thy judgment-seat:
kings, mighty ones with servants all together stand, and them, the
people who have sinn’d, the judge’s fearful voice bids to gehenna’s
doom; but save from this thy servant, Christ.
Both now. Theotokion.
In supernatural wise from thee was born, according unto human
nature, him that Redeemer is; and him, O thou unwedded Virgin,
ceaselessly beseech to free from torment all, and from the fierce and
fearful hades’ pains; and save him who is now in faith remov’d from
us.
Ode vi. Irmos.
The lowest depth....
Death and the grave and judgment us await, impressing all our
works; and out of these thy servant save, O lover of mankind, even
him who thou removed hast.
Open, my Saviour, I beseech thee, unto him gone hence thy
mercy’s door, that he, O Christ, in glory may in chorus sing,
partaking of the gladness of thy mightiness.
Glory.
Deliver, Saviour, from iniquities thy servant for thy mercy’s sake,
him whom thou now removed hast in faith; for none is justified by
human works, O lover of mankind.
Both now. Theotokion.
 The slayer of death and looser of the curse in flesh thou
broughtest forth, God-bearing one, and all that die in faith he saves,
as being good and lover of mankind.
Then the customary ectenia.
Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Condakion, tone viii.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ, thy servant’s soul, where is no pain,
nor grief, nor sighing, but life that endeth not.
Icos.
Thyself alone immortal art, who madest and didst fashion man, for
out of earth we mortals fashion’d were, and unto that same earth
shall go, as thou who madest me hast given command, and sayest
unto me, Earth thou art, and unto earth shalt thou return. And thither
all we mortals go, making the funeral wail, even the song, the
Alleluia.
Hearken in thoughtful wise, I pray; for I with pain these words
announce; yea, for your sake I make the wail: it may for profit be to
some. But when ye have to sing these words, remember me who
once was known; for ofttimes we together went, and in God’s house
together sang the Alleluia.
Arise ye then, and gather ye together all, and, sitting down, hear
ye a word, Brethren, the judgment-seat is dread, where we have
every one to stand. There none is slave, and none is free; there
none is little, none is great; but all in nakedness shall stand: for this
cause it is well to sing ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Bewail we all with tears as we behold the relics lie, and all
approaching them to kiss let us in equal wise exclaim, Lo, thou hast
left them who thee lov’d: wilt thou not speak with us again? Why dost
thou speak not, friend, as thou wast wont to speak to us? But so
thou silent art, even to say with us the Alleluia.
 What, brethren, are the dying’s bitter words, which, when they go,
they say? I from the brethren parted am, I quit and leave you all, O
friends. Then where I go I do not know, and how I shall be there
know not: God only knows, who calleth me. But make ye my
memorial with the song, the Alleluia.
Then where now go the souls? then how now fare they there? I
long to learn the mystery; but none sufficient is to tell. Do they
remember their own things, as we remember them? or have they us
forgotten who are left, who them lament and make the song, the
Alleluia.
Accompany the dead, O friends, and to the grave with heed hie
ye, and muse ye there in thoughtful wise, and your own feet prepare:
all youthfulness is cast therein, all vigour fadeth there: there dust and
ashes are, and worms: there all is silence, and none saying Alleluia.
Lo, now we see him lying, but to us no presence is of him: behold,
the tongue now silent is, and, lo, already cease the lips. Farewell, O
friends, O children; be ye saved, O ye brethren, O acquaintance, be
ye sav’d; for I depart my way. But make ye my memorial with the
song, the Alleluia.
Not one of those who there hath gone doth live again to tell to us
how they, our brethren once and kinsfolk, fare who there have come
before the Lord. Therefore, we oft, yea, ever say, Do they each other
there behold? do they a brother see? do they together say the
psalm, the Alleluia?
We go the everlasting way in mien as them that are condemn’d,
with faces all cast down. Then where is beauty? where is wealth?
then where the glory of this life? Nothing of these shall help us there,
even to say ofttimes the psalm, the Alleluia.
Why in untimely wise disquietest thou thyself, O man? one hour,
and all is gone; for there in hades no repentance is, nor any further
pardon there: the never-dying worm is there, all there is dark and
gloomy land, where I must come to be condemn’d. For I have not
ofttimes made speed to say the psalm, the Alleluia.
 Nothing so soon forgotten is by man as man when he is gone; for,
if we do remember for a time, we straightway death forget, when
absent is the dead. And parents even every child forget, that, of the
womb begot, they nourish’d have, and have with tears accompanied
with the song, the Alleluia.
I remind you, O my brethren, and my children, and my friends, that
ye forget me not when ye beseech the Lord. I pray, I ask, I make
entreaty that ye keep these words in memory, and bewail me day
and night. I speak to you as Job did to his friends, O sit ye down to
say again the Alleluia.
Forsaking all things we depart, and naked and abhorrent we
become; for comeliness doth fade away as grass, but only do we
men delude ourselves. Thou naked, wretched one, wast born, and
altogether naked there shalt stand! Then be not prodigal in life, O
man; but only always sigh with wailing, Alleluia.
If thou, O man, art merciful to man, he there shall mercy have to
show to thee; and if to any orphan hast been kind, he there shall
thee deliver out of need; if thou in life the naked clothed hast, he
there shall clothing have to put on thee, and sing the psalm, the
Alleluia.
The way is evil whereby I depart, and therein so I never went; that
country also is unknown, where me none recognize at all. ’Tis fearful
them to see who dreadfully are led, and him who me hath call’d, who
ruleth life and death, and there us biddeth when he willeth. Alleluia.
If from some country we depart, we of some guides have need.
What shall we do, and whither go, that country in, where we are
quite unknown? To thee will then be needful many guides, and many
prayers to go with thee to save thy wretched soul, ere it attain to
Christ, and say to him, the Alleluia.
They that to lusts material subject are, in nowise have forgiveness
there: there terrible accusers are, and there too opened are the
books. Then where, O man, wilt thou glance round? or who will there
then thee assist? save thou in life hast wrought some good, or done
some kindness to the poor, singing the Alleluia.
 Both youth and bodily beauty fade away in time of death, and then
in painful wise is parch’d the tongue, and, dried up, is scorch’d the
throat, then quenched is the beauty of the eyes, all chang’d the
beauty of the face, the beauty of the neck is spoil’d, and what
remaineth silent is to say ofttimes the Alleluia.
Keep silence then, keep silence: O ye survivors, be ye still before
him lying there, and contemplate the mystery great; for fearful is the
hour. Hush, that the soul may go in peace; for it endureth anguish
great, and in much fear beseecheth God with Alleluia.
I have seen an infant dying, and for my life have wept; for it was
altogether scar’d, and, when its hour came, trembling cried, O father,
help me; mother, save me! and none sufficient was to help it then:
they only griev’d beholding, and in the grave bewail’d it. Alleluia.
How many on a sudden have been taken from their bridal to the
grave, betroth’d been with an everlasting troth, have costless made
the dirge, and from the chamber have not risen; but together there
was marriage and the grave, together troth and parting, together
laughter and the wail, yea, and the psalm, the Alleluia.
We are enflam’d when only hearing that everlasting light is there,
there our life’s fount, and there eternal joy: the paradise is there
where every soul rejoiceth with the just. We all in Christ shall
gather’d be, that so to God we all may cry the Alleluia.
All-holy Virgin, thou unwedded one, who didst bring forth th’
approachless light, I pray, entreaty make, and beg, Cease not to
pray the Lord concerning him, thy sleeping servant, thou most pure,
that in the day of judgment he may find forgiveness there; for thou,
as Queen all pure, to pray thy Son hast always boldness. Alleluia.
Then again the condakion.
Rest with the Saints, O Christ.... Page 188.
Ode vii. Irmos.
Narrateless wonder....
As being pitiful, O Christ, deliver him, thy servant, whom thou in
faith received hast, from fearful doom, and from gehenna’s fire, and
to thy servant grant to sing to thee, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Within the land of gentle ones, and in delights of paradise, in
glory’s wondrous dwelling-place, thy servant faithfully asleep
esteeming worthy, God, do thou grant him to sing to thee, Blessed
art thou, redeemer, God.
Glory.
Great is the doom and undescribable the need, O brethren, in
gehenna; for the souls of sinners there are burned with their bodies,
and in anguish weep, unable to exclaim, Blessed art thou, redeemer,
God.
Both now.
Them that undoubtingly thee praise, O Mother of God, thou
altogether undefil’d God-bearing one, when living by thy prayers for
ever guard, and when departed free from bitter torment, that they
with thee to Christ may say, Blessed art thou, redeemer, God.
Ode viii. Irmos.
Fearingly quake, O heaven....
O what dread hour awaiteth sinners, brethren! O what terror then!
gehenna’s fire consumes, and shall eternally torment. Therefore, O
Christ, compassionate Lord, deliver him departed now from us from
fearful threatening, and snatch him from gehenna’s pains eternally.
Oh, of the just the joy which they receive when comes the judge!
for them the bridal-chamber is prepar’d, and paradise, and all
Christ’s kingdom; and there thy servant, Christ, make manifest
rejoicing with the Saints eternally.
Glory.
Who shall endure the fearful menace of thy presence, Christ? the
heavens thereat roll’d up shall be as is a scroll in fearful wise, the
stars shall fall, and all creation shake with fear, and changed be the
light; but then, O Word, spare him whom thou removed hast from us.
Both now. Theotokion.
 Him whom thou gavest flesh in supernatural wise, O pure, even
the Son, he is the judge of living and of dead, and judgeth all the
earth, and saves from torment whom he wills, and them especially
who in types adore him lovingly, and thee, God-bearing one, extol
eternally.
Ode ix. Irmos.
Weep not for me, O mother....
O weep ye not, all ye who die in faith; for Christ for us bore flesh,
the cross, and sepulture, and made all them immortal sons that sing
to him, O into judgment with thy servant enter not.
Let us, ye faithful, from the heart pray Christ to stablish in the
dwellings of the saints the brother who in faith and hope of
resurrection sleeps; for there is judgment stern and trial dread, and
none can help himself without good works, and common prayer of
faithful ones; and let us cry, Lord, into judgment with thy servant
enter not.
Glory.
In, Blessed One, thy glory that becomes not old, and in delights of
paradise, place him who now is gone from us, and in the right-belief
and penitence betaketh him to thee in faith; and of thy kingdom him
a chosen partner make.
Both now. Theotokion.
God-bearing Virgin, we reverently, we, faithful ones, extol thee
who art mother of life in supernatural wise; for we, aforetime dead,
being made immortal, life have found; and, lo, to thee the song we
end.
Deacon. Again and again.... Page 142.
And the prayer, O God of spirits.... Page 139.
Exapostilarion.
Now am I at rest, and much forgiveness have receiv’d; for I have
passed from corruption, and am translated unto life: glory to thee, O
Lord.
 And the people the same.
Verse i. Man is as grass, his day is as a flower of the field.
Verse ii. For his spirit goeth through in him, and he shall not be.
Verse iii. And the mercy of the Lord shall endure to ages.
And to each verse the exapostilarion.
Then, Glory. Both now.
Now have I chosen the maiden Mother of God, for Christ,
redeemer of all, was born of her: glory to thee, O Lord.
And straightway, Praise the Lord from the heavens....[47]
Then stichera, tone vi.
Like, Having despair’d....
Thy godly minister is gone to thee, now deified in the translation by
thy quickening mystery, Christ: take as a bird his soul into thy hand,
and range him in thy courts and in the angelic choirs, and rest him
whom thou hast received by thy command, O Lord, for thy great
mercy’s sake.
Strange is the mystery of death; for unacceptably it comes to all,
nature by force is spoil’d; it taketh elders, abbots, scribes, teachers
who vainly strive, bishops, and pastors too. Then let us cry with
tears, Him, whom thou hast receiv’d, O Lord, by thy command, O
rest, for thy great mercy’s sake.
He that in piety hath liv’d, and was thy decorated priest, O Christ,
the celebrant and offerer of thy mysteries divine, is gone, by thy
divine command, from life’s alarms to thee; and him, accepting as a
priest, O Saviour, save, and with the righteous rest, even him whom
thou received hast, for thy great mercy’s sake.
Glory. Both now. Theotokion.
God-bearing Virgin, we have understood the God made flesh from
thee, whom do thou pray to save our souls.
Then they say, Glory to God in the highest....
 And after the Vouchsafe, O Lord....
the following stichera idiomela are said,
of Damascene, tone i.
What sweet of life abideth unaccompanied with grief? what glory
stayeth upon earth unchang’d? All is the feeblest shade, all the most
cheating dream: one moment, and death taketh all these things. But
in thy face’s light, O Christ, and in the sweetness of thy beauty, grant
rest to him whom thou hast call’d, as lover of mankind.
Verse. The Lord tendeth me, and there is nothing lacking to me.
By deed, my Saviour, thou hast shewn that thou the resurrection
art of all, who didst, O Word, by word raise Lazarus from the dead.
Then were the fetters burst, and shatter’d hades’ gates; then human
death declared was a sleep. Thou, therefore, who didst come thy
creature, not to judge, but save, rest him whom thou received hast,
as lover of mankind.
Glory. Both now. Theotokion.
Thou art made manifest, O Bringer-forth of God, a fervent
advocate for all, for all a shelter, and a might of God for them that hie
to thee, an aid for them that are in need, a quick deliverance for the
bound. For thee against barbarians Christ hath placed as a fence,
and barrier, and assailless wall; and for the weak a strength
unovercome; and for our souls the arbitress of peace.
Stichera, tone ii.
Woe unto me, what agony hath the soul when it is from the body
torn! alas, then how it weeps, and none is merciful to it! To Angels
lifting eyes, without effect it prays; to men extending hands, it findeth
none to help. Therefore, my brethren lov’d, musing on our brief life,
let us for the departed ask for rest from Christ, and for great mercy
for our souls.
Verse. When I was in affliction I cried unto the Lord, and he heard
me.
Come, let us all a wonder passing thought behold: he who but
yesterday abode with us now lieth dead. Come, let us know that