Nano Select - 2023 - Mekuye - Nanomaterials An Overview of Synthesis Classification Characterization and Applications

Received: 17 March 2023 Revised: 31 May 2023 Accepted: 31 May 2023
DOI: 10.1002/nano.202300038
REVIEW
Nanomaterials: An overview of synthesis, classification,

characterization, and applications
Bawoke Mekuye Birhanu Abera
Department of Physics, College of Natural

and Computational Sciences, Mekdela Abstract
Amba University, Tulu Awuliya, Ethiopia Significant research employing nanomaterials has been conducted in the field
Correspondence
of nanotechnology over the past few years. Due to the significant advancements
Bawoke Mekuye, Department of Physics, made in a number of industries, including electronics, energy, medical, cosmet-
College of Natural and Computational ics, food engineering, telecommunications, and agriculture, nanotechnology is
Sciences, Mekdela Amba University, Tulu
Awuliya, Ethiopia. advancing quickly. As a result, nanomaterials are the foundation of nanotech-
Email: bawokemek143@gmail.com nology. Due to their small size, nanomaterials have special optical, magnetic,
electrical, and physical, reactivity, strength, surface area, sensitivity, and sta-
bility features. Surprisingly, the phase change occurs when bulk materials are
converted into nanomaterials, which means that materials that were previously
non-magnetic become magnetic at the nanoscale. Because of its unique features,
nanoscale matter is a separate form of matter from the solid, liquid, gaseous,
and plasma states. Nanomaterials’ characteristics are mostly determined by their
shapes and sizes. In this paper a critical overview of nanomaterials, their vari-
eties, characteristics, synthesis techniques, and applications in various fields is
offered.
KEYWORDS
density of state, nano, nano science, nanomaterial, nanoparticle, nanotechnology, synthesis,
toxicity
1 INTRODUCTION Kelvin. The prefix “nano” has found in the last decade an
ever-increasing application to different fields of knowledge
The meaning of the word ‘nano’ is nanos, which indi- and is now a popular label for much of modern science;
cates a person of very low height or a very small object therefore, it is becoming increasingly common in the sci-
that is a dwarf. Consider that in an international system entific literature.[1–4] Size, which refers to the length scale
of units, the prefix nano is used to indicate part of a unit. from 1 to 100 nm, is the fundamental defining attribute
For instance, a nanometer is a billionth of a meter or a mil- of all nanoparticles, in which materials have at least a
lionth of a millimeter; a nano liter is a billionth of a liter nanoscale dimension. Thus, according to refs.[5–7] nano-
or a millionth of a milliliter; and a nano is a billionth of a materials are substances that are between 1 and 100 nm in
size, at least in one of the three dimensions[8,9] and must be
𝑚2
Bawoke Mekuye and Birhanu Abera contributed equally in writing this greater than 60 3 [6,10] in terms of spherical surface area
𝑐𝑚
review paper. by volume.
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited.
© 2023 The Authors. Nano Select published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.
486 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/nano Nano Select 2023;4:486–501.

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MEKUYE and ABERA 487
Based on size, origin, structural configuration, pore studies indicate that they focus on the classification,
diameters, and potential toxicity, nanomaterials can be preparation method, properties, and uses of each
divided into five major categories.[3,10,11] Due to its unique nanomaterial.[1,2,5,7,9] There is no more research that
properties, nanoparticle matter exhibits unique chemi- articulates all nanomaterials classification, preparation
cal, physical, and biological properties at the nanoscale and properties that work for all careers. To solve this
compared to their respective particles at higher scales. problem, we have studied clearly all classifications of
Nano particulate matter is a distinct state of matter from nanomaterials and the reason for their classification,
the solid state, liquid state, gaseous state, and plasma preparation, and classification of their preparation, which
state. In this dimension, their nanomaterials have dis- are useful for all classes, properties, and all practiced fields.
tinctive optical, magnetic, and electrical properties. There
are other ways to make nanomaterials, but the two
basic approaches are bottom-up and top-down meth- 2 CLASSIFICATION OF
ods. Examples of top-down techniques include lithogra- NANOMATERIALS
phy, mechanical milling or ball milling, laser ablation,
sputtering, electron explosion arc discharge, and ther- Figure 1 illustrates how nanomaterials can be divided into
mal decomposition. Examples of bottom-up techniques five categories depending on their size, place of origin,
include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sol-gel, spin- structural configuration, pore size, and potential toxicity.
ning, pyrolysis, and biological synthesis.[11,12] The field of
study known as nanoscience is concerned with the char-
acteristics of matter at the nanoscale, with a focus on 2.1 Classification of nanomaterials
the special, size-dependent characteristics of solid-state based on origin
materials.[2,11,12]
The field of study known as nanotechnology includes Natural and artificial nanoparticles are the two groups into
the synthesis, engineering, and application of nanomate- which nanomaterials are divided based on origin.[23,24]
rials. Due to the innovative and intriguing applications
of nanomaterials for the next industrial generation, nan-
otechnology has attracted a lot of interest over time.[3,11,12] 2.1.1 Natural nanomaterials
Agriculture, biomedicine, electronics, energy, pollution
abatement, food engineering, transportation, telecommu- Natural nanomaterials can be found in a variety of forms in
nication, cosmetics, coatings, materials, and mechanical nature, including viruses, protein molecules, minerals like
engineering are just a few of the industries that use clay, natural colloids like milk and blood (liquid colloids),
nanomaterials.[2,3,6,8,9,11,12] fog (aerosol type), gelatin (gel type), mineralized natural
Nanomaterials are now becoming important for the materials like shells, corals, and bones, insect wings and
overall development of mankind. For example, to reduce opals, spider silk, lotus leaves, gecko feet, volcanic ash, and
the risk of global climate change and global warming in ocean spray.[23,24]
the first place, the only solution is to use green tech-
nology that works only using nanomaterials. Because it
has been confirmed that the technology that uses nano- 2.1.2 Artificial nanomaterials
materials is more effective than the technology that uses
bulk materials.[13–15] Secondly, nanomaterials are used to Carbon nanotubes and semiconductor nanoparticles like
develop tools to diagnose and control the epidemic dis- quantum dots (QDs) are examples of artificial nanomate-
eases that are happening all over the world. For example, rials that are made consciously using precise mechanical
in 2019, Covid-19, a disease that was killing many peo- and manufacturing procedures. Nanomaterials are catego-
ple in the world, was able to be diagnosed and controlled rized as metal-based materials, dendrimers, or composites
using nanomaterials.[16–18] Also, it was possible to diagnose depending on their structural makeup.[23,24]
and treat the monkey pox disease that is currently hap-
pening in the world by using nanomaterials.[19,20] In the
future, it is expected that nano materials, nano science and 2.2 Classification of nanomaterials
nano technology will play a leading role in the develop- based on the structural
ment of the world.[11,12,21,22] Therefore, it is necessary for configuration/composition
everyone to have adequate knowledge and understanding
about nanomaterials. According to their structural makeup, nanoparticles can
In the last 20 years, many studies have been done be broadly divided into four groups: organic/dendrimers,
on nanoparticles and materials. However, many recent inorganic, carbon-based, and composite.[23–29]
488 MEKUYE and ABERA
FIGURE 1 General classification of nanomaterials.
FIGURE 2 The examples that follow consist of organic nanomaterials: A, dendrimers; B, liposomes; C, micelles; D, ferritin.[28,31]
2.2.1 Organic nanomaterials liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, and ferritin. Non-toxic

biodegradable nanoparticles known as nanocapsule
On the nanoscale, organic compounds are converted micelles and liposomes have hollow interiors and are
into organic nanomaterials. As shown in Figure 2,[28,31] sensitive to heat, electromagnetic radiation, and light.[29]
some examples of organic nanoparticles or polymers are The surface of a dendrimers is coated with numerous
chain ends that can perform specific chemical reactions. the charge of electrons in semiconductors, but are not
Dendrimers are used in molecular recognition, nano used for mass storage of information in dispensable
sensing, light harvesting, and optoelectrochemical information technology.
systems. Furthermore, because three-dimensional 3. Diluted magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials.
(3D) dendrimers feature internal holes that can hold The semiconducting materials are made magnetic by
additional molecules, they may be useful for drug adding a few magnetic impurities to the host matrix,
administration.[25,26,28–30] in which some of the diamagnetic host cations are
randomly replaced by magnetic (TM) cations. These
materials not only retain semiconducting properties,
2.2.2 Inorganic nano materials but also possess magnetic properties that are a mixture
of ordinary and magnetic semiconductors.[28,32]
Inorganic nanoparticles are nanoparticles that lack car-
bon atoms and are known as inorganic nanoparticles. Ceramic nanomaterials
Inorganic nanoparticles are typically classified as those Ceramic nanomaterials are inorganic solids made up of
composed of metal-based or metal oxide-based nanomate- carbides, carbonates, oxides, carbides, carbonates, and
rials. phosphates synthesized via heat and successive cooling.
The ceramic nanoparticles can be formulated in drug
Metal-based nanoparticles delivery systems, especially in targeting tumors, glau-
Metal-based nanoparticles can be synthesized through coma, and some bacterial infections and nanomateri-
destructive or constructive processes. Aluminum (Al), cad- als are also getting great attention from researchers
mium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe), due to their use in applications such as catalysis,
lead (Pb), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn) are metal materials photo catalysis, photo degradation of dyes, and imaging
that are frequently used in nanoparticle synthesis. Because applications.[27,28]
of their quantum effects and huge surface-to-volume ratio,
metal nanoparticles have excellent ultraviolet-visible sen- Lipid-based nanomaterials
sitivity, as well as electrical, catalytic, thermal, and antibac- Lipid-based nanoparticles are generally spherical, with
terial properties. Metal nanomaterials are used in a variety diameters ranging between 10 and 100 nm. It consists of
of research fields because they have outstanding optical a solid core made of lipids and a matrix containing sol-
properties. uble lipophilic molecules. Lipid-based nanoparticles have
applications in the biomedical field as a drug carrier and
Metal oxide nanoparticles RNA release therapy in cancer therapy.[27,28]
Metal oxide nanoparticles, also known as metal oxide
nanomaterials, are composed of positive metallic ions
and negative oxygen ions. Examples of metal oxide 2.2.3 Carbon based nano materials
nanoparticles that are frequently synthesized include sil-
icon dioxide (SiO2 ), titanium oxide (TiO2 ), zinc oxide Carbon-based nanomaterials are composed of carbon
(ZnO), and aluminum oxide (Al2 O3 ). These nanoparti- include five main materials, namely, carbon nanotubes,
cles exhibit remarkable properties compared to their metal Graphene, fullerenes, Carbon Nano fiber and Carbon
analogs.[29] black as shown in Figure 3. Spherical and ellipsoidal
nature configured of carbon nanomaterials are referred as
Semiconductor nano materials fullerenes are called Bucky balls. Fullerenes are the spher-
Semiconductor nanomaterials exhibit the same properties ical structure with diameters up to 8.2 nm for a single layer
as metals and insulators. They are classified into three and from 4 to 36 nm for multi-layered fullerenes, which
groups.[32] form from 28 to 1500 carbon atoms.
Graphene is a hexagonal network of honeycomb lat-
1. Concentrated magnetic semiconductor nanoma- tices made up of carbon atoms on a two-dimensional (2D)
terials. It exhibits spontaneous magnetic order and planar surface, with the sheet around 1 nm, whereas cylin-
can be a binary compound such as EuTe (anti- drical ones are described as nanotubes. Hollow cylinders
ferromagnetic). to form nanotubes with diameters as low as 0.7 nm for
2. Non-magnetic semiconductor nanomaterials. a single-layered and 100 nm for a multi-layered carbon
Nonmagnetic semiconductors that contain no mag- nanotube and lengths varying from a few micrometers to
netic ions and are used for information processing several millimeters, the same Graphene Nano fossils are
and communications have had great success using used to produce carbon Nano fiber, and an amorphous
FIGURE 3 Types of carbon-based nanomaterials.[33]
F I G U R E 4 Classification of nanomaterials according to dimension: A, zero-dimensional; B, one-dimensional; C, two-dimensional; D,

three-dimensional.[24]
material made up of carbon, generally spherical in shape, 2.3 Classification of nanomaterials

with diameters from 20 to 70 nm is known as carbon according to the number of dimensions
black.[23,24] Carbon-based nanomaterials are used mainly
for structural reinforcement as they are stronger than steel Nanomaterials are classified into four types based on their
at times. Carbon-based nanomaterials are thermally con- size dimensions: 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D, as shown in Figure 4.
ductive along the length and non-conductive across the
tube.[12,25,26,28] Zero-dimensional nanomaterials
0D nanomaterials: These nanomaterials have all three
dimensions (x, y, and z) within the nanoscale range or are
2.2.4 Composites nanomaterials not dimensional outside the Nano metric range (>10 nm).
QDs, fullerenes, and nanoparticles are examples of 0D
Composites Nanomaterials are made up of nanoparti- nanomaterials. They can be amorphous or crystalline, sin-
cles combined with other nanoparticles, nanoparticles gle crystalline or polycrystalline, exhibit various shapes
combined with larger-scale materials, and nanomateri- and forms, and be metallic or ceramic.[2,3,5,11,23,24]
als combined with bulk-type materials. Nanomaterials are
already being used to improve mechanical, thermal, and One-dimensional nanomaterials
flame-retardant properties in products ranging from auto ID nanomaterials: Nanomaterials in this class have two
parts to packaging materials.[23,25,26] of their three dimensions (x, y) in the nanoscale range,
FIGURE 5 Density of state for 3D.
but one dimension of the nanostructure is outside the 2.3.1 Density of state in four types of
non-metric range (>10 nm). 1D nanomaterials, such as dimensional nanomaterials
nanofibers, nanotubes, nanohorns, nano rods, thin films,
and nanowires, are examples of needle-shaped nanomate- QDs are semiconductor particles, and their size is less than
rials. They can be amorphous or crystalline, single crys- 10 nm in diameter. QDs show unique size-dependent elec-
talline or polycrystalline, chemically pure or impure, stan- tronic and optical properties.[34,35] The phenomenon of
dalone materials, or embedded within another medium, altering the electronic properties as it decreases in size
such as metallic, ceramic, or polymeric. 1D nanoparticles is called the quantum size effect. The overall behavior of
can be metallic, ceramic, or polymeric.[2,3,5,11,23,24] bulk crystalline materials changes when the dimensions
are reduced to the nanoscale.
Two-dimensional nanomaterials The density of states is the number of quantum states
2D nanomaterials have plate-like shapes with two dimen- per unit of energy. In other words, the density of states,
sions outside the nanometer range, but 1D (x) is at the denoted by 𝐠(𝐄), indicates how densely packed quantum
nanoscale (between 1 and 100 nm). Coatings and thin- states are in a particular system. Integrating the density of
film multilayers, Nano sheets or nano walls, free particles, the quantum states over a range of energies will produce
tubes, fibers, ultrafine-grained over layers, wires, and a number of states. Thus, the number of states between E
platelets are examples of 2D nanomaterials. 2D nanoma- and 𝐝𝐄, the effect of confinement on the resulting energy
terials can be amorphous or crystalline, made of various states, can be calculated by quantum mechanics as the
chemical compositions, deposited on a substrate, or inte- “particle in the box” problem. An electron is considered
grated into a surrounding matrix material, metallic, or to exist inside an infinitely deep potential well (region of
polymeric.[5,11,23,24] negative energies), from which it cannot escape and is
confined by the dimensions of the nanostructure.[36–38]
Three-dimensional nanomaterials In semiconductors, the free motion of carriers is lim-
3D nanomaterials or bulk materials are nanomaterials that ited to special dimensions of two, one, and zero special
are not confined to the nanoscale in any dimension or dimensions.[36]
dimension range. All dimensions of a 3D material are out-
side the nanometer range or greater than 100 nm, but the The density of state in 3D (bulk) nanomaterials
bulk material is made up of individual blocks that are The position of an electron is described by a wave function
in the nanometer scale (1–100 nm), so 3D nanomaterials in 3D boxes, as shown in Figure 5.
have three arbitrary dimensions above 100 nm. It includes For calculating the state density of 3D nanomaterials,
nanoparticle dispersion, bundles of nanowires and nan- we calculate the volume of a single state, the volume of a
otubes, and multi-nano layers in which the 0D, 1D, and sphere, the volume of a unit cell, and the number of field
2D structural elements are in close contact and form inter- states in 3D (bulk) materials.
faces. Thin films with atomic-scale porosity, colloids, and The volume of single state
free nanoparticles with various morphologies are examples
𝜋3 𝜋3
of 3D nanomaterials.[2,3,11,23,24] 𝑉singl state = = 3 (1)
𝑉 𝐿
FIGURE 6 Density of state for quantum wells (two-dimensional nanomaterials).
The volume of sphere

4
𝑉sphere = 𝜋𝑘3 (2)
3
The number of field state in the cube

( )
𝑉sphere 1 1 1 𝐿3 𝐾 3
𝑁= ×2× × × =
𝑉single state 2 2 2 3𝜋2
( )∕
𝐿3 2mE FIGURE 7 Density of state for quantum wire nanomaterial
= 2 (3)
𝜋 ℏ2 (1D).
√
2mE
Where 𝑘 = Differentiate the number of field states
ℏ2
with respect to energy
( ( )∕ )
dN 𝑑 𝐿3 2mE 𝐿3 𝑚 ∕
= = (2mE) (4) 𝑉Circle = 𝜋𝑘2 (7)
dE dE 𝜋2 ℏ2 𝜋ℏ3
dN
We know, 𝑔 (𝐸) = divided by cell volume
dE ( )
𝑉circle 1 1 𝐿2 𝐾 2 𝑚𝐿2 𝐸
𝑁= ×2× × = = 2 (8)
dN 𝑚 ∕ 𝑚∗ ∕ 𝑉single state 2 2 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑔 (𝐸) = 3
= 3
(2mE) = 3
(2𝑚 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ))
dE × 𝐿 𝜋ℏ 𝜋ℏ √
2mE
(5) Where 𝑘 = Differentiate the number of field states
ℏ2
with respect to energy
Since the electron mass m→ 𝑚∗ Equation (5) indicates that ( )
the density of a state is directly dN 𝑑 𝑚𝐿2 𝐸 𝑚𝐿2
√ proportional to energy, = = (9)
which is 𝑔(𝐸) proportional to 𝐸 dE dE ℏ2 𝜋 ℏ2 𝜋
dN
Density of state in quantum wells (2D) nanomaterials 𝑔 (𝐸) = divided by cell volume, we get
dE
In the case of 2D nanomaterials, the conduction electrons
will be confined across the thickness but delocalized in the 𝑚𝐿2 𝑚 𝑚∗
plane of the sheet, as shown in Figure 6.[36] 𝑔 (𝐸) = 2 2
= 2 = 2 (10)
ℏ 𝜋𝐿 ℏ 𝜋 ℏ 𝜋
For calculating the state density of the quantum wells
(2D) nanomaterials, first calculate the volume of a single As expressed in Equation (10) the density of state is
state, the volume of a sphere, the volume of a unit cell, and independent of energy
the number of field states in 2D materials.
The volume of single state Density of state in quantum wires (1D) nanomaterials
For 1D nanomaterials, electron confinement occurs in 1D,
𝜋2 𝜋2 while delocalization takes place along the long axis of the
𝑉singl state = = 2 (6)
𝑉 𝐿 nanowire, rod, or tube, as shown in Figure 7.[36]
For calculating the density of state for a 1D structure

(quantum wire), we use a similar approach to the one
described above. Then
The volume of single state
𝜋 𝜋
𝑉singl state = = (11)
𝑉 𝐿
𝑉line = 𝑘 (12)
FIGURE 8 Density of state for quantum dots (0D).
√
𝑉line 1 kL 𝐿 2mE 2.4 Classification of nanomaterials
𝑁 = ×2× = = (13) based on pore dimensions
𝑉single state 2 𝜋 𝜋 ℏ2
√
2mE Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on
where 𝑘 = Differentiate number of field states with
ℏ2 the length of their diameter dimensions,[39] which are
respect to energy, we get
micro porous materials, mesoporous materials, and macro
( √ ) ∕ porous materials. The diameter of the pores, in the
dN 𝑑 𝐿 2mE mL(2mE)
= = (14) intended sense, determines the size of molecules and
dE dE 𝜋 ℏ2 ℏ𝜋 provides information about the diffusion and interaction
properties. If the guest molecules are smaller than the
dN
We know 𝑔 (𝐸) = divided by cell volume pore size, there will be less molecule-wall interaction and
dE
more molecule-molecule interaction during the diffusion
−1∕2 −1∕2 process.[39] They are useful for adsorption and diffusion
mL(2mE) 𝑚(2mE)
𝑔 (𝐸) = = applications that rely on this parameter.
𝜋ℏ𝐿 𝜋ℏ
𝑚 1 √ Micro porous materials
= = 𝑚∕2𝐸 (15)
ℏ𝜋(2mE)
−1∕2 ℏ𝜋 Micro porous materials are materials that have very nar-
row pores with diameters less than 2 nm. They may only
When the electron mass m→ 𝑚∗ house small molecules such as gases or linear molecules.
1 √ ∗
They have slow diffusion kinetics and high interaction
𝑔 (𝐸) = 𝑚 ∕2 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) (16) properties. Na-Y and naturally occurring clay materials are
ℏ𝜋
examples of micro porous materials. They are used in gas
Equation (16) shows that the density of a state purification systems, membrane filters, and gas storage
is inversely proportional to energy, which is materials.
𝑔(𝐸) is proportional to 𝐸∕
Mesoporous materials
Density of state in quantum dot (0D) in nanomaterials Mesoporous materials have pores with a diameter large
For 0D nanomaterials, where all the dimensions are at the enough to hold some large molecules larger than 2 nm but
nanoscale, an electron is confined in 3D space, as shown smaller than 50 nm. Mesoporous materials include MCM-
in Figure 8.[36] 41, MCM-48, SBA-15, and carbon mesoporous materials,
No free motion is possible. All available states exist only which can be used as nanoreactors for polymerization or
at discrete energies. Then we describe the density of states adsorbing systems for liquids or vapors.
with the delta function.
Macro porous materials
𝑔 (𝐸) = 2𝛿 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) (17) Macro porous materials are materials with pores with
enough diameters (greater than 50 nm) to host very large
According to Equation (17), the density of state is the molecules, such as polyaromatic systems or small bio-
delta Dirac function, which is logical molecules. Carbon micro tubes, porous gels, and
porous glasses are examples of macro porous materi-
𝑔 (𝐸) is proportinal to 𝛿 (𝐸) als. These materials are principally used as matrices to
store functional molecules, as scaffolds to graft functional gories: bottom-up and top-down methods, as shown in
groups such as catalytic centers, and as sensing materials. Figure 9.
2.5 Classification of nanomaterials 3.1 Top-down method

based on potential toxicity
The top-down method, also known as a destructive
Nanomaterials are classified into three groups based on method, decomposes bulk materials into smaller mate-
their potential toxicity. These are fiber-like nanoparticles, rials, which then transform into nanomaterials. Lithog-
persistent granular nanoparticles, and CMAR nanoparti- raphy, mechanical milling or ball milling, laser abla-
cles (carcinogenic, mutagenic, asthma genic, reproductive tion, sputtering, electron explosion, arc discharge, and
toxin).[40] thermal decomposition are examples of the top-down
method.[31,35,41,44]
2.5.1 Fiber-like nanoparticles

3.1.1 Mechanical milling method
Fiber-like nanoparticles are similar to rigid, bio perma-
nent carbon nanotubes, fiber-like metal oxides, and carbon Mechanical milling is the most widely used top-
nanotubes, but they do not have the asbestos-like proper- down method for producing various nanoparticles.
ties. Workplace exposure limits for persistent bio carbon It is used in the manufacture of oxide- and carbide-
nanotubes and rigid nanomaterials range from 104 to strengthened aluminum alloys, wear-resistant spray
105 fibers/m3 .[40] coatings, aluminum/nickel/magnesium/copper-based
nano alloys, and a variety of other nano composite
materials.
2.5.2 Bio persistent granular nanoparticles
The proposed exposure limits for bio persistent granular 3.1.2 Nanolithography method
nanoparticles are 2 × 107 particles/m3 , which are similar
to gold, silver, cobalt, lanthanum, lead, iron, iron oxide, It is the process of printing a required shape or structure
cerium oxide, antimony oxide, and tin oxide. For insolu- on a light-sensitive material and selectively removing a
ble nanoparticles without a work exposure limit, a value of portion of the material to create the desired shape and
0.3 mg m−3 has been proposed.[40] structure. Lithography is a practical method for creating
nanoarchitectures with a concentrated electron or light
beam. The main advantages of nanolithography are its
2.5.3 CMAR (Carcinogenic, Mutagenic, ability to produce a cluster with the desired shape and
Asthma genic, Reproductive toxin) size from a single nanoparticle. The disadvantages are the
nanoparticles requirement for complex equipment and the associated
costs.
Nickel, cadmium-containing QDs, chromium VI, beryl-
lium, arsenic, and zinc chromate are examples of
CMAR nanoparticles. The proposed work exposure 3.1.3 Laser ablation method
limits from this are 2 × 107 − 4 × 107 particles/m3 . For
insoluble nanoparticles with no work exposure limit, Laser ablation synthesis generates nanoparticles by strik-
0.003 mg m−3 has been proposed. The proposed value ing the target material with a powerful laser beam. Metal
for soluble nanoparticles with no work exposure limit is atoms vaporize in a laser ablation experiment and are
1.5 mg m−3 .[40] immediately solvated by surfactant molecules to form
nanoparticles in the solution.
3 SYNTHESIS METHODS OF
NANOMATERIALS 3.1.4 Sputtering method
In general, nanomaterials are synthesized using a variety Sputtering is the phenomenon of nanoparticle deposi-
of methods, which are categorized into two main cate- tion using ejected particles colliding with ions. Sputtering
FIGURE 9 Different nanomaterial synthesis methods of nanomaterials.
is typically defined as the deposition of a thin layer of 3.2 Bottom-up method

nanoparticles followed by annealing.
The bottom-up method, also known as the constructive
method, involves the building of material from atoms to
3.1.5 Thermal decomposition method clusters to nanoparticles. CVD, sol-gel, spinning, pyroly-
sis, and biological synthesis are all examples of bottom-up
The breakdown was caused by heat. This process is methods.[31,43–45]
endothermic. The chemical bonds are broken and divided
into smaller ones by heat. The metal is broken down at par-
ticular temperatures to form the nanoparticles, which are 3.2.1 Sol-gel method
subsequently produced by a chemical reaction.
It is the process by which a suitable chemical solution
serves as a precursor. Metal oxide and chloride are com-
3.1.6 The arc discharge method mon sol-gel method precursors. Metal oxides and chlorides
are the most common sol-gel precursors.[11]
This technique can be used to create a variety of
nanostructured materials. Fullerenes, carbon nanohorns
(CNHs), carbon nanotubes, few-layer graphene (FLG), 3.2.2 Spinning method
and amorphous spherical carbon nanoparticles are some
of the carbon-based materials produced. This method The synthesis of nanoparticles by spinning is carried out
is extremely important in the production of fullerene by a spinning disc reactor (SDR). It consists of a rotat-
nanomaterials.[35] ing disc contained within a chamber or reactor where
physical parameters such as temperature can be con- reverse micelles are formed in the case of a water-in-oil
trolled. It is determined by several factors, including disc emulsion, with the hydrophilic heads pointing towards a
surface, liquid/precursor ratio, disc rotation speed, liquid water-containing core.
flow rate, and feed location. Magnetic nanoparticles were
created using spinning disc processing.[31]
3.2.8 Biosynthesis/biological method
3.2.3 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) Biosynthesis is an environmentally friendly and green
method approach to the synthesis of non-toxic and biological
nanoparticles. Green synthesis nanoparticles have distinct
CVD is the deposition of a thin film of gaseous reactants and enhanced properties that make them suitable for
onto a substrate. When a heated substrate comes into con- biomedical applications. Microorganisms (bacteria, algae,
tact with a combined gas, a chemical reaction occurs.[8] and fungi), biological templates, and various plant parts
This reaction forms a thin film of product on the substrate are used in biosynthesis.[46]
surface, which is recovered and reused. The disadvantages
of CVD are the requirement of special equipment and the Biosynthesis method using microorganisms
fact that the gaseous by-products are highly toxic.[31] Bacteria, fungi, and algae can be used to prepare vari-
ous nanomaterials from metal salt aqueous solutions. For
example, at the bottom of the sea, magnetotactic bacte-
3.2.4 Pyrolysis method ria prepare magnetic particles under anaerobic conditions;
photosynthetic bacteria such as Rhodopseudomonas cap-
Pyrolysis is the most commonly used process in indus- sulate prepare 10–20 nm-sized gold nanoparticles extra-
tries for the large-scale production of nanoparticles. The cellularly; the Fusarium oxysporum fungus is used to
advantages of pyrolysis are that it is simple, efficient, prepare extracellular silver nanoparticles; and extracel-
cost-effective and a continuous process with high yield.[35] lular gold nanoparticles are prepared using Sargassum
wightii algae. The disadvantage of this process is that some
bacteria, fungi, and algae are pathogenic, so care must be
3.2.5 Solvothermal and hydrothermal taken.
methods
Biosynthesis method using biological templates
This method produces nanostructured materials through Biological templates such as DNA and proteins create
a heterogeneous reaction carried out in an aqueous unique and sophisticated nanostructures. These nanopar-
hydrothermal method. Hydrothermal and solvothermal ticles can be used to create biosensors, bioNEMS, and bio-
methods are typically used in closed systems. Hydrother- electronic systems. Proteins are the primary constituents
mal and solvothermal methods are useful for producing of nanocomposite materials. Ferritin, for example, is
various nanogeometries of materials such as nanowires, the intracellular iron storage protein in prokaryotes and
nanorods, nano sheets, and nano spheres. eukaryotes. It stores it as iron oxide and releases it in a con-
trolled manner. It acts as a buffer in humans, regulating
iron deficiency and overload.
3.2.6 Soft and hard templating methods
Biosynthesis method using different plant parts
Soft and hard template methods are extensively used to Plants and plant extracts have also been used in the
produce nanoporous materials. The soft template method synthesis of nanoparticles. The phytochemicals found in
is a simple conventional method for the generation of plants reduce the metal nanoparticles. Flavones, organic
nanostructured materials. In this method, nano porous acids, and quinones are naturally good reducing agents
materials are produced using plenty of soft templates, for nanoparticle preparation. Gold nanoparticles of various
such as block copolymers, flexible organic molecules, and shapes are synthesized from the biomass of the Medicago
anionic, cationic, and non-ionic surfactants.[35] sativa (alfalfa) and Pelargonium graveolens (geranium)
plants. The leaves of Azadirachta indica (neem) are used
to make bimetallic Au, Ag, and bimetallic Au core-Ag
3.2.7 Reverse micelle method shell nanoparticles. Aloe vera leaf extract is used to create
gold nano triangles. Silver, nickel, cobalt, zinc, and cop-
The reverse micelle method is also useful for producing per nanoparticles are also synthesized using plants such
nanomaterials with the desired shapes and sizes. In nature, as Brassica juncea, Helianthus annuus, and sunflower.
4 PROPERTIES OF NANOMATERIALS
The properties of nanometer-scale materials differ

significantly from those of atoms and bulk materi-
als due to surface charge/interaction, crystallography,
composition, surface area, and nanoscale size effects,
which can be seen in the magnetic, optical, electri-
cal, mechanical, chemical, and physical properties of
nanomaterials.[35,39,42] The purity and performance of the
nanoparticle are determined by its chemical or elemental
F I G U R E 1 0 The colors of gold and silver nanomaterials are
composition. size-dependent, as are their effects on the coloring of stained
Particle size is one of the most fundamental and glass.[52]
important measurements for nanoparticle characteriza-
tion. Electron microscopy is the most commonly used
technique to measure the size and distribution. The sur- 4.2 Magnetic properties of
face area-to-volume ratio of a nanoparticle has a significant nanomaterials
impact on its performance and properties. The surface area
is most commonly measured using Brunauer–Emmett– The magnetic behavior of elements can change at the
Teller (BET) analysis.[42] The purity and performance of nanoscale because of the size of magnetic nanoparti-
nanoparticles are directly related to their chemical or cles. The nanostructuring of bulk magnetic materials
elemental composition. alters the curves, resulting in soft or hard magnets with
A nanoparticle’s interactions with a target are deter- improved properties at the nanoscale. The size has the abil-
mined by either its surface charge or its overall charge. One ity to increase coactivity and super-paramagnetic behav-
of the most common applications for a zeta potentiometer ior at critical grain sizes. Nonmagnetic bulk materials
is to measure the surface charges and dispersion stability can become magnetic at the nanoscale. For example,
of a substance in a solution. gold and platinum are non-magnetic in bulk but mag-
Nanomaterials: The scientific study of the arrange- netic on the nanoscale.[48] Magnetic nanomaterials are
ment of atoms and molecules within crystals and other used in biomedical applications such as drug delivery
materials is known as crystallography. Crystallography magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetic fluid
can be used to determine the structural organization hyperthermia.[49,50]
of nanoparticles using powder x-ray diffraction, electron
diffraction, or neutron diffraction. Nanomaterials Concen-
tration is needed to quantify the number of nanomaterials 4.3 Optical properties of nanomaterials
dispersed throughout the gaseous phase in order to cal-
culate the concentration of air or gas required for the Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is an optical
operation. property of nanoparticles. Some studies have shown that
the line width is influenced by the size of nanoparticles.
For example, by decreasing the size of Au nanoparticles,
4.1 Physical properties of the emission light position changes from the Near-infrared
nanomaterials (NIR) region to the ultraviolet (UV) region. Due to their
very small size, nanoparticles can lose their LSPR and
The melting temperature of a bulk material is not depen- become photoluminescent.[51] As a result of quantum con-
dent on its size, but the melting point of nanomaterials finement in nanomaterials, visible light emission can be
decreases as the particle size decreases due to the tuned by varying the nanoscale dimensions. It has been
unbounded surface atoms.[47] discovered that as the size of the nanomaterials decreases,
The total volume of a bulk material remains unchanged the peak emission shifts toward shorter wavelengths. Mat-
when it is subdivided into nanoscale materials, but the ter can change color at the nanoscale; for example, gold
collective surface area increases. In comparison to bulk nanospheres can turn to yellow at 100 nm, greenish yel-
materials, this results in an increase in the surface-to- low at 50 nm, and red at 25 nm, while silver can also turn
volume ratio at the nanoscale. The surface molecules or orange at 200 nm, light blue at 90 nm, and blue at 40 nm
atoms have a high surface energy and a proclivity to spherical thin film length.[40,52] Their effect appeared as
agglomerate.[36] shown in Figure 10.
FIGURE 11 Electrical behavior of nanotubes: A, metal; B, semiconductor; C, graphite.[47,48]
4.4 Electrical properties of 4.6 Mechanical properties

nanomaterials
Materials’ mechanical properties of the materials, such
Nanomaterials can increase conductivity in ceramics, but as elasticity, ductility, tensile strength, and flexibility,
increase electric resistance in metal. Electron conduction play an important role in their application. Influence on
is delocalized in bulk materials, which means electrons mechanical properties in nanomaterials, such as increased
can move freely in all directions. When the scale is reduced hardness, yield strength, elastic modulus, and toughness
to the nanoscale, the quantum effect takes over; elec- compared to bulk materials. Strength and hardness of
tron delocalization occurs along the axis of nanotubes, nanostructured materials increase with decreasing grain
nanorods, and nanowires. size and grain boundary deformation.[24]
Due to electron confinement, the energy bands are The increase in mechanical strength is simply due to a
replaced by discrete energy states, causing conducting lower probability of defects and an increase in imperfec-
materials to behave as either semiconductors or insulators. tion. It improved alloy hardness and toughness as well as
This result indicates that the metal is becoming a semi- ceramic super plasticity.[3,29,35]
conductor. Carbon nanotubes, for example, can be either
conductors or semiconductors depending on their nanos-
tructure. To reduce the diameter of the wire, the number 5 APPLICATION OF
of electron wave modes contributing to electrical conduc- NANOMATERIALS
tivity is reduced in well-defined quantized steps. It shows
in Figure 11. Nanomaterials are used in many fields of application, as
shown in Table 1, which are nanomedicine fields such
as nano drugs, medical devices, tissue engineering, and
4.5 Chemical properties of chemical and cosmetic fields such as nanoscale chemi-
nanomaterials cals and compounds, paints, and coatings, in materials
science. Nanoparticles field, carbon nanotubes, biopoly-
The applications of this substance are determined by mers, paints, and coatings, in the Food Sciences field
its chemical properties, which include the reactivity of such as processing, nutraceutical food, nanocapsules,
the nanoparticles with the target and their stability and in Environment and Energy field such as water and
sensitivity to elements such as moisture, environment, air purification filters, fuel cells, photovoltaic, Military
heat, and light. The flammability, corrosiveness, anti- and Energy field such as biosensors, weapons, sensory
corrosiveness, oxidative potential, and reduction poten- enhancement, in Electronics Semiconductors field chips,
tial of the nanoparticles all play a role in determining memory storage, photonic, optoelectronics, and in Scien-
their applications.[31] Nanomaterials have significantly tific tools fields, atomic force fields such as a microscopic
improved or novel catalytic properties such as reac- and scanning tunneling microscope, and agriculture
tivity, selectivity, and catalysts compared to their bulk field atomic force, microscopic and scanning tunneling
analogues.[48] microscope.[51,53,54–62]
TA B L E 1 Summary of some applications of nanomaterials.

Field of application Principles of application Nanomaterials Citation
Solar cell Convert photon energy in to electricity Ag NW, Cu NW [2]
OLED To emit light ITO electrodes [2]
Super capacitor Very fast charger or discharger, high power storage Lithium, sodium, potassium [2, 63]
Transistor For amplifying or switching electrical power Si & Ge [2]
Lithium-ion batteries Produce rechargeable batteries Carbon nanotubes, nanosized [5, 2]
transition metal oxide,
nano-sized composite material
Imaging Ability to penetrate cells, good analytical signals Ag and Cu bimetallic nanoparticles [51, 2, 11]
Cancer diagnosis Biomedical Imaging Used for Cancer and tumor Gold and iron-based nanoparticles [51, 11, 9]
detection
Drug delivery and cancer The aim of drug delivery includes precise targeting Au nanoparticle, silicon [51, 9]
therapy and therapeutic efficacy nanoparticle, carbon nanotube,
nano graphene
Biomedicine Gene delivery CNTs [8]
COVID-19 diagnosis and rSARS-CoV-2 tagging and development of COVID-19 Lipid nanoparticles Au nanoparticle [16–19]
Prevention mRNA vaccines
Against monkey pox Chelating the vires circulating in the blood stream. Iron oxide nanoparticle Ag nano [19, 20]
Block vires host cell binding and penetration particle
Medical Selective reactivity with certain biomolecules and Fullerenes [55]
antiviral activity
Food industry Despite toxicological concerns, detect volatile TiO2 and Ag [11]
organic compounds
Agricultural Fertilizer developer SiO2 , ZnO, CuO, Fe, and Mg [11]
Potential vaccine adjuvant Used for the development of robust immune Aluminum hydro-oxide, gold [51]
response. nanoparticle
Anti -bacterial activity Used in treatment of disease caused by bacteria. Gold, silver, copper, titanium, iron [51]
nanoparticle
High sensitivity sensor For detecting varies parameters like electrical ZnSe, CdS, ZnS, CdTe [2, 11, 12]
resistivity, magnetic permeability, thermal
conductivity and capacitance
Data storage The aim of this is to store a large amount of Spintronics & nanowires [2, 11, 12]
information
Aero industry To protect air craft from lighting strike Cu Mesh [2]
Electromagnetic Blocking EM radiation Al, Cu, steel [2]
interference shielding
Display Resolution of the image on the monitor by reducing CNTs [2]
pixel size
Micro-electronics To produce faster logic gates Carbon nanotube, lead telluride, [2]
cadmium sulphide
Construction Increase the strength of material SiO2 , Fe2 O3 [12, 55]
Cutting tools For hard material Tungsten carbide [2]
Environmental Increase growing rate of plants CNTs [11, 5]
Elimination of pollutants Used as catalysts to react with toxic gases Titanium oxide, calcium carbonate [2, 13–14]
mixed silicon-based polymer
Energy Alternating energy storage media CNTs [55]
Textile Coating textiles such as nylon, to provide Ultra-hydrophobic water-resistant [2]
antimicrobial characteristics and strain resistance fabrics
Cosmetics Used in sunscreen and in the cosmetic industry Titanium oxide, zinc oxide [2, 12]
Car tires Mechanical reinforcement Carbon block [2]
Car bumpers To make car exterior lighter Nanosized clay [2]
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Received: 17 March 2023 Revised: 31 May 2023 Accepted: 31 May 2023

Nanomaterials: An overview of synthesis, classification,

Bawoke Mekuye Birhanu Abera

Department of Physics, College of Natural

486 wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/nano Nano Select 2023;4:486–501.

FIGURE 1 General classification of nanomaterials.

2.2.1 Organic nanomaterials liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, and ferritin. Non-toxic

FIGURE 3 Types of carbon-based nanomaterials.[33]

F I G U R E 4 Classification of nanomaterials according to dimension: A, zero-dimensional; B, one-dimensional; C, two-dimensional; D,

material made up of carbon, generally spherical in shape, 2.3 Classification of nanomaterials

FIGURE 5 Density of state for 3D.

FIGURE 6 Density of state for quantum wells (two-dimensional nanomaterials).

The volume of sphere

The number of field state in the cube

For calculating the density of state for a 1D structure

The volume of sphere

2.5 Classification of nanomaterials 3.1 Top-down method

2.5.1 Fiber-like nanoparticles

FIGURE 9 Different nanomaterial synthesis methods of nanomaterials.

is typically defined as the deposition of a thin layer of 3.2 Bottom-up method

The properties of nanometer-scale materials differ

FIGURE 11 Electrical behavior of nanotubes: A, metal; B, semiconductor; C, graphite.[47,48]

4.4 Electrical properties of 4.6 Mechanical properties

TA B L E 1 Summary of some applications of nano- materials.

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