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PDF The Quick Fix Guide To Academic Writing How To Avoid Big Mistakes and Small Errors 1St Edition Phillip C Shon Ebook Full Chapter
PDF The Quick Fix Guide To Academic Writing How To Avoid Big Mistakes and Small Errors 1St Edition Phillip C Shon Ebook Full Chapter
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The Quick Fix Guide to Academic Writing
The Quick Fix Guide to Academic Writing
How to Avoid Big Mistakes and Small Errors
Phillip C. Shon
SAGE Publications Ltd
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
Mathura Road
3 Church Street
Singapore 049483
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-5264-0588-3
Printed in the UK
To my wife, the MSG of my life.
Contents
1. About the Author
2. Acknowledgements
3. Summation
4. Introduction
1. A note on the Use of the Reading Codes
2. Organization of the Book
5. 1 Understanding the “Big” and “Little” Errors in Your Paper
1. “Big” Errors
2. “Little” Errors
3. Conclusion
6. 2 What am I Supposed to Do in My Paper?
1. The Lone Wolf Claim
2. Formulating a Research Question
3. Types of Writing Assignments
4. Conclusion
7. 3 How to Synthesize the Literature
1. Organizing your own RCOS
2. Interpreting RCOS: A Student Example
3. The Infiniteness of Synthesis
4. Conclusion
8. 4 How to Develop a Critique of Previous Literature
1. Critiquing Ice Cream, Hamburger, and a Movie
2. Three Questions that Lead to an Appropriate Critique of Previous
Literature
3. A Haven for CPLs and GAPs
4. Conclusion
9. 5 How to Produce a Finding and a Claim
1. Differentiating between ROF and ROA
2. The Citationality of the ROF and ROA
3. Building an Argument and Creating Main Sections
4. The Scope of Claims in Non-empirical Papers
5. Conclusion
10. 6 How to Write an Abstract, Introduction, Discussion, and Conclusion
1. How to Write an Abstract
2. How to Write an Introduction
3. How to Write a Discussion
4. How to Write a Conclusion
5. A Note on Data and Methods
6. Conclusion
11. 7 Conclusion: A Do-It-Yourself (DIY) Model of Social Science
Writing
12. References
13. Index
About the Author
Phillip C. Shon
received his MA and PhD in Criminal Justice from the University of
Illinois (Chicago); he also holds an MA in Linguistics and a BA in
Philosophy from Northeastern Illinois University (Chicago). He is
currently a Professor of Criminology at the University of Ontario
Institute of Technology where he teaches courses in Homicide and
Criminological Theory. He is the author of How to Read Journal
Articles in the Social Sciences (Sage, 2015), Language and Demeanor
in Police-Citizen Encounters (University Press of America, 2008), and
Respect, Defense, and Self-Identity: Profiling Parricide in Nineteenth-
Century America, 1852–1899 (Peter Lang, 2014). He is a co-editor
(with Dragan Milovanovic) of Serial Killers: Understanding Lust
Murders (Carolina Academic Press, 2006). Phil grew up in Chicago.
He no longer hides the shame of being a Cubs fan, and has completely
forgotten Game 6 of the 2003 National League Championship Series.
He is patiently awaiting the Chicago Bears to come up with a sequel to
the “Super Bowl Shuffle” before they return once more to the
Promised Land.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to my former and current students, especially at the University
of Ontario Institute of Technology, for being open to the idea of the reading
codes. I know I caused you a lot of anxiety and concern as you worried
about “beating one horse” or making other big errors. I am especially
grateful to Ms Bakshi for allowing me to use her RCOS for purposes of
illustration. I would also like to thank Jai Seaman at Sage for her enduring
support for the current project.
Dr Kerr, I want you to know that the lessons you imparted on me over
twenty years ago still live on. I chuckle every time I scribble the grading
code “LMG” on the margins of students’ papers. I still turn pages of The
Will to Power and think of you, even though it has been over fifteen years
since you passed away. I never got to say goodbye. This is what I would
have said: Let the world perish, but let there be philosophy, the philosopher,
you.
Summation
Most how-to books on writing mention the various errors that students
make in their papers without adequately delving into the origins and
consequences of those errors. This book uses the “big” and “small” errors
that students commonly make in their papers as tools to help them become
more effective writers. In this error-based approach to writing in the social
sciences, Phillip C. Shon—“Dr. Phil”—teaches undergraduate and graduate
students how to write their papers using the information gathered from their
reading of social science journal articles as part of the writing process. By
showing how social science texts are structurally and logically organized,
he teaches students how to apply that social science logic to the various
writing assignments they encounter throughout their tenure at the
university.
Introduction
Trying to find a how-to book on academic writing is a daunting task. If you
are a student who is looking to purchase such a book, you first have to
figure out the type of paper you have been assigned, and then decide which
book you want to buy as a reference guide before beginning your
assignment. As an example, some how-to books teach students how to write
short, paragraph-length essays (e.g., Greasley, 2011; Greetham, 2013;
Redman & Maples, 2011; Shiach, 2009; Shields, 2010), while other books
teach you how to write extended texts such as an honors thesis (e.g.,
Glatthorn & Joyner, 2005; Lipson, 2005). Some books specialize in
teaching you how to write traditional and systematic literature reviews
(Fink, 2010; Jesson et al., 2011; Machi & McEvoy, 2012; Ridley, 2012) or
Master’s theses (Bui, 2009). The advice proffered in existing how-to books
on writing is dictated primarily by the type of paper you have been
assigned. After you have purchased the reference guide that is best suited
for you, you must then plow through the often encyclopedic-length guides
before you can even apply the lessons you may have learned into your
current writing projects. A book that teaches students how to write cannot
be overly burdensome to readers. Ideally, you should be able to finish
reading the book in a sitting or two, which should not interfere too much
with other academic tasks you have to complete.
Those made in social science papers can be broadly categorized into two
types: (1) “big errors” or mistakes that are structural and conceptual; and
(2) “little errors” or mistakes that are stylistic, mechanical, and
grammatical. The two types of error are not equal, and should be treated
differently. “Big errors” tend to be ecological: the occurrence of one error
logically, sequentially, and necessarily leads to a series of cognate errors. As
an example, “beating one horse” problem (“BHP”) leads to a “laundry list
problem” which then leads to a failure to synthesize the literature problem.
The “big errors” require a structural overhaul—by the time these errors
have appeared in students’ final papers, they are usually on their way
toward failure in the class, and therefore these errors ought to be prevented
before they occur. Similarly, the “little errors” that students make are not
randomly distributed—they occur in clusters, with predictable regularity
and frequency, similar to the behaviors of homicide offenders at crime
scenes. These can be fixed with relative ease, and represent the most
amenable objects of correction should instructors have the time and
inclination to fix such persistent mistakes. Again, these types of errors
should be shown (taught), not narrated. Any how-to book that attempts to
teach you how to write should address the source of the preceding errors as
well as the remedies. Otherwise, the same errors will persist.
Previous works already hint that there may be a pattern in the errors that
students make (e.g., Goodson, 2013, p. 67; Greasley, 2011, p. 10; Jesson et
al., 2011, p. 90, 95). However, these errors are discussed in an anecdotal
and ad hoc fashion, and not systematically analyzed as objects of analysis.
The grading code sheet that I have developed from fifteen years of
university teaching provides a way for you to learn and apply the logic of
social science writing by revealing the form of the common errors (see
Chapter 1). It also provides an account of the source of those structural and
conceptual errors. This book therefore gives you a genealogical explanation
of why student errors occur and persist. It is my contention that once you
understand those errors, you will avoid making them. Furthermore, the
grading code sheet can be used as a diagnostic tool to identify and fix these.
Teachers cannot fix students’ mistakes if they do not know the nature and
origin of those errors. Motivated students can identity and fix these
themselves, should they have the drive and the motivation to do so. I would
argue that once you understand the logic of social science writing, you will
be able to teach yourself the rest.
I believe that I can teach you how to write social science papers by first
introducing you to what is incorrect in the context of academic writing. It
begins the task of teaching you how not to write by first identifying what
are the common errors, their sources, and their likely location of occurrence
in the structural organization of social science papers. After all, ideas about
right and wrong approaches to writing, like morality, coexist and only serve
to complement the other.
There are several reasons why a general how-to book on writing papers in
the social sciences is necessary. With the exception of undergraduate
capstone courses and honors theses, undergraduate writing in social
sciences often tends to be left to the discretion and idiosyncratic practices of
course instructors. Undergraduate writing—and education in general—is
certainly not rewarded in any meaningful way for faculty members who
teach it well (Haggerty, 2010). If undergraduate writing is formally
prioritized on a university level, there is often a lack of consistency across
disciplines. Perhaps with the exception of honors colleges and programs
that require the completion of a major paper or an honors thesis
(Massengill, n.d.), general undergraduate writing tends to be treated in a
tertiary way, overshadowed by more “objective” assessments such as
standardized tests.
Although some students may undertake intensive writing projects that are
based on analyzes of empirical data (e.g., senior thesis, honors thesis) in
their undergraduate years (Lipson, 2005; Massengill, n.d.), most “papers”
that are written after the first year in a university do not warrant such
empirical requirements. Instead, most writing assignments involve a
critique, application, or development of a theory in some way—primarily
conceptual and theoretical. While the empirical and conceptual papers tend
to be treated discretely, it is my contention that both types of writing
projects share one underlying logic. This book teaches you how to
understand the logic that permeates social science texts. Once you
understand this logic, I believe that you will be able to write social science
papers that are empirical or theoretical without undue struggle, for you will
have mastered the essence of scholarly writing—the production of a
claim/argument/finding that emerges from a critique of the existing
literature.
There is also a lack of consistency and clarity about the various terms and
procedures involved in the writing process that are used across textbooks.
For example, the term “dissertation” generally means a doctoral-level
document in North America, but something else in the UK (see Shields,
2010). Similarly, the term “thesis” or “thesis statement” is used in confusing
ways as well: it is used to indicate a conclusion (Machi & McEvoy, 2012), a
main idea, and the actual text itself (see Lipson, 2005). Perhaps most
importantly, previous works do not disambiguate how research questions
are formulated in the first place, often providing students with vague
directives to “brainstorm” for ideas based on topical interest. How to Read
Journal Articles in the Social Sciences (Shon, 2015) introduced students to
critical reading as a prelude to writing; this book teaches you how to
remedy the shortcomings that you have identified from your readings. The
Quick Fix Guide to Academic Writing thus synthesizes and integrates the
points of similarity and differences across existing textbooks—and
terminology—into one simple and usable book that illuminates the logic of
social science writing.
There are other books that teach you how to write, from grammar and other
general writing tips, to essays, theses and dissertations, and literature
reviews. The existing how-to books on the market are constrained by the
specific types of assignments and documents that are produced. For
example, a book on how to write a Master’s thesis is only marketable to
those writing a Master’s thesis; a book on how to write an essay is only
marketable to those writing an essay; a book on how to write a literature
review is only marketable to those writing a literature review. Simply put,
the market for how-to books is restricted by the scope and vision of the
assignment—the paper that you are writing. None of the previous how-to
books capture the logic of social science thinking and writing that binds the
papers that are written in the social sciences. Rather than instructing you on
how to do a specific assignment, this book teaches the logic of social
science writing that informs most social science papers, from literature
reviews to PhD dissertations. Therefore it is applicable to most
assignments, not just one type. It teaches you how to write papers using the
reading codes (see Table 1).
A book like The Quick Fix Guide to Academic Writing will be particularly
helpful for some students who are writing papers that are non-empirical. In
these types of non-empirical papers, the onus is on the student to produce
an original claim, a claim that is equivalent to a “finding” in empirical
papers. Most undergraduates will not undertake a two-semester sequence
thesis writing course, but they will have to complete a culminating
experience/capstone course. For students enrolled in the non-thesis track, a
paper that requires an original claim through synthesis, critique, and sound
argumentation and inference should be an achievable goal. This book
teaches you how to produce such claims in your papers.
While both this book and the preceding one (Shon, 2015) were intended for
social sciences, feedback from How to Read Journal Articles in the Social
Sciences has been received from all academic disciplines—from education
and social work to business and marketing. The appeal probably arises from
the fact that reading critically is necessary across disciplines; it is not
unique to criminology or sociology. If the idea of finding, developing, and
remedying a gap in the literature loses its significance, then the practice of
asking research questions to improve knowledge becomes irrelevant as
well. The Quick Fix Guide to Academic Writing will appeal to disciplines
that require their students to write papers.
Another appealing point here is that it builds upon a previous work, and
tackles the next logical step in the writing process: making the transition
from reading to writing. It shows you how to use the reading codes to write
your own papers, from literature reviews to honors theses and dissertations.
It therefore builds on an already accepted learning tool (reading codes) to
make the logical next step rather than inventing an entirely new framework
for teaching writing. Readers who have found the reading codes useful will
find the application of the reading codes and the grading codes helpful as
well.
A Note on the Use of the Reading Codes
The reading codes used here were developed in a previous work (Shon,
2015) in order to simplify and organize the reading process so that students
do not engage in what I called “meandering reading.”
For example, the ROFs (Results of Findings, the main findings of a SCJA)
appear in three places: abstract, results section, and the discussion and
conclusion section. They are repeated three times within one paper because
they represent the most important part of a SCJA—they are the “golden
nuggets” so to speak, for they represent what the article is “about” and
because the results dictate the citational authority of a paper (see Chapter
5). One primarily cites an author based on her main findings/results, not
other parts of the paper.
I stated that ROFs are the golden nuggets of any SCJA. In addition to the
citational authority of a paper, an SCJA’s discussion and conclusion hinge
on the ROFs in the following ways. After the authors of SCJAs have
presented their findings, they must then interpret and contextualize their
findings in the context of the work that others have done. There are two
interpretive possibilities: the current ROFs are consistent with the literature
(RCL) and support existing findings, or they are inconsistent with the
literature and the results are to the contrary (RTC). RCLs and RTCs do not
appear in introductions and literature reviews; they appear in the rear
sections of SCJAs in discussions and conclusions. The same pattern applies
to Recommendations for Future Works (RFW); they appear in the very last
sections of SCJAs.
My main argument is that you can be taught to write social science papers
more effectively if you used the reading codes to read the SCJAs, to
organize your notes in the form of reading codes (RCOS), and to use the
RCOS to write your paper. I will spend the remaining chapters
demonstrating how that task can be accomplished. Once you learn to read
using the codes, you will be able to differentiate between well-written
SCJAs and not-so-well written SCJAs. You will see the difference between
well-synthesized paragraphs and paragraphs written by a lazy author. Once
you are able to identify the difference between good and bad texts as you
read, you will become a better writer due to that newly acquired knowledge.
And once your eyes have been opened to the logic of social science texts,
you will not be able to go back to reading and writing blindly.
N. de l’A.