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The Science
and Engineering
of Materials
Seventh Edition
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
The Science
and Engineering
of Materials
Seventh Edition
Donald R. Askeland
University of Missouri—Rolla, Emeritus
Wendelin J. Wright
Bucknell University
Australia Brazil Japan Korea Mexico Singapore Spain United Kingdom United States
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
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The Science and Engineering of Materials, © 2016, 2011 Cengage Learning
Seventh Edition WCN: 02-200-203
Donald R. Askeland and Wendelin J. Wright
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Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2014
To Mary Sue and Tyler
–Donald R. Askeland
To John, my love
–Wendelin J. Wright
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science and

Engineering 3
1-1 What is Materials Science and Engineering? 4
1-2 Classification of Materials 7
1-3 Functional Classification of Materials 10
1-4 Classification of Materials Based on Structure 12
1-5 Environmental and Other Effects 12
1-6 Materials Design and Selection 14
Summary 15 | Glossary 16 | Problems 17
Chapter 2 Atomic Structure 21
2-1 The Structure of Materials: Technological Relevance 22

2-2 The Structure of the Atom 25
2-3 The Electronic Structure of the Atom 26
2-4 The Periodic Table 29
2-5 Atomic Bonding 31
2-6 Binding Energy and Interatomic Spacing 37
2-7 The Many Forms of Carbon: Relationships Between Arrangements
of Atoms and Materials Properties 40
Chapter 3 Atomic and Ionic Arrangements 51
3-1 Short-Range Order versus Long-Range Order 52

3-2 Amorphous Materials 54
3-3 Lattice, Basis, Unit Cells, and Crystal Structures 54
3-4 Allotropic or Polymorphic Transformations 66
3-5 Points, Directions, and Planes in the Unit Cell 67
3-6 Interstitial Sites 76
3-7 Crystal Structures of Ionic Materials 78
3-8 Covalent Structures 84
3-9 Diffraction Techniques for Crystal Structure Analysis 87
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 4 Imperfections in the Atomic and lonic

Arrangements 103
4-1 Point Defects 104
4-2 Other Point Defects 109
4-3 Dislocations 111
4-4 Significance of Dislocations 117
4-5 Schmid’s Law 118
4-6 Influence of Crystal Structure 120
4-7 Surface Defects 122
4-8 Importance of Defects 128
Chapter 5 Atom and Ion Movements in Materials 141
5-1 Applications of Diffusion 142

5-2 Stability of Atoms and Ions 145
5-3 Mechanisms for Diffusion 147
5-4 Activation Energy for Diffusion 148
5-5 Rate of Diffusion [Fick’s First Law] 149
5-6 Factors Affecting Diffusion 153
5-7 Permeability of Polymers 159
5-8 Composition Profile [Fick’s Second Law] 160
5-9 Diffusion and Materials Processing 165
Chapter 6 Mechanical Properties: Part One 181
6-1 Technological Significance 182

6-2 Terminology for Mechanical Properties 183
6-3 The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress Strain Diagram 185
6-4 Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test 190
6-5 True Stress and True Strain 197
6-6 The Bend Test for Brittle Materials 199
6-7 Hardness of Materials 202
6-8 Nanoindentation 203
6-9 Strain Rate Effects and Impact Behavior 207
6-10 Properties Obtained from the Impact Test 208
6-11 Bulk Metallic Glasses and Their Mechanical Behavior 210
6-12 Mechanical Behavior at Small Length Scales 213
6-13 Rheology of Liquids 215
Contents ix
(a)
(b)
Chapter 7 Mechanical Properties: Part Two 229
7-1 Fracture Mechanics 230

(c)
7-2 The Importance of Fracture Mechanics 233

7-3 Microstructural Features of Fracture in Metallic Materials 236
7-4 Microstructural Features of Fracture in Ceramics, Glasses,
and Composites 239
7-5 Weibull Statistics for Failure Strength Analysis 241
7-6 Fatigue 245
7-7 Results of the Fatigue Test 247
7-8 Application of Fatigue Testing 249
7-9 Creep, Stress Rupture, and Stress Corrosion 252
7-10 Evaluation of Creep Behavior 254
7-11 Use of Creep Data 256
Chapter 8 Strain Hardening and Annealing 269
8-1 Relationship of Cold Working to the Stress Strain Curve 270

8-2 Strain-Hardening Mechanisms 274
8-3 Properties versus Percent Cold Work 276
8-4 Microstructure, Texture Strengthening, and Residual
Stresses 278
8-5 Characteristics of Cold Working 282
8-6 The Three Stages of Annealing 285
8-7 Control of Annealing 287
8-8 Annealing and Materials Processing 289
8-9 Hot Working 291
Chapter 9 Principles of Solidification 305
9-1 Technological Significance 306

9-2 Nucleation 307
9-3 Applications of Controlled Nucleation 311
9-4 Growth Mechanisms 312
9-5 Solidification Time and Dendrite Size 314
9-6 Cooling Curves 318
9-7 Cast Structure 319
9-8 Solidification Defects 321
9-9 Casting Processes for Manufacturing Components 325
9-10 Continuous Casting and Ingot Casting 327
x Contents
9-11 Directional Solidification [DS], Single Crystal Growth,

and Epitaxial Growth 331
9-12 Solidification of Polymers and Inorganic Glasses 332
9-13 Joining of Metallic Materials 333
Chapter 10 Solid Solutions and Phase Equilibrium 349
10-1 Phases and the Phase Diagram 350

10-2 Solubility and Solid Solutions 353
10-3 Conditions for Unlimited Solid Solubility 356
10-4 Solid-Solution Strengthening 357
10-5 Isomorphous Phase Diagrams 359
10-6 Relationship Between Properties and the Phase Diagram 367
10-7 Solidification of a Solid-Solution Alloy 368
10-8 Nonequilibrium Solidification and Segregation 370
Chapter 11 Dispersion Strengthening and Eutectic

Phase Diagrams 385
11-1 Principles and Examples of Dispersion Strengthening 386
11-2 Intermetallic Compounds 387
11-3 Phase Diagrams Containing Three-Phase Reactions 389
11-4 The Eutectic Phase Diagram 391
11-5 Strength of Eutectic Alloys 401
11-6 Eutectics and Materials Processing 406
11-7 Nonequilibrium Freezing in the Eutectic System 407
11-8 Nanowires and the Eutectic Phase Diagram 408
Chapter 12 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase

Transformations and Heat Treatment 421
12-1 Nucleation and Growth in Solid-State Reactions 422
12-2 Alloys Strengthened by Exceeding the Solubility Limit 426
12-3 Age or Precipitation Hardening and Its Applications 428
12-4 Microstructural Evolution in Age or Precipitation
Hardening 429
12-5 Effects of Aging Temperature and Time 432
12-6 Requirements for Age Hardening 433
12-7 Use of Age-Hardenable Alloys at High Temperatures 433
12-8 The Eutectoid Reaction 434
12-9 Controlling the Eutectoid Reaction 438
12-10 The Martensitic Reaction and Tempering 443
Contents xi
12-11 The Shape-Memory Alloys [SMAs] 447

Chapter 13 Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast

Irons 461
13-1 Designations and Classification of Steels 462
13-2 Simple Heat Treatments 465
13-3 Isothermal Heat Treatments 468
13-4 Quench and Temper Heat Treatments 471
13-5 Effect of Alloying Elements 475
13-6 Application of Hardenability 477
13-7 Specialty Steels 480
13-8 Surface Treatments 482
13-9 Weldability of Steel 484
13-10 Stainless Steels 485
13-11 Cast Irons 488
Chapter 14 Nonferrous Alloys 503
14-1 Aluminum Alloys 504

14-2 Magnesium and Beryllium Alloys 510
14-3 Copper Alloys 511
14-4 Nickel and Cobalt Alloys 515
14-5 Titanium Alloys 518
14-6 Refractory and Precious Metals 524
Chapter 15 Ceramics 531
15-1 Bonding in Ceramics 533

15-2 Structures of Crystalline Ceramics 535
15-3 Defects in Crystalline Ceramics 538
15-4 Flaws in Ceramics 541
15-5 Synthesis and Processing of Crystalline Ceramics 544
15-6 Silica and Silicate Compounds 549
15-7 Inorganic Glasses 551
15-8 Glass-Ceramics 557
15-9 Processing and Applications of Clay Products 558
15-10 Refractories 560
15-11 Other Ceramic Materials 562
xii Contents
Chapter 16 Polymers 571
16-1 Classification of Polymers 572

16-2 Addition and Condensation Polymerization 575
16-3 Degree of Polymerization 579
16-4 Typical Thermoplastics 581
16-5 Structure—Property Relationships in Thermoplastics 583
16-6 Effect of Temperature on Thermoplastics 587
16-7 Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics 593
16-8 Elastomers [Rubbers] 598
16-9 Thermosetting Polymers 602
16-10 Adhesives 604
16-11 Polymer Processing and Recycling 605
Chapter 17 Composites: Teamwork and Synergy

in Materials 617
17-1 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 619
17-2 Particulate Composites 621
17-3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites 625
17-4 Characteristics of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 629
17-5 Manufacturing Fibers and Composites 636
17-6 Fiber-Reinforced Systems and Applications 640
17-7 Laminar Composite Materials 646
17-8 Examples and Applications of Laminar Composites 647
17-9 Sandwich Structures 648
Chapter 18 Construction Materials 659
18-1 The Structure of Wood 660

18-2 Moisture Content and Density of Wood 662
18-3 Mechanical Properties of Wood 664
18-4 Expansion and Contraction of Wood 666
18-5 Plywood 666
18-6 Concrete Materials 667
18-7 Properties of Concrete 669
18-8 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete 673
18-9 Asphalt 674
Contents xiii
Chapter 19 Electronic Materials 679
19-1 Ohm’s Law and Electrical Conductivity 681

19-2 Band Structure of Solids 685
19-3 Conductivity of Metals and Alloys 689
19-4 Semiconductors 692
19-5 Applications of Semiconductors 699
19-6 General Overview of Integrated Circuit Processing 702
19-7 Deposition of Thin Films 705
19-8 Conductivity in Other Materials 706
19-9 Insulators and Dielectric Properties 708
19-10 Polarization in Dielectrics 708
19-11 Electrostriction, Piezoelectricity, and Ferroelectricity 712
Chapter 20 Magnetic Materials 723
20-1 Classification of Magnetic Materials 724

20-2 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetic Moments 724
20-3 Magnetization, Permeability, and the Magnetic Field 726
20-4 Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic, Ferrimagnetic,
and Superparamagnetic Materials 729
20-5 Domain Structure and the Hysteresis Loop 731
20-6 The Curie Temperature 734
20-7 Applications of Magnetic Materials 735
20-8 Metallic and Ceramic Magnetic Materials 741
Chapter 21 Photonic Materials 753
21-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 754

21-2 Refraction, Reflection, Absorption, and Transmission 754
21-3 Selective Absorption, Transmission, or Reflection 766
21-4 Examples and Use of Emission Phenomena 766
21-5 Fiber-Optic Communications Systems 775
Chapter 22 Thermal Properties of Materials 781
22-1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 782

22-2 Thermal Expansion 784
xiv Contents
22-3 Thermal Conductivity 788

22-4 Thermal Shock 792
Chapter 23 Corrosion and Wear 799
23-1 Chemical Corrosion 800

23-2 Electrochemical Corrosion 802
23-3 The Electrode Potential in Electrochemical Cells 805
23-4 The Corrosion Current and Polarization 809
23-5 Types of Electrochemical Corrosion 810
23-6 Protection Against Electrochemical Corrosion 815
23-7 Microbial Degradation and Biodegradable Polymers 820
23-8 Oxidation and Other Gas Reactions 821
23-9 Wear and Erosion 824
Appendix A: Selected Physical Properties of Metals 832

Appendix B: The Atomic and lonic Radii of Selected
Elements 835
Answers to Selected Problems 837
Index 848
Preface
The copper age, the iron age, the silicon age . . . eras defined by the materials found in
nature, but manipulated by the engineers of their day. The fundamental principles of
structure, defects, kinetics, and processing are generally applicable to all materials, while
over time our understanding has advanced and incorporated new ideas. As a result, the
observable and macroscopic behavior of materials, spanning such varied characteristics as
mechanical strength and toughness, electrical conductivity, refractive index, and corrosion
resistance, is both understood more deeply and related more directly to underlying atomic-
level phenomena.
Our tools for characterizing and manipulating materials have also grown vastly
more sophisticated, allowing for deeper insights into materials structures and phenomena.
At the edge of innovation we find the discovery—or even the creation—of entirely new
materials, often made possible by new processing techniques, by circumventing equilibrium
to cause materials to exist in metastable states, and by developing the tools to assemble,
form, and study materials at the nanoscale. It is now routine, for instance, to examine mate-
rials at the near-atomic level for both structure and composition, using techniques such as
high resolution transmission electron microscopy, grazing incidence x-ray diffraction, and
electron energy loss spectroscopy. At the same time, materials processing has advanced to
the point where thin films just a few atomic layers thick can in many instances be grown or
deposited, while three-dimensional structures with dimensions of only a few tens of nano-
meters or less can also be manufactured. The entire electronics industry, for instance, is
based on these types of advances. Flat screen televisions, high-speed wireless data systems,
portable computation and telecommunication devices, automobiles and other transporta-
tion systems . . . these and countless other technologies are all dependent on our contempo-
rary understanding of materials.
While not all students who study materials science will be practicing materials
engineers, most engineers will in fact work with a diverse materials set, comprising metals,
ceramics, plastics, composites, and semiconductors, and across lengths scales from the
nanoscale to the macroscale, all within a context of myriad and diverse applications. Mate-
rials are an enabling component of what engineers imagine, design, and build. The ability
to innovate and to incorporate materials safely in a design is rooted in an understanding of
how to manipulate materials properties and functionality through the control of materials
structure and processing techniques. The objective of this textbook, then, is to describe the
foundations and applications of materials science for college-level engineering students as
predicated upon the structure-processing-properties paradigm.
The challenge of any textbook is to provide the proper balance of breadth and
depth for the subject at hand, to provide rigor at the appropriate level, to provide mean-
ingful examples and up to date content, and to stimulate the intellectual excitement of the
reader. Our goal here is to provide enough science so that the reader may understand basic
materials phenomena, and enough engineering to prepare a wide range of students for com-
petent professional practice.
Cover Art
The cover art for the seventh edition of the text is a scanning electron microscope image
showing two-dimensional (2-D) layers of Ti3C2, which were formed by selectively extract-
ing Al from Ti3AlC2. Ti3C2 is a member of a new family of 2-D materials called MXenes,
which was first discovered at Drexel University in 2011. Single and multilayer MXenes show
attractive properties, such as a combination of metallic conductivity within the carbide
xv
xvi Preface
layer and hydrophilicity of the oxygen terminated surface. MXenes comprise a growing
family of 2-D materials with great promise in many applications, such as batteries and
supercapacitor electrodes, transparent conducting coatings, and composite reinforcement.
The width of the image is about 20 μm. The color is false; it has been added for artistic
effect. The image is titled “The Cliff of the Two-Dimensional World” by Babak Anasori,
Michael Naguib, Yury Gogotsi, and Michel W. Barsoum from the Department of
Materials Science and Engineering and A. J. Drexel Nanotechnology Institute at Drexel
University.
Audience and Prerequisites

This text is intended for an introductory science of materials class taught at the sophomore
or junior level. A first course in college level chemistry is assumed, as is some coverage of
first year college physics. A calculus course is helpful, but certainly not required. The text
does not presume that students have taken other introductory engineering courses such as
statics, dynamics, or mechanics of materials.
New to this Edition

The beginning of each chapter includes learning objectives to guide students in their
studies. New problems have been added to the end of each chapter to increase the number
of problems by 15%. The breadth of Chapter 15 on ceramic materials has been extended
to include crystalline ceramics, silica and silicate compounds, and other topics of interest
to provide a more comprehensive view of this important class of engineering materials.
Other portions of the chapter have been revised for clarity. The cost of common engi-
neering materials in Chapter 14 has been updated. As always, we have taken great care to
provide the most error-free text possible.
Knovel™ Problems
At the conclusion of the end of chapter problems, you will find a special section with
problems that require the use of Knovel (www.knovel.com). Knovel is an online aggre-
gator of engineering references including handbooks, encyclopedias, dictionaries, text-
books, and databases from leading technical publishers and engineering societies such as
the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and the American Institute of
Chemical Engineers (AIChE).
The Knovel problems build on material found in the textbook and require
familiarity with online information retrieval. The problems are also available online at
www.cengage.com/engineering. In addition, the solutions are accessible by registered
instructors. If your institution does not have a subscription to Knovel or if you have any
questions about Knovel, please contact
support@knovel.com
(210) 340-1944
(866) 324-5163
The Knovel problems were created by a team of engineers led by Sasha Gurke,
senior vice president and co-founder of Knovel.
Supplements for the Instructor

Supplements to the text include the Instructor’s Solutions Manual that provides complete
solutions to selected problems and annotated Powerpoint™ slides.
Preface xvii
MindTap
This textbook is also available online through Cengage Learning’s MindTap, a personal-
ized learning program. Students who purchase the MindTap version have access to the
book’s MindTap Reader and are able to complete homework and assessment material
online, through their desktop, laptop, or iPad. If you are using a Learning Management
System (such as Blackboard or Moodle) for tracking course content, assignments, and
grading, you can seamlessly access the MindTap suite of content and assessments for this
course.
In MindTap, instructors can:
●● Personalize the Learning Path to match the course syllabus by rearranging
content or appending original material to the online content.
●● Connect a Learning Management System portal to the online course and
Reader
●● Customize online assessments and assignments
●● Track student progress and comprehension
●● Promote student engagement through interactivity and exercises
Additionally, students can listen to the text through ReadSpeaker, take notes,
create their own flashcards, highlight content for easy reference, and check their under-
standing of the material through practice quizzes and homework.
Acknowledgments
We thank all those who have contributed to the success of past editions and also the
reviewers who provided detailed and constructive feedback on the sixth edition:
Cynthia W. Barnicki, Milwaukeee School of Engineering
Deborah Chung, University of Buffalo, SUNY
Margaret Pinnell, University of Dayton
Stephen W. Stafford, University of Texas, El Paso
We also thank Jeffrey Florando of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
for comments on the revisions to Chapter 15.
We are grateful to the team at Cengage Learning who has carefully guided this
seventh edition through all stages of the publishing process. In particular, we thank
Timothy Anderson, publisher for Global Engineering; Eavan Cully and Hilda Gowans,
development editors; Rose Kernan, production editor; Kristiina Paul, permissions and
photo researcher; Ashley Kaupert, media assistant; and Sam Roth, team assistant. We
also thank Stephen Stafford and Keith McIver for new end of chapter problems in this
edition.
Wendelin Wright thanks Briana King and Joanne Mowen for their assistance
during the revision process as well as John Bravman of Bucknell University for his feed-
back, contributed illustrations, patience, and constant support.
Donald R. Askeland
University of Missouri — Rolla, Emeritus
Wendelin J. Wright
Bucknell University
About the Authors
Donald R. Askeland is a Distinguished Teaching Professor Emeritus of Metallurgical

Engineering at the University of Missouri–Rolla. He received his degrees from the Thayer
School of Engineering at Dartmouth College and the University of Michigan prior to join-
ing the faculty at the University of Missouri–Rolla in 1970. Dr. Askeland taught a number
of courses in materials and manufacturing engineering to students in a variety of engineer-
ing and science curricula. He received a number of awards for excellence in teaching and
advising at UMR. He served as a Key Professor for the Foundry Educational Foundation
and received several awards for his service to that organization. His teaching and research
were directed primarily to metals casting and joining, in particular lost foam casting, and
resulted in over 50 publications and a number of awards for service and best papers from
the American Foundry Society.
xix
xx About the Authors
Wendelin Wright is an associate professor at Bucknell University with a joint appoint-

ment in the departments of Mechanical Engineering and Chemical Engineering. She
received her B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. in Materials Science and Engineering from Stanford
University. Following graduation, she served a post–doctoral term at the Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory in the Manufacturing and Materials Engineering
Division and then returned to Stanford as an Acting Assistant Professor in 2005. She
joined the Santa Clara University faculty in 2006 as a tenure-track assistant professor
and assumed her position at Bucknell in the fall of 2010.
Professor Wright’s research interests focus on the mechanical behavior of mate-
rials, particularly of metallic glasses. She is the recipient of the 2003 Walter J. Gores
Award for Excellence in Teaching, which is Stanford University’s highest teaching honor,
a 2005 Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers, and a 2010 National
Science Foundation CAREER Award. Professor Wright is a licensed professional engi-
neer in metallurgy in California. She is married to John Bravman and is the mother of
two young sons, Cole and Cooper.
The principal goals of a materials scientist and engineer are to (1) make existing materials better and (2) invent or discover new
phenomena, materials, devices, and applications. Breakthroughs in the materials science and engineering field are applied to
many other fields of study such as biomedical engineering, physics, chemistry, environmental engineering, and information
technology. The materials science and engineering tetrahedron shown here represents the heart and soul of this field, and
its use is illustrated for the production of steel for an automotive chassis. As shown in this diagram, a materials scientist and
engineer’s main objective is to develop materials or devices that have the best performance for a particular application. In most
cases, the performance-to-cost ratio, as opposed to the performance alone, is of utmost importance. This concept is shown
as the apex of the tetrahedron and the three corners are representative of A—the composition, B—the microstructure, and
C—the synthesis and processing of materials. These are all interconnected and ultimately affect the performance-to-cost ratio
of a material or a device. The accompanying micrograph shows the microstructure of a dual phase steel. The microstructure
of dual phase steels is engineered to absorb energy during automotive collisions. Hard particles of a phase called martensite
(dark) are dispersed in a matrix of relatively soft, ductile ferite (light).
For materials scientists and engineers, materials are like a palette of colors to an artist. Just as an artist can create different
paintings using different colors, materials scientists create and improve upon different materials using different elements
of the periodic table, and different synthesis and processing routes. (Michael Shake/Shutterstock.com / Digital Vision/Getty
Images / Digital Vision/Getty Images / Metals Handbook, Desk Edition (1998), ASM International, Materials Park, OH 44073-
0002. Reprinted with permission of ASM International. All rights reserved. www.asminternational.org.)
Chapter
Introduction to Materials
1
Science and Engineering
Have You Ever Wondered?
●● What do materials scientists and engineers study?
●● From a materials stand point, how do you significantly improve the fuel
efficiency of a commercial jet airliner?
●● Can we make flexible and lightweight electronic circuits using plastics?
●● Why do jewelers add copper to gold?
●● What is a “smart material?”
Chapter Learning Objectives

The key objectives of this chapter are to
●● Understand the primary concepts that define materials science and engineering.
●● Understand the role of materials science in the design process.
●● Classify materials by properties.
●● Classify materials by function.
I
n this chapter, we will first introduce you to the field of materials science and
engineering using different real-world examples. We will then provide an intro-
duction to the classification of materials. Although most engineering programs
require students to take a materials science course, you should approach your study
of materials science as more than a mere requirement. A thorough knowledge of
materials science and engineering will make you a better engineer and designer.
Materials science underlies all technological advances, and an understanding of the
basics of materials and their applications will not only make you a better engineer,
but will help you during the design process. In order to be a good designer, you must
learn what materials will be appropriate to use in different applications. You need to
be capable of choosing the right material for your application based on its properties,
and you must recognize how and why these properties might change over time and
due to processing. Any engineer can look up materials properties in a book or search
databases for a material that meets design specifications, but the ability to innovate
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
and to incorporate materials safely in a design is rooted in an understanding of how to

manipulate materials properties and functionality through the control of the material’s
structure and processing techniques.
The most important aspect of materials is that they are enabling; materials
make things happen. For example, in the history of civilization, materials such as
stone, iron, and bronze played a key role in mankind’s development. In today’s fast-
paced world, the discovery of silicon
single crystals and an understanding of their
properties have enabled the information age.
In this book, we provide compelling examples of real-world applications of
engineered materials. The diversity of applications and the unique uses of materials
illustrate why a good engineer needs to understand and know how to apply the
principles of materials science and engineering.
1-1 What is Materials Science and Engineering?

Materials science and engineering (MSE) is an interdisciplinary field that studies and
manipulates the composition and structure of materials across length scales to control
materials properties through synthesis and processing. The term composition means the
chemical make-up of a material. The term structure means the arrangement of atoms,
as seen at different levels of detail. Materials scientists and engineers not only deal with
the development of materials, but also with the synthesis and processing of materials and
manufacturing processes related to the production of components. The term “synthesis”
refers to how materials are made from naturally occurring or man-made chemicals. The
term “processing” means how materials are shaped into useful components to cause
changes in the properties of different materials. One of the most important functions
of materials scientists and engineers is to establish the relationships between a material
or a device’s properties and performance and the microstructure of that material, its
composition, and the way the material or the device was synthesized and processed. In
materials science, the emphasis is on the underlying relationships between the synthesis
and processing, structure, and properties of materials. In materials engineering, the focus
is on how to translate or transform materials into useful devices or structures.
One of the most fascinating aspects of materials science involves the investigation
of a material’s structure. The structure of materials has a profound influence on many
properties of materials, even if the overall composition does not change! For example, if
you take a pure copper wire and bend it repeatedly, the wire not only becomes harder but
also becomes increasingly brittle! Eventually, the pure copper wire becomes so hard and
brittle that it will break! The electrical resistivity of the wire will also increase as we bend
it repeatedly. In this simple example, take note that we did not change the material’s com-
position (i.e., its chemical make-up). The changes in the material’s properties are due to a
change in its internal structure. If you look at the wire after bending, it will look the same
as before; however, its structure has been changed at the microscopic scale. The structure
at the microscopic scale is known as the microstructure. If we can understand what has
changed microscopically, we can begin to discover ways to control the material’s properties.
Let’s consider one example using the materials science and engineering tetrahedron
shown in Figure 1-1. (Another example is shown on the chapter opening page.) For most
of the history of commercial air travel, the fuselages of airplanes have been made using
aluminum alloys. The fuselage material must possess sufficiently high strength, but must
also be lightweight and formable into aerodynamic contours. Aluminum is one material that
meets these requirements. In 2011, passengers began traveling on Boeing’s 787 Dreamliner
aircraft. One of the primary innovations of the Boeing 787 is the extensive use of composites;
composite materials are formed by incorporating multiple components in a material in such
a way that the properties of the resultant material are unique and not otherwise attainable.
Composite materials comprise half of the Dreamliner’s total weight, and in fact, the fuselage
of the Boeing 787 is made from carbon fiber-reinforced plastic. Carbon fiber-reinforced
plastic is a composite of carbon fiber in a polymer epoxy resin matrix.
1-1 What is Materials Science and Engineering? 5
●
How much can the weight of
the fuselage be reduced by using
Performance a composite?
Cost
●
What is the passenger capacity of
a composite fuselage airplane?
● What is the cost of fabrication? Is
the cost offset by fuel savings?
A: Composition
●
What material should be used
for the matrix?
●
What material should be used
as the reinforcing phase?
● What should the volume percentage
of the reinforcing phase be?
C: Synthesis and processing

● What process should be used to
fabricate the fuselage?

●
How can composite components be
joined?
●
Can the processing be implemented
with sufficient reliability?
B: Microstructure
● How should the reinforcing phase
be arranged in the matrix?

● What features of the structure
influence reliability?
●
What controls the strength?
Figure 1-1 Application of the materials science and engineering tetrahedron to carbon fiber-reinforced
plastic for the fabrication of aircraft fuselages. The composition, microstructure, and synthesis/
processing are all interconnected and affect the performance-to-cost ratio. Clockwise from upper
right: the Boeing 787; the interior of an empty Boeing 787 fuselage; a giant autoclave used to bake
carbon fiber-reinforced plastic sections; carbon fiber in an epoxy matrix. (Bloomberg via Getty Images /
Srinivasa, Vinod, Shivakumar, Vinay, Nayaka, Vinay, Jagadeeshaiaih, Sunil, Seethram, Murali, Shenoy,
Raghavendra, & Nafidi, Abdelhakim. (2010). Fracture morphology of carbon fiber reinforced plastic
composite laminates. Materials Research, 13(3), 417-424. Retrieved January 06, 2014, from http://www
.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1516-14392010000300022&lng=en&tlng=en. 10.1590/S1516
-14392010000300022./ AFP/Getty Images / Aviation Images)
After decades of success with their various models of aircraft, Boeing invested
billions of dollars to develop a commercial airplane based on a new class of materials.
Why would Boeing do this? The driving force behind the move to carbon fiber-reinforced
plastic was to reduce the weight of the fuselage, thereby increasing fuel efficiency. This
significantly increases the performance to cost ratio of the aircraft.
The switch to a composite material involved numerous technical challenges. What
would the composite material be? How would the composite fuselage be formed? Decades
of data are available for the growth of cracks in aluminum under the cyclic loading of
take-offs and landings. Would the composite fuselage be reliable? Would a carbon
fiber-reinforced plastic also have the corrosion-resistance that aluminum has or would
delamination between the fibers and plastic occur? Aluminum jets have structural panels
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science and Engineering
that are riveted together. How can various structural components made from composites
be joined? From this discussion, you can see that many issues need to be considered during
the design and materials selection for any product and that the ratio of performance to
cost, composition, microstructure, and synthesis and process are all critical factors.
Let’s look at one more example of the application of the materials science and
engineering tetrahedron by considering the use in microelectronic devices of a class of mate-
rials known as semiconducting polymers (Figure 1-2). Many types of displays such as those
found in alarm clocks and watches utilize light emitting diodes (LEDs) made from inorganic
compounds based on gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other materials; however, semiconduct-
ing polymers also have been used more recently. The advantages of using plastics for micro-
electronics include their flexibility and ease of processing. The questions materials scientists
and engineers must answer with applications of semiconducting polymers are
●● What are the relationships between the structure of polymers and their electrical
properties?
●● How can devices be made using these plastics?
●● Will these devices be compatible with existing silicon chip technology?
●● How robust are these devices?
●● How will the performance and cost of these devices compare with traditional
devices?
These are just a few of the factors that engineers and scientists must consider
during the development, design, and manufacturing of semiconducting polymer devices.
Figure 1-2 Application of the tetrahedron of materials science and engineering to

semiconducting polymers for microelectronics.
1-2 Classification of Materials 7
1-2 Classification of Materials

There are different ways of classifying materials. One way is to describe five groups
(Table 1-1):
1. metals and alloys;
2. ceramics, glasses, and glass-ceramics;
3. polymers (plastics);
4. semiconductors; and
5. composite materials.
Table 1-1 Representative examples, applications, and properties for each category
of materials
Examples of Applications Properties
Metals and Alloys

Copper Electrical conductor wire High electrical conductivity,
good formability
Gray cast iron Automobile engine blocks Castable, machinable,
vibration-damping
Alloy steels Wrenches, automobile chassis Significantly strengthened by
heat treatment
Ceramics and Glasses
SiO2-Na2O-CaO Window glass Optically transparent,
thermally insulating
Al2O3, MgO, SiO2 Refractories (i.e., heat-resistant Thermally insulating,
lining of furnaces) for withstand high
containing molten metal temperatures, relatively
inert to molten metal
Barium titanate Capacitors for High ability to store charge
microelectronics
Silica Optical fibers for information Low optical losses
technology
Polymers
Polyethylene Food packaging Easily formed into thin,
flexible, airtight film
Epoxy Encapsulation of integrated Electrically insulating and
circuits moisture resistant
Phenolics Adhesives for joining plies in Strong, moisture resistant
plywood
Semiconductors
Silicon Transistors and integrated Unique electrical behavior
circuits
GaAs Optoelectronic systems Converts electrical signals to
light, used in lasers, laser
diodes, etc.
Composites
Graphite-epoxy Aircraft components High strength-to-weight ratio
Tungsten carbide-cobalt Carbide cutting tools for High hardness, yet good shock
(WC-Co) machining resistance
Titanium-clad steel Reactor vessels Low cost and high strength
of steel with the corrosion
resistance of titanium
Another random document with
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Of him we may say justly: Here was one
Who knew of most things more than any other,—
Who loved all Learning underneath the sun,
And looked on every Learner as a brother.
Nor was this all. For those who knew him, knew,
However far his love’s domain extended,
It held its quiet “poet’s corner,” too,
Where Mirth, and Song, and Irony, were blended.
Autograph Poem by Austin Dobson
Garnett was a rare spirit, and the British Museum has never seemed the
same since he retired in 1899. Entrance to his private office was cleverly
concealed by a door made up of shelf-backs of books, but once within the
sanctum the genial host placed at the disposal of his guest, in a matter-of-fact
way, such consummate knowledge as to stagger comprehension. But, far
beyond this, the charm of his personality will always linger in the minds of
those who knew him, and genuine affection for the man will rival the
admiration for his scholarship.
One afternoon at Ealing, after tennis on the lawn behind the Dobson
house, we gathered for tea. Our little party included Hugh Thomson, the artist
who so charmingly illustrated much of Dobson’s work, Mr. and Mrs. Dobson,
and one of his sons. The poet was in his most genial mood, and the
conversation led us into mutually confidential channels.
“I envy you your novel writing,” he said. “Fiction gives one so much wider
scope, and prose is so much more satisfactory as a medium than poetry. I have
always wanted to write a novel. Mrs. Dobson would never have it. But she is
always right,” he added; “had I persisted I should undoubtedly have lost what
little reputation I have.”
He was particularly impressed by the fact that I wrote novels as an
avocation. It seemed to him such a far cry from the executive responsibility of
a large business, and he persisted in questioning me as to my methods. I
explained that I devoted a great deal of time to creating mentally the characters
who would later demand my pen; that with the general outline of the plot I
intended to develop, I approached it exactly as a theatrical manager approaches
a play he is about to produce, spending much time in selecting my cast, adding,
discarding, changing, just so far as seemed to me necessary to secure the actors
best suited to the parts I planned to have them play. He expressed surprise
when I told him that I had long since discarded the idea of working out a
definite scenario, depending rather upon creating interesting characters, and
having them sufficiently alive so that when placed together under interesting
circumstances they are bound to produce interesting dialogue and action.
“Of course my problem, writing essays and poetry, is quite different from
yours as a novelist,” he said; “but I do try to assume a relation toward my work
that is objective and impersonal. In a way, I go farther than you do.”
Then he went on to say that not only did he plan the outline of what he
had to write, whether triolet or poem, wholly in his head, but (in the case of
the poetry) even composed the lines and made the necessary changes before
having recourse to pen and paper.
“When I actually begin to write,” he said, “I can see the lines clearly before
me, even to the interlinear corrections, and it is a simple matter for me to copy
them out in letter-perfect form.”
Dobson’s handwriting and his signature were absolutely dissimilar. Unless
one had actually seen him transcribe the text of a letter or the lines of a poem
in that beautiful designed script, he would think it the work of some one other
than the writer of the flowing autograph beneath.
Posterity is now deciding whether Mark Twain’s fame will rest upon his
humor or his philosophy, yet his continuing popularity would seem to have
settled this much-mooted question. Humor is fleeting unless based upon real
substance. In life the passing quip that produces a smile serves its purpose, but
to bring to the surface such human notes as dominate Mark Twain’s stories, a
writer must possess extraordinary powers of observation and a complete
understanding of his fellow-man. Neither Tom Sawyer nor Huckleberry Finn
is a fictional character, but is rather the personification of that leaven which
makes life worth living.
When an author has achieved the dignity of having written “works” rather
than books, he has placed himself in the hands of his friends in all his varying
moods. A single volume is but the fragment of any writer’s personality. I have
laughed over Innocents Abroad, and other volumes which helped to make Mark
Twain’s reputation, but when I seek a volume to recall the author as I knew
him best it is Joan of Arc that I always take down from the shelf. This book
really shows the side of Mark Twain, the man, as his friends knew him, yet it
was necessary to publish the volume anonymously in order to secure for it
consideration from the reading public as a serious story.
MARK TWAIN, 1835–1910
At the Villa di Quarto, Florence
From a Snap-shot
“No one will ever accept it seriously, over my signature,” Mark Twain said.
“People always want to laugh over what I write. This is a serious book. It
means more to me than anything I have ever undertaken.”
Mark Twain was far more the humorist when off guard than when on
parade. The originality of what he did, combined with what he said, produced
the maximum expression of himself. At one time he and his family occupied
the Villa di Quarto in Florence (page 172), and while in Italy Mrs. Orcutt and I
were invited to have tea with them. The villa is located, as its name suggests, in
the four-mile radius from the center of the town. It was a large, unattractive
building, perhaps fifty feet wide and four times as long. The location was
superb, looking out over Florence toward Vallombrosa and the Chianti hills.
AUTOGRAPH LETTER FROM MARK TWAIN
With Snap-shot of Villa di Quarto
In greeting us, Mark Twain gave the impression of having planned out
exactly what he was going to say. I had noticed the same thing on other
occasions. He knew that people expected him to say something humorous or
unusual, and he tried not to disappoint them.
“Welcome to the barracks,” he exclaimed. “Looks like a hotel, doesn’t it?
You’d think with twenty bedrooms on the top floor and only four in my family
there would be a chance to put up a friend or two, wouldn’t you? But there
isn’t any one I think so little of as to be willing to stuff him into one of those
cells.”
We had tea out of doors. Miss Clara Clemens, who later became Mrs.
Gabrilowitch, served as hostess, as Mrs. Clemens was confined to her bed by
the heart trouble that had brought the family to Italy. As we sipped our tea and
nibbled at the delicious Italian cakes, Mark Twain continued his comments on
the villa, explaining that it was alleged to have been built by the first Cosimo
de’ Medici (“If it was, he had a bum architect,” Mark Twain interjected); later it
was occupied by the King of Württemberg (“He was the genius who put in the
Pullman staircase”); and still later by a Russian Princess (“She is responsible
for that green majolica stove in the hall. When I first saw it I thought it was a
church for children”); and then it fell into the hands of his landlady (“Less said
about her the better. You never heard such profanity as is expressed by the
furniture and the carpets she put in to complete the misery. I’m always
thankful when darkness comes on to stop the swearing”).
The garden was beautiful, but oppressive,—due probably to the tall
cypresses (always funereal in their aspect), which kept out the sun, and
produced a mouldy luxuriance. The marble seats and statues were covered
with green moss, and the ivy ran riot over everything. One felt the antiquity
unpleasantly, and, in a way, it seemed an unfortunate atmosphere for an
invalid. But so far as the garden was concerned, it made little difference to
Mrs. Clemens,—the patient, long-suffering “Livy” of Mark Twain’s life,—for
she never left her sick chamber, and died three days later.
After tea, Mr. Clemens offered me a cigar and watched me while I lighted
it.
“Hard to get good cigars over here,” he remarked. “I’m curious to know
what you think of that one.”
I should have been sorry to tell him what my opinion really was, but I
continued to smoke it with as cheerful an expression as possible.
“What kind of cigars do you smoke while in Europe?” he inquired.
I told him that I was still smoking a brand I had brought over from
America, and at the same time I offered him one, which he promptly accepted,
throwing away the one he had just lighted. He puffed with considerable
satisfaction, and then asked,
“How do you like that cigar I gave you?”
It seemed a matter of courtesy to express more enthusiasm than I really
felt.
“Clara,” he called across to where the ladies were talking, “Mr. Orcutt likes
these cigars of mine, and he’s a judge of good cigars.”
Then turning to me he continued, “Clara says they’re rotten!”
He relapsed into silence for a moment.
“How many of those cigars of yours have you on your person at the
present time?”
I opened my cigar case, and disclosed four.
“I’ll tell you what I’ll do,” he said suddenly. “You like my cigars and I like
yours. I’ll swap you even!”
In the course of the afternoon Mark Twain told of a dinner that Andrew
Carnegie had given in his New York home, at which Mr. Clemens had been a
guest. He related with much detail how the various speakers had stammered
and halted, and seemed to find themselves almost tongue-tied. His explanation
of this was their feeling of embarrassment because of the presence of only one
woman, Mrs. Carnegie.
Sir Sidney Lee, who was lecturing on Shakesperian subjects in America at
the time, was the guest of honor. When dinner was announced, Carnegie sent
for Archie, the piper, an important feature in the Carnegie ménage, who
appeared in full kilts, and led the procession into the dining-room, playing on
the pipes. Carnegie, holding Sir Sidney’s hand, followed directly after, giving an
imitation of a Scotch dance, while the other guests fell in behind, matching the
steps of their leader as closely as possible. Mark Twain gave John Burroughs
credit for being the most successful in this attempt.
Some weeks later, at a dinner which Sir Sidney Lee gave in our honor in
London, we heard an echo of this incident. Sir Sidney included the story of
Mark Twain’s speech on that occasion, which had been omitted in the earlier
narrative. When called upon, Mr. Clemens had said,
“I’m not going to make a speech,—I’m just going to reminisce. I’m going
to tell you something about our host here when he didn’t have as much money
as he has now. At that time I was the editor of a paper in a small town in
Connecticut, and one day, when I was sitting in the editorial sanctum, the door
opened and who should come in but Andrew Carnegie. Do you remember
that day, Andy?” he inquired, turning to his host; “wasn’t it a scorcher?”
Carnegie nodded, and said he remembered it perfectly.
“Well,” Mark Twain continued, “Andrew took off his hat, mopped his
brow, and sat down in a chair, looking most disconsolate.
“‘What’s the matter?’ I inquired. ‘What makes you so melancholy?’—Do
you remember that, Andy?” he again appealed to his host.
“Oh, yes,” Carnegie replied, smiling broadly; “I remember it as if it were
yesterday.”
“‘I am so sad,’ Andy answered, ‘because I want to found some libraries,
and I haven’t any money. I came in to see if you could lend me a million or
two.’ I looked in the drawer and found that I could let him have the cash just
as well as not, so I gave him a couple of million.—Do you remember that,
Andy?”
“No!” Carnegie answered vehemently; “I don’t remember that at all!”
“That’s just the point,” Mark Twain continued, shaking his finger
emphatically. “I have never received one cent on that loan, interest or
principal!”
I wonder if so extraordinary an assemblage of literary personages was ever
before gathered together as at the seventieth anniversary birthday dinner given
to Mark Twain by Colonel George Harvey at Delmonico’s in New York!
Seated at the various tables were such celebrities as William Dean Howells,
George W. Cable, Brander Matthews, Richard Watson Gilder, Kate Douglas
Wiggin, F. Hopkinson Smith, Agnes Repplier, Andrew Carnegie, and Hamilton
W. Mabie.
It was a long dinner. Every one present would have been glad to express
his affection and admiration for America’s greatest man-of-letters, and those
who must be heard were so numerous that it was nearly two o’clock in the
morning before Mark Twain’s turn arrived to respond. As he rose, the entire
company rose with him, each standing on his chair and waving his napkin
enthusiastically. Mark Twain was visibly affected by the outburst of
enthusiasm. When the excitement subsided, I could see the tears streaming
down his cheeks, and all thought of the set speech he had prepared and sent to
the press for publication was entirely forgotten. Realizing that the following
quotation differs from the official report of the event, I venture to rely upon
the notes I personally made during the dinner. Regaining control of himself,
Mark Twain began his remarks with words to this effect:
When I think of my first birthday and compare it with this celebration,—just a
bare room; no one present but my mother and one other woman; no flowers, no wine,
no cigars, no enthusiasm,—I am filled with indignation!
Charles Eliot Norton is a case in point in my contention that to secure the
maximum from a college course a man should take two years at eighteen and
the remaining two after he has reached forty. I was not unique among the
Harvard undergraduates flocking to attend his courses in Art who failed
utterly to understand or appreciate him. The ideals expressed in his lectures
were far over our heads. The estimate of Carlyle, Ruskin, and Matthew Arnold,
that Mr. Norton was foremost among American thinkers, scholars, and men of
culture, put us on the defensive, for to have writers such as these include
Norton as one of themselves placed him entirely outside the pale of our
undergraduate understanding. He seemed to us a link connecting our
generation with the distant past. As I look back upon it, this was not so much
because he appeared old as it was that what he said seemed to our untrained
minds the vagaries of age. Perhaps we were somewhat in awe of him, as we
knew him to be the intimate of Oliver Wendell Holmes and James Russell
Lowell, as he had been of Longfellow and George William Curtis, and thus the
last of the Cambridge Immortals. I have always wished that others might have
corrected their false impressions by learning to know Norton, the man, as I
came to know him, and have enjoyed the inspiring friendship that I was so
fortunate in having him, in later years, extend to me.
In the classroom, sitting on a small, raised platform, with as many students
gathered before him as the largest room in Massachusetts Hall could
accommodate, he took Art as a text and discussed every subject beneath the
sun. His voice, though low, had a musical quality which carried to the most
distant corner. As he spoke he leaned forward on his elbows with slouching
shoulders, with his keen eyes passing constantly from one part of the room to
another, seeking, no doubt, some gleam of understanding from his hearers. He
told me afterwards that it was not art he sought to teach, nor ethics, nor
philosophy, but that he would count it success if he instilled in the hearts of
even a limited number of his pupils a desire to seek the truth.
As I think of the Norton I came to know in the years that followed, he
seems to be a distinctly different personality, yet of course the difference was
in me. Even at the time when Senator Hoar made his terrific attack upon him
for his public utterances against the Spanish War, I knew that he was acting
true to his high convictions, even though at variance with public opinion. I
differed from him, but by that time I understood him.
“Shady Hill,” his home in Norton’s Woods on the outskirts of Cambridge,
Massachusetts, exuded the personality of its owner more than any house I was
ever in. There was a restful dignity and stately culture, a courtly hospitality that
reflected the individuality of the host. The library was the inner shrine. Each
volume was selected for its own special purpose, each picture was illustrative
of some special epoch, each piece of furniture performed its exact function.
Here, unconsciously, while discussing subjects far afield, I acquired from
Mr. Norton a love of Italy which later was fanned into flame by my Tuscan
friend, Doctor Guido Biagi, the accomplished librarian of the Laurenziana
Library, in Florence, to whom I have already frequently referred.
Our real friendship began when I returned from Italy in 1902, and told
him of my plans to design a type based upon the wonderful humanistic
volumes. As we went over the photographs and sketches I brought home with
me, and he realized that a fragment of the fifteenth century, during which
period hand lettering had reached its highest point of perfection, had actually
been overlooked by other type designers (see page 16), he displayed an
excitement I had never associated with his personality. I was somewhat
excited, too, in being able to tell him something which had not previously
come to his attention,—of the struggle of the Royal patrons, who tried to
thwart the newborn art of printing by showing what a miserable thing a
printed book was when compared with the beauty of the hand letters; and that
these humanistic volumes, whose pages I had photographed, were the actual
books which these patrons had ordered the scribes to produce, regardless of
expense, to accomplish their purpose.
The romance that surrounded the whole undertaking brought out from
him comments and discussion in which he demonstrated his many-sided
personality. The library at “Shady Hill” became a veritable Florentine rostrum.
Mr. Norton’s sage comments were expressed with the vigor and originality of
Politian; when he spoke of the tyranny of the old Florentine despots and
compared them with certain political characters in our own America, he might
have been Machiavelli uttering his famous diatribes against the State. Lorenzo
de’ Medici himself could not have thrilled me more with his fascinating
expression of the beautiful or the exhibition of his exquisite taste.
Each step in the development of the Humanistic type was followed by Mr.
Norton with the deepest interest. When the first copy of Petrarch’s Triumphs
came through the bindery I took it to “Shady Hill,” and we went over it page
by page, from cover to cover. As we closed the volume he looked up with that
smile his friends so loved,—that smile Ruskin called “the sweetest I ever saw
on any face (unless perhaps a nun’s when she has some grave kindness to
do),”—and then I knew that my goal had been attained (page 32).
While the Humanistic type was being cut, Doctor Biagi came to America
as the official representative from Italy to the St. Louis Exposition. Later,
when he visited me in Boston, I took him to “Shady Hill” to see Mr. Norton.
It was an historic meeting. The Italian had brought to America original,
unpublished letters of Michelangelo, and at my suggestion he took them with
him to Cambridge. Mr. Norton read several of these letters with the keenest
interest and urged their publication, but Biagi was too heavily engaged with his
manifold duties as librarian of the Laurenziana and Riccardi libraries, as
custodian of the Buonarroti and the da Vinci archives, and with his extensive
literary work, to keep the promise he made us that day.
The conversation naturally turned upon Dante, Biagi’s rank in his own
country as interpreter of the great poet being even greater than was Norton’s
in America. Beyond this they spoke of books, of art, of music, of history, of
science. Norton’s knowledge of Italy was profound and exact; Biagi had lived
what Norton had acquired. No matter what the subject, their comments,
although simply made, were expressions of prodigious study and absolute
knowledge; of complete familiarity, such as one ordinarily has in every-day
affairs, with subjects upon which even the well-educated man looks as
reserved for profound discussion. Norton and Biagi were the two most
cultured men I ever met. In listening to their conversation I discovered that a
perfectly trained mind under absolute control is the most beautiful thing in the
world.
Climbing the circular stairway in the old, ramshackle Harper plant at

Franklin Square, New York, I used to find William Dean Howells in his
sanctum.
“Take this chair,” he said one day after a cordial greeting; “the only Easy
Chair we have is in the Magazine.”
Howells loved the smell of printer’s ink. “They are forever talking about
getting away from here,” he would say, referring to the long desire at
Harpers’—at last gratified—to divorce the printing from the publishing and to
move uptown. “Here things are so mixed up that you can’t tell whether you’re
a printer or a writer, and I like it.”
Our acquaintance began after the publication by the Harpers in 1906 of a
novel of mine entitled The Spell, the scene of which is laid in Florence. After
reading it, Howells wrote asking me to look him up the next time I was in the
Harper offices.
“We have three reasons to become friends,” he said smiling, after studying
me for a moment with eyes that seemed probably more piercing and intent
than they really were: “you live in Boston, you love Italy, and you are a printer.
Now we must make up for lost time.”
After this introduction I made it a habit to “drop up” to his sanctum
whenever I had occasion to go to Franklin Square to discuss printing or
publishing problems with Major Leigh or Mr. Duneka. Howells always seemed
to have time to discuss one of the three topics named in his original analysis,
yet curiously enough it was rarely that any mention of books came into our
conversation.
Autograph Letter from William Dean Howells
Of Boston and Cambridge he was always happily reminiscent: of

entertaining Mr. and Mrs. John Hay while on their wedding journey, and later
Bret Harte, in the small reception room in the Berkeley Street house, where
the tiny “library” on the north side was without heat or sunlight when Howells
wrote his Venetian Days there in 1870; of early visits with Mark Twain before
the great fireplace in “the Cabin” at his Belmont home, over the door of
which was inscribed the quotation from The Merchant of Venice, “From Venice
as far as Belmont.”—“In these words,” Howells said, “lies the history of my
married life”;—of the move from Belmont to Boston as his material resources
increased.
“There was a time when people used to think I didn’t like Boston,” he
would chuckle, evidently enjoying the recollections that came to him; “but I
always loved it. The town did take itself seriously,” he added a moment later;
“but it had a right to. That was what made it Boston. Sometimes, when we
know a place or a person through and through, the fine characteristics may be
assumed, and we may chaff a little over the harmless foibles. That is what I did
to Boston.”
He chided me good-naturedly because I preferred Florence to Venice.
“Italy,” he quoted, “is the face of Europe, and Venice is the eye of Italy. But,
after all, what difference does it make?” he asked. “We are both talking of the
same wonderful country, and perhaps the intellectual atmosphere of antiquity
makes up for the glory of the Adriatic.”
Then he told me a story which I afterwards heard Hamilton Mabie repeat
at the seventy-fifth birthday anniversary banquet given Howells at Sherry’s by
Colonel George Harvey in 1912.
Two American women met in Florence on the Ponte Vecchio. One of
them said to the other, “Please tell me whether this is Florence or Venice.”
“What day of the week is it?” the other inquired.
“Wednesday.”
“Then,” said the second, looking at her itinerary, “this is Venice.”
“I was born a printer, you know,” Howells remarked during one of my
visits. “I can remember the time when I couldn’t write, but not the time when
I couldn’t set type.”
He referred to his boyhood experiences in the printing office at Hamilton,
Ohio. His father published there a Whig newspaper, which finally lost nearly
all its subscribers because its publisher had the unhappy genius of always
taking the unpopular side of every public question. Howells immortalized this
printing office in his essay The Country Printer,—where he recalls “the
compositors rhythmically swaying before their cases of type; the pressman
flinging himself back on the bar that made the impression, with a swirl of his
long hair; the apprentice rolling the forms; and the foreman bending over
them.”
The Lucullan banquet referred to outrivaled that given by Colonel Harvey
to Mark Twain. How Mark Twain would have loved to be there, and how
much the presence of this life-long friend would have meant to Howells! More
than four hundred men and women prominent in letters gathered to do honor
to the beloved author, and President Taft conveyed to him the gratitude of the
nation for the hours of pleasure afforded by his writings.
In the course of his remarks, Howells said:
I knew Hawthorne and Emerson and Walt Whitman; I knew Longfellow and
Holmes and Whittier and Lowell; I knew Bryant and Bancroft and Motley; I knew
Harriet Beecher Stowe and Julia Ward Howe; I knew Artemus Ward and Stockton
and Mark Twain; I knew Parkman and Fiske.
As I listened to this recapitulation of contact with modern humanists, I
wondered what Howells had left to look forward to. No one could fail to envy
him his memories, nor could he fail to ask himself what twentieth-century
names would be written in place of those the nineteenth century had recorded
in the Hall of Fame
My library has taken on a different aspect during all these years. When I first
installed my books I looked upon it as a sanctuary, into which I could escape
from the world outside. Each book was a magic carpet which, at my bidding,
transported me from one country to another, from the present back to
centuries gone by, gratifying my slightest whim in response to the mere effort
of changing volumes. My library has lost none of that blissful peace as a
retreat, but in addition it has become a veritable meeting ground. The authors
I have known are always waiting for me there,—to disclose to me through
their works far more than they, in all modesty, would have admitted in our
personal conferences
CHAPTER VI
Triumphs of Typography
VI
TRIUMPHS OF TYPOGRAPHY
In gathering together his book treasures, a collector naturally approaches

the adventure from a personal standpoint. First editions may particularly
appeal to him, or Americana, or his bibliomania may take the form of subject
collecting. I once had a friend who concentrated on whales and bees! My
hobby has been to acquire, so far as possible, volumes that represent the best
workmanship of each epoch, and from them I have learned much of
fascinating interest beyond the history of typography. A book in itself is always
something more than paper and type and binder’s boards. It possesses a subtle
friendliness that sets it apart from other inanimate objects about us, and
stamps it with an individuality which responds to our approach in proportion
to our interest. But aside from its contents, a typographical monument is a
barometer of civilization. If we discover what economic or political conditions
combined to make it stand out from other products of its period, we learn
contemporaneous history and become acquainted with the personalities of the
people and the manners and customs of the times.
No two countries, since Gutenberg first discovered the power of individual
types when joined together to form words down to the present day, have
stood pre-eminent in the same epoch in the art of printing. The curve of
supremacy, plotted from the brief triumph of Germany successively through
Italy, France, the Netherlands, England, France, and back again to England,
shows that the typographical monuments of the world are not accidental, but
rather the natural results of cause and effect. In some instances, the
production of fine books made the city of their origin the center of culture and
brought luster to the country; in others, the great master-printers were
attracted from one locality to another because of the literary atmosphere in a
certain city, and by their labors added to the reputation it had already attained.
The volumes themselves sometimes produced vitally significant effects;
sometimes their production was the result of conditions equally important.
The first example I should like to own for my collection of typographical
triumphs is, of course, the Gutenberg Bible (opp. page); but with only forty-five
copies known to be in existence (of which twelve are on vellum), I must
content myself with photographic facsimile pages. The copy most recently
offered for sale brought $106,000 in New York in February, 1926, and was
later purchased by Mrs. Edward S. Harkness for $120,000, who presented it to
the Yale University Library. This makes the Gutenberg Bible the most valuable
printed book in the world,—six times as precious as a Shakespeare first folio.
Fortunately, the copies are well distributed, so that one need not deny himself
the pleasure of studying it. In America, there are two examples (one on
vellum) in the Pierpont Morgan Library, in New York; another in the New
York Public Library, and still another in the library of the General Theological
School; while the private collections of Henry E. Huntington and Joseph E.
Widener are also fortunate possessors. In England, one may find a copy at the
British Museum or the Bodleian Library; on the Continent, at the Bibliothèque
Nationale at Paris, at the Vatican Library in Rome, or in the libraries of Berlin,
Leipzig, Munich, or Vienna. Over twenty of the forty-five copies are
imperfect, and only four are still in private hands. Of these four, one is
imperfect, and two are already promised to libraries; so the copy sold in New
York may be the last ever offered.
Part of a Page from the Vellum Copy of the Gutenberg Bible, Mayence, 1455
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris (Exact size)
GUTENBERG BIBLE
And here is the end of the first part of
the Bible, that is to say, the Old
Testament, rubricated and bound for
Henry Cremer, in the year of our
Loard, one thousand four hundred and
fifty-six, on the feast of the Apostle
Bartholomew
Thanks be to God. Alleluia
Rubricator’s Mark at End of First Volume of a Defective Copy in the Bibliothèque
Nationale, Paris

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The Science and Engineering of

Materials Donald R. Askeland

Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering Guang

Kinetics in materials science and engineering Dennis W.

Bioinspired materials science and engineering First

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering: Select

Biosurfaces a materials science and engineering

Materials Engineering Science Processing and Design 4th

Materials engineering science processing and design

Composite Materials: Applications in Engineering,

Cover and Internal Designer: Mike Stratton/

Printed in the United States of America

Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Science and

Chapter 2 Atomic Structure 21

2-1 The Structure of Materials: Technological Relevance 22

Chapter 3 Atomic and Ionic Arrangements 51

3-1 Short-Range Order versus Long-Range Order 52

Chapter 4 Imperfections in the Atomic and lonic

Chapter 5 Atom and Ion Movements in Materials 141

5-1 Applications of Diffusion 142

Chapter 6 Mechanical Properties: Part One 181

6-1 Technological Significance 182

7-1 Fracture Mechanics 230

7-2 The Importance of Fracture Mechanics 233

Chapter 8 Strain Hardening and Annealing 269

8-1 Relationship of Cold Working to the Stress Strain Curve 270

Chapter 9 Principles of Solidification 305

9-1 Technological Significance 306

9-11 Directional Solidification [DS], Single Crystal Growth,

Chapter 10 Solid Solutions and Phase Equilibrium 349

10-1 Phases and the Phase Diagram 350

Chapter 11 Dispersion Strengthening and Eutectic

Chapter 12 Dispersion Strengthening by Phase

12-11 The Shape-Memory Alloys [SMAs] 447

Chapter 13 Heat Treatment of Steels and Cast

Chapter 14 Nonferrous Alloys 503

14-1 Aluminum Alloys 504

15-1 Bonding in Ceramics 533

Chapter 16 Polymers 571

16-1 Classification of Polymers 572

Chapter 17 Composites: Teamwork and Synergy

Chapter 18 Construction Materials 659

18-1 The Structure of Wood 660

Chapter 19 Electronic Materials 679

19-1 Ohm’s Law and Electrical Conductivity 681

Chapter 20 Magnetic Materials 723

20-1 Classification of Magnetic Materials 724

Chapter 21 Photonic Materials 753

21-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 754

Chapter 22 Thermal Properties of Materials 781

22-1 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 782

22-3 Thermal Conductivity 788

Chapter 23 Corrosion and Wear 799

23-1 Chemical Corrosion 800

Appendix A: Selected Physical Properties of Metals 832

Audience and Prerequisites

New to this Edition

Supplements for the Instructor