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THE PHOTOMULTIPLIER HANDBOOK
The Photomultiplier Handbook

A. G. Wright

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Tony Wright 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
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above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017933575
ISBN 978–0–19–956509–2
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199565092.001.0001
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CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Dedicated in memory of John Barton.
Contents

Preface xix
Figure credits xxi

1 Why photomultipliers? 1
1.1 Aspects of light detection 2
1.1.1 Introduction 2
1.1.2 Brief history of PMTs 3
1.1.3 The statistical case for PMTs 4
1.1.4 DC detection with a PMT 7
1.1.5 Detection of single photoelectrons 9
1.1.6 Detection of multi-photoelectron signals 10
1.1.7 Summary of PMT key attributes 11
1.2 Other light detectors 12
1.2.1 Silicon PIN diodes 12
1.2.2 APDs 12
1.2.3 SiPMs 14
1.2.4 Summary of silicon key attributes 16
1.2.5 Visible-light photon counters 17
1.2.6 CCDs 17
1.2.7 Hybrid photodetectors and APDs 17
1.3 Pulse height resolution 18
1.4 Position resolution 21
1.5 Signal-to-background considerations 21

2 Photocathodes 24
2.1 Introduction 25
2.1.1 Solid angles 26
2.2 Fundamentals of photosensitivity 27
2.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum 27
2.2.2 Photoelectric phenomena 28
2.2.3 Photoelectron energy distribution 29
2.3 Spectral radiation and photometric units 30
2.3.1 Spectral radiant energy 30
2.3.2 Photometric units and standards 30
2.3.3 Filter measurements 33
2.3.4 Calibration laboratories and absolute radiation standards 35
2.3.5 Trap detectors 35
viii Contents

2.4 Optical properties of end window photocathodes 37

2.4.1 Refraction in dielectrics 37
2.4.2 Reflection from dielectrics 40
2.4.3 Photocathode optical properties 42
2.4.4 Techniques for measuring photocathode reflectance 43
2.4.5 Limits to reliable measurement 44
2.4.6 Determination of transmission and absorptance 45
2.5 Spectral sensitivity of photocathodes 50
2.5.1 Three foremost photocathodes 50
2.5.2 Photocathode response to scintillator light 52
2.5.3 Solar blind photocathodes 54
2.5.4 Infrared photocathodes 56
2.5.5 High-temperature photocathodes 58
2.6 Photocathode geometries 58
2.6.1 Range of end window PMTs 58
2.6.2 Range of side window PMTs 60
2.6.3 Window materials 61
2.7 Photocathode resistivity 62
2.8 QE temperature dependence 65
2.8.1 Laboratory and commercial applications,
30  C to +60  C 65
2.8.2 Ultra-low temperature performance,
273  C to
30  C 67
2.8.3 High-temperature operation, +60 ºC to +200 ºC 68
2.9 Dark count temperature sensitivity 69
2.10 Critical photocathode properties 69
2.10.1 Photocathode uniformity 69
2.10.2 Ionizing radiation 72
2.11 Summary of factors affecting photocathode response 73

3 The optical interface to PMTs 78

3.1 Introduction 79
3.2 Light attenuation and reflection coefficients 80
3.2.1 Light attenuation length, γ 80
3.2.2 Reflectance coefficients, ρ 81
3.2.3 Optical coupling of scintillators 83
3.3 Point light source 84
3.4 Interfacing to small volume scintillators 86
3.4.1 Interfacing to scintillators of high Z 88
3.4.2 Interfacing to scintillators of low Z 90
3.5 Light concentrators 90
3.5.1 Light concentrators: Theory 90
3.5.2 Light concentrators: Winston cone 91
3.5.3 Integrating spheres 92
 Contents ix

3.6 Scintillators with diffuse reflecting walls 93

3.7 Light output from scintillator slabs 95
3.7.1 Escape cones 95
3.8 Light guides 97
3.8.1 Hollow guides with specular reflecting walls 98
3.8.2 Solid guides based on TIR 98
3.8.3 Adiabatic light guides 99
3.9 Light detection efficiency for scintillators 101
3.9.1 PMT viewing a large-area face 101
3.9.2 PMT viewing small-area face 103
3.9.3 Photoelectron yield for scintillation counters 105
3.9.4 Monte Carlo simulations 107
3.10 Uniformity of response in large-area detectors 107
3.11 WLS light guides 109
3.12 Optical fibres 110
3.12.1 Application of fibres to scintillating tiles 112
3.12.2 Use of fibres with large-area plastic scintillator slabs 114
3.13 Techniques for enhancing light detection 115
3.13.1 Anti-reflection coatings 115
3.13.2 Sandblasting 115
3.13.3 Theory of light recycling 117
3.13.4 Internal prismatic window 119
3.13.5 External optical enhancement devices 120
3.13.6 WLS coatings 123

4 Statistical processes 128

4.1 Introduction 129
4.1.1 Single- and multi-photon light sources 129
4.2 Binomial, Poisson, and normal distributions 131
4.3 Mean and variance 132
4.4 Folding of probability density functions 136
4.5 Moments 139
4.5.1 Moments about the origin 139
4.5.2 Central moments 140
4.5.3 Factorial moments 141
4.5.4 Exercise in photon counting 142
4.6 Probability generating functions 145
4.7 Sum of chance integers 147
4.8 Moment generating functions 149
4.9 Folding with probability generating functions 151
4.10 Cascaded processes 153
4.10.1 Generalized two-stage cascading 153
4.10.2 Light detection statistics 154
4.10.3 Multiplier dispersion 155
4.10.4 Pdf at the kth dynode 157
x Contents

4.11 Shot noise in DC detection 161

4.12 Noise in multi-photon excitation 163
4.13 Continuous SER distributions 166
4.14 Multi-photoelectron pdfs 169
4.15 MPHD for an empirical SER 173
4.16 Arrival time statistics 175
4.16.1 Exponential time signatures 175
4.16.2 First two moments for R fixed 177
4.16.3 First two moments for R randomized 178
4.17 Determination of afterpulse rates 180
4.17.1 Afterpulses: Method I 181
4.17.2 Afterpulses: Method II 182
4.18 Scaling and dead time 183
4.18.1 Interval distribution 184
4.18.2 The p-fold time interval 184
4.19 Dead time 188
4.19.1 Sources of dead time 188
4.19.2 Counting losses attributed to dead time 190
4.19.3 Type I, paralysable counters 190
4.19.4 Type II, non-paralysable counters 191
4.19.5 Dead time and variance 193
4.19.6 Determination of dead time 194
4.19.7 Suppressing correlated signals 197

5 Secondary emission and gain 202

5.1 Introduction 203
5.2 Gain generation with discrete dynodes 204
5.3 Single-photoelectron noise spectra 208
5.4 Secondary-electron emission 210
5.4.1 Classical description 210
5.4.2 Secondary-electron yield 214
5.4.3 Theory and measurement 215
5.4.4 Secondary-electron statistics 216
5.4.5 Temperature dependence of gain 218
5.5 Sources of undersized signals 219
5.5.1 Inelastic scattering 219
5.5.2 Gain non-uniformity 222
5.5.3 Events initiated by d1 224
5.5.4 Other sources of undersized signals 224
5.6 Discrete dynodes 225
5.6.1 Venetian blind dynodes and skipping 226
5.6.2 Coarse mesh dynodes 229
 Contents xi

5.6.3 Fine-mesh dynodes 230

5.6.4 Metal-channel dynodes 230
5.6.5 Linear and circular focussed dynodes 232
5.6.6 Box-and-grid dynodes 234
5.6.7 Transmission dynodes 234
5.7 Continuous multipliers 237
5.7.1 CEMs 237
5.7.2 MCPs 239
5.7.3 Gain–voltage considerations in MCPs 240
5.8 Multiplier and PMT gain measurement 241
5.8.1 Measurement of G: First method 242
5.8.2 Measurement of G: Second method 243
5.8.3 Measurement of G: Third method 243
5.8.4 Measurement of ‹g›: First method 245
5.8.5 Measurement of ‹g›: Second method 247
5.8.6 Measurement of ‹g›: Third method 248
5.8.7 Measurement of ‹g›: Fourth method 249
5.9 Quick determination of ‹g› 249
5.9.1 Quick determination of ‹g›: First method 251
5.9.2 Quick determination of ‹g›: Second method 251
5.10 Gain–voltage characteristics 252
5.11 Conclusions 253

6 PMT background 257

6.1 Introduction 258
6.2 Dark counts and dark current 259
6.2.1 Subdivision of a dark count distribution 260
6.3 Reconciliation of dark current and dark counts 261
6.4 S/B in DC applications 264
6.5 Light generation within a PMT 265
6.6 Sources of background 266
6.6.1 Region A: Undersized pulses 267
6.6.2 Regions B and C: Single- and multi-electron
background 267
6.6.3 Dependence on temperature 267
6.6.4 Ionizing radiation 269
6.7 Gamma background 271
6.7.1 Radionuclides within PMTs 274
6.8 Cosmic ray muons 276
6.8.1 Cerenkov emission in a PMT window 277
6.8.2 PMT orientation 278
6.9 Means for reducing background 279
6.10 Summary 279
xii Contents

7 Measurement of low light flux 282

7.1 The physical nature of light detection 283
7.1.1 Noise and background 283
7.2 Measurement modes 284
7.2.1 Photon counting 284
7.2.2 DC detection 284
7.2.3 Shot noise power detection 286
7.3 Detection methods and weighting 288
7.3.1 Detection techniques 289
7.4 Difference between two count rates 291
7.4.1 Efficient time allocation 291
7.5 Signal recovery instrumentation 293
7.5.1 Boxcar integrators 293
7.5.2 Lock-in detection 294
7.5.3 Synchronous signal averaging 296
7.5.4 Signal recovery simulation 297
7.5.5 Subdividing time intervals 298
7.5.6 Upper and lower thresholds 300
7.5.7 Signal magnitudes: Photon counting 301
7.5.8 Signal magnitudes: DC detection 302
7.5.9 Excess noise factor 303
7.5.10 Ratemeter operation 304
7.6 PMT selection criteria 306
7.6.1 Optimal gain for DC detection 307
7.6.2 Optimal HV for photon counting 308
7.6.3 MCA plateau characteristic 311
7.6.4 Critical PMT parameters 312
7.6.5 Discriminator threshold 316
7.7 Methods involving DMMs and electrometers 317
7.7.1 Measurements with a DMM 317
7.7.2 Electrometers 318
7.7.3 Voltage dividers 319

8 Timing with PMTs 321

8.1 Electron motion in electric fields 322
8.1.1 Introduction 322
8.1.2 Electron motion in a uniform electric field 328
8.1.3 Electron motion in non-uniform electric fields 329
8.1.4 Laws of motion applied to PMTs 330
8.1.5 Spot size 331
8.2 Evolution of fast linear focussed PMTs 333
8.2.1 The PMT front end 333
8.2.2 Contribution to time dispersion from dynodes 337
 Contents xiii

8.2.3 Transit-time effects at the PMT back end 339

8.2.4 Ultra-fast PMTs 341
8.3 PMT output signal 341
8.3.1 Signature of the anode signal 341
8.3.2 Simulation of photoelectron time intervals 343
8.3.3 Simulation of multiplier noise and jitter 345
8.3.4 Oscilloscope traces for NaI(Tl) signals 347
8.3.5 Scintillator rise and fall time 350
8.4 Timing 351
8.4.1 Single-electron time response 351
8.4.2 Transit time, T 353
8.4.3 Effect of amplitude fluctuations on jitter 356
8.4.4 Effect of charge sensitivity on jitter 357
8.4.5 Contribution to jitter from noise 357
8.5 Zero crossing and CF methods 358
8.5.1 Charge threshold for triggering 361
8.5.2 CF technique 363
8.6 Measurement schematics 365
8.7 Multiple statistical sources 369
8.7.1 Single-photoelectron output signatures 369
8.7.2 Photoelectron timing variance 370
8.8 Photon arrival statistics 373
8.9 Timing measurements 376
8.10 Timing summary 378

9 Linear performance 383

9.1 Introduction 384
9.1.1 Modes of operation 385
9.1.2 Rate effect 387
9.1.3 Causes of non-linearity 387
9.1.4 Dynode materials 387
9.2 Dynamic range 388
9.2.1 Achievable dynamic range: Analogue 388
9.2.2 Achievable dynamic range: Pulse mode 389
9.2.3 Onset of DC non-linearity 391
9.2.4 Onset of pulsed non-linearity 392
9.2.5 Bootstrap method 394
9.3 Theoretical considerations 394
9.4 Advanced linearity investigations 398
9.4.1 Single-step method 399
9.4.2 Ratiometric method 402
9.4.3 Shot noise method 403
9.5 Correcting non-linearity 404
9.6 Non-linearity in inorganic crystals 405
9.7 Summary 407
xiv Contents

10 Collection and counting efficiency 410

10.1 Introduction 411
10.2 Lost photoelectrons 412
10.2.1 Front end design 412
10.2.2 Optimal operating conditions 413
10.3 Collection and counting efficiency 414
10.3.1 Collection efficiency, F 414
10.3.2 Anode detection efficiency, ε 415
10.4 Measurement techniques 415
10.4.1 Attenuation using filters 415
10.4.2 Count rate determination 416
10.5 Determination of F 418
10.5.1 Based on d1 gain 418
10.5.2 Shot noise 422
10.5.3 The bi-photonic field 424
10.5.4 Calibrated lamp 425
10.5.5 Cerenkov light source 425
10.5.6 Use of a power meter 426
10.5.7 Calibrated silicon photodiodes 427
10.6 Summary and conclusions 428

11 Signal-induced background 431

11.1 Introduction 432
11.2 Timing instrumentation 432
11.2.1 Amplifier discriminators 432
11.2.2 Configurations for afterpulse measurements 433
11.2.3 Stop
start instrumentation 434
11.3 Prepulses and late pulses 435
11.4 Detector response function 439
11.5 Afterpulses 440
11.5.1 Early measurements 440
11.5.2 Theory of afterpulse generation 442
11.5.3 Contributions to understanding afterpulses 445
11.5.4 Afterpulses in photon counting 447
11.5.5 Exposure of PMTs to helium 448
11.6 Exposure to bright light 449
11.6.1 Settling time: Medium term 449
11.6.2 Settling time: Long term 449
11.7 Summary and conclusions 452

12 Environmental considerations 455

12.1 Introduction 456
12.1.1 Performance in weak magnetic fields 456
12.1.2 Performance in high magnetic fields 458
 Contents xv

12.1.3 The effect of electric fields 458

12.1.4 PMT enclosures, modules, and housings 461
12.1.5 Housings for scintillators 463
12.1.6 Light leaks and electric fields 464
12.2 Operation in harsh environments 465
12.2.1 Shock and vibration 465
12.2.2 Operation at high temperature 467

13 Voltage dividers 471

13.1 Introduction 472
13.2 Gain–voltage relationships 473
13.2.1 Resistive dividers 473
13.2.2 Dividers with zener diodes 475
13.3 Analysis of resistive dividers 477
13.4 Resistive divider operation 482
13.5 Inclusion of zener diodes 484
13.6 Active voltage dividers 488
13.6.1 Fully active N-type analysis 489
13.6.2 Fully active P-type analysis 490
13.6.3 Fully active circuits 493
13.6.4 Gain linearity 495
13.6.5 Partially active circuits 496
13.6.6 Cockcroft–Walton dividers 497
13.7 Voltage dividers for pulsed operation 499
13.7.1 Decoupling capacitors 499
13.7.2 Pin connections 501
13.7.3 Decoupling options 501
13.7.4 Switch-on transients 502
13.8 Methods and circuits 503
13.8.1 Power supply polarity and ripple 503
13.8.2 Wiring options 506
13.8.3 Dynode signals 507
13.8.4 Shorting dynodes 509
13.8.5 Single cable dividers 510
13.8.6 Gain adjustment 511
13.8.7 Equivalent circuit at high frequencies 511
13.8.8 Wiring practice 512
13.9 Gating 515
13.9.1 Electro-optical and mechanical gating 517
13.9.2 HV switching 517
13.9.3 Photocathode gating 518
13.9.4 Dynode gating 518
13.9.5 Focus-electrode gating 521
13.9.6 Circuit realization 522
13.9.7 Pulse generators and shielding 522
xvi Contents

14 Electronics for PMTs 527

14.1 Introduction 528
14.2 Charge output transducers 530
14.3 The role of a preamplifier 531
14.3.1 Interfacing and signal transmission 532
14.3.2 Grounding and shielding 534
14.4 Circuit protection and limiting 534
14.5 Modular electronics 535
14.6 PMT equivalent circuit 538
14.6.1 PMT signal bandwidth 541
14.7 Multiple PMT outputs 543
14.8 Passive circuit analysis 544
14.8.1 Anode DC-coupled R||C network 545
14.8.2 Anode AC-coupled R||C network 547
14.9 Signal-shaping preamplifiers 549
14.9.1 Charge-sensitive preamplifiers 550
14.9.2 Commercial charge-sensitive amplifiers 552
14.9.3 Pole-zero cancellation 554
14.9.4 Preamplifier calibration 555
14.10 Signal-shaping main amplifiers 555
14.10.1 Signal-shaping theory 555
14.10.2 Detector noise 559
14.10.3 Modular detection equipment 561
14.11 Fast amplifiers 562
14.11.1 Discrete-component amplifiers 562
14.11.2 Amplifiers incorporating microwave transistors 564
14.11.3 Fast bench-top and NIM preamplifiers 566
14.11.4 Voltage- and current-feedback OP-AMPs 566
14.11.5 Transimpedance amplifier circuits using CFAs 569
14.11.6 Logarithmic amplifiers 571
14.12 Pulsed-light sources 572
14.13 Optimizing PMT performance 573
14.14 DSP 574
Appendix A PMT output distributions 581
A.1 General considerations 581
A.2 Schematics and methods for measuring distributions 583
A.3 Integral pulse height distributions 583
A.4 Differential pulse height distributions 583
A.5 Plateau characteristic 584
A.6 Changing variables 585
A.7 Transformations of an analytic function 588
A.8 Transformation of experimental data 591
 Contents xvii

A.9 Single-photoelectron distributions 592

A.10 Probability distributions in high temperature
NaI(Tl) applications 597
A.11 Conclusions 600

Appendix B Light emission by the Cerenkov effect 603

B.1 Introduction 603
B.2 Threshold conditions for the Compton effect 604
B.3 Formulations for Cerenkov emission 606
B.4 The yield from MIPs 608

Appendix C Abbreviations 611

Index 615
Preface

It is usual to indicate the type of reader the author has in mind. This book is aimed
primarily at those who use, or are about to use, vacuum photomultipliers (PMTs).
The aim is to provide a deeper understanding of PMT behaviour as a means for
optimizing performance. Wherever appropriate I have drawn on my experience as
a user and manufacturer of PMTs. My objective in writing this book is to fill
perceived gaps in the literature. For example, the important topic of the optical
interface to PMTs has hitherto received little attention.
Major manufacturers of light detectors, notably EMI, provided ‘Application
Notes’ covering a range of technical topics relating to PMTs. Also, PMT manu-
facturers’ handbooks, refreshingly unbiased by commercial considerations, have
been freely issued over the years, namely,

• RCA (Photomultiplier Manual, 1970)—available online

• Philips (Photomultiplicateurs, 1981)
• Hamamatsu (Photomultiplier Tubes, Basics and Applications, 2006)—avail-
able online
• Philips (Photomultiplier Tubes, Principles and Applications, 1994)
• Photomultiplicateurs, written by G Piétri, in French, reached a wider audi-
ence following an update and translation released in 1994.

It is perhaps worth noting the name changes of the major manufacturers, as

companies have been bought or merged. The evolution of names is as follows:

• Philips ! Photonis ! now based in China

• EMI ! Thorn EMI ! Electron Tubes ! ET Enterprises
• RCA ! Burle ! ceased trading in PMTs

Philips marketed and branded products under different titles: Philips, Mullard,
Valvo, and Amperex. When a specific product type is mentioned in the present
text, the name of the manufacturer at the time of reporting is used.
This book should also be of interest to scientists and engineers involved in
PMT design and manufacture. I have held the opinion throughout my 40 years in
the industry that those who produce new or modified devices should critically
evaluate their performance. This also applies to designers of electronics, for whom
dealing with the equivalent circuit of a current generator may initially appear
xx Preface

arcane. There is sometimes reluctance to investigate PMT behaviour occurring at

a stage prior to the output, because performance is affected by operations before
the signal reaches the anode. PMTs have been commercially available since the
1950s, but optimal or even satisfactory performance still eludes many users. This
is not surprising, since we are dealing with devices of sufficient gain to detect single
photons and with a bandwidth of the order of a gigahertz—clearly, a product with
such performance demands expertise and careful treatment.
PMTs are intriguing scientific transducers that have proved worthy of study in
their own right. They embody the physics of photoemission, electron-optics,
secondary emission, optics, and signal processing, making them the preferred
light detectors for a significant range of commercial instrumentation and
for academic investigations. The principal advances in the evolution of PMTs
inevitably trace back to a scientific requirement, rather than a commercial one.
Hemispherical PMTs (see Fig. 2.23), for example, stemmed from proton-decay
investigations requiring the capture of light over large solid angles. Following their
first introduction in the 1970s, many massive experiments conducted under water,
and in ice, have produced outstanding advances in our understanding of astro-
physical phenomena. Although perhaps 50,000 PMTs of this type have been
produced, virtually none has found commercial application. The majority of
scientific publications concerning PMTs are to be found in the following journals:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A, IEEE Transactions on
Nuclear Science, Applied Optics, Review of Scientific Instruments, and Journal of
Physics D and E. The first two mentioned are favoured for publishing the pro-
ceedings of international conferences, such as: ‘New Developments in Photode-
tection’ and the ‘IEEE Nuclear Science Symposia’. These conference publications
are highly recommended as a source of current information on light detectors.
Light generation and detection are statistical processes. The family of detectors
that provide gain through electron multiplication are also statistical in their oper-
ation. Hence, the choice of an appropriate detector for a particular application is
strongly influenced by statistical arguments. The first chapter introduces the range
of light detectors and compares their performance, essentially on statistical
grounds. The formulations are stated rather than derived at this stage but they
are fully developed in Chapter 4.
I have been fortunate to have enjoyed constant encouragement, the use of test
facilities, and literature from two managing directors of Thorn EMI and ET
Enterprises, namely, J P Frederiksen and R M McAlpine, respectively, and also
L Ludlum, Vice President, ADIT/Electron Tubes. I also wish to acknowledge
A C Bach, A J Cormack, P J Cook, and C Wade for technical input and suggestions
on presentation and subject coverage. I am especially indebted to my wife, Mary,
who patiently withheld the awkward question ‘When are you going to finish?’
Amersham A. G. WRIGHT
June 2017
Figure credits

Chapter 2
Fig. 2.10(a). Jones, D. P. (1976). Photomultiplier sensitivity variation with angle of incidence on the
photocathode. Appl. Opt., 15, No. 4, 910–14. 44
Fig. 2.10(b). Moorhead and Tanner (1996). Optical properties of an EMI K2CsSb bialkali photocathode.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 378, 162–70. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1996. 44
Figs 2.11 to 2.14. Moorhead and Tanner (1996). Optical properties of an EMI K2CsSb bialkali photocathode.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 378, 162–70. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1996. 46–8
Fig. 2.15. Hallensleben et al. (2000). Optical constants for the S20 photocathode, and their application to
increasing photomultiplier quantum efficiency. Optics Communications, 180, 89–102. Reprinted
from Elsevier Science ©2000. 49

Chapter 3
Figs 3.9 to 3.11. Welford, W. T. and Winston, R. (1978). The optics of non-imaging concentrators. Light and
solar energy. Academic Press, New York. Reprinted from Academic Press ©1978. 90–2
Fig. 3.26. Aota, S. et al. (1999). Mass production of tile/fibre units for the CDF plug upgrade
EM calorimeter. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A 420, 48–61. Reprinted from Elsevier
Science ©1999. 113
Fig. 3.27. Artikov, A. et al. (2006). New generation large area muon scintillation counters with wavelength
shifter fibre readout for CDF II. Physics of particles and nuclear letters, 3, Issue 3,
188–200. Reprinted from Springer ©2006. 114
Fig. 3.34. Gunter, W. D., Grant, G. R. and Shaw, S. A. (1970). Optical devices to increase photocathode
quantum efficiency. Appl. Opt., 9, No. 2, 251–7. Reprinted with permission from OSA ©1970. 122
Table 3.2. Courtesy of J Mc Millan, private communication. 83

Chapter 4
Figs 4.14 and 4.15. Wright A. G. (2005). The statistics of multi-photoelectron pulse height distributions.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A., 579, 967
72. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2005. 174, 177
Fig. 4.16. Arrival time statistics. Kelbert, M., Sazonov, I. and Wright, A. G. (2006). Exact expression
for the variance of the photon emission process in scintillation counters. Nucl. Instr. and
Meth. in Phys. Res. A., 564, 185
9. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2006. 179
Chapter 5
Fig. 5.10. Simon, R. E. and Williams, B. F. (1968). Secondary-electron emission. IEEE Trans NS15,
166
70. Reprinted with permission from IEEE. ©1968. 215
xxii Figure credits

Fig. 5.12. Sommer, A. (1972). Bialkali (K2CsSb) photocathodes as a high gain secondary electron
emitter. J. Appl. Phys., 43, No. 5, 2479
2480. Reprinted with permission from AIP© (1972). 217
Fig. 5.23. Kuroda, K., Sillou, D., and Takeutchi, F. (1981). New type of position sensitive photomultiplier.
Rev. Sci. Instrum., 52(3), 337
346. Reprinted with permission from AIP© (1981). 229
Fig. 5.24. Agoritsas, V., Kuroda., K. and Nemoz, Ch. (1989). A new type of position-sensitive electron
multiplier. Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 277, 237
241. Order number 3620250895810.
Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©1989. 229
Fig. 5.26. Chirikov-Zorin, I., Fedorko, I., Menzione, A., Pikna, M., Sỷkora, I., and Tokảr, S. (2001).
Method for precise analysis of the metal package photomultiplier single photoelectron spectra.
Nucl. Instr. and Meth. in Phys. Res. A, 456, 310
324. Reprinted from Elsevier Science ©2001. 231
Chapter 6
Table 6.1. Viehmann, W, et al. (1975). Photomultiplier window materials under electron irradiation:
fluorescence and phosphorescence. Appl. Opt., 14, No. 9. 2104–15. Reprinted with
permission from OSA ©1975. 271

Chapter 10
Figs 10.5 to 10.11 and equations (10.6) and (10.7). Wright, A. G. (2010). Method for the determination
of photomultiplier collection efficiency, F. Appl. Opt., 49, 2059–65. Reprinted with
permission from OSA ©1970. 419–23

Chapter 14
Fig. 14.24. Blanch, O. et al. (1999). Performance of a fast low noise front-end preamplifier for
the MAGIC imaging Cerenkov telescope. IEEE Trans. NS. 46, 800–5. Reprinted with
permission from IEEE. ©1968. 565
Fig. 14.25, Fig. 14.26, and Fig. 14.27. Giachero, A., Gotti, C., Maino, M., and Pessina, G. (2011).
Current feedback operational amplifiers as fast charge sensitive preamplifiers for
photomultiplier read out. J Inst. 6, P05004, 1–19. Reprinted with permission from
IOP ©2011. 567, 568, 570
1
Why photomultipliers?
1 2 Why photomultipliers?

1.1 Aspects of light detection

1.1.1 Introduction
Photon detectors transform information, carried by light, to an electrical analogue.
A light signal primarily contains information on: time relative to some initiating
event; intensity in terms of a number of photons; position of a detected signal on
the photocathode; and wavelength. Not all this information is necessarily sought
by a user, and some detectors are superior to others concerning a particular
performance attribute. Intensity may refer to the number of photons per event,
or per unit time, with consideration for the detector area. Photon rates may be
constant with time (DC detection), slowly varying, or transient in nature. The time
response of a detector is generally specified in terms of some property of the pulse
shape, such as its rise time; or the response may be described in terms of band-
width. All detectors are sensitive to the wavelength of a signal but without the
capability for its direct determination: this demands additional instrumentation,
such as a monochromator.
The process of light detection is a quantum mechanical one of absorbing the
energy of a photon to produce a free electron. Given the generation of sufficient
photoelectrons per unit time, it is possible to quantify this charge in terms of a
current or voltage to provide a measure of the light input. The ability to detect a
light signal depends broadly on two considerations. The first is the sensitivity of the
photocathode, in terms of quantum efficiency (QE), η: that is, the ratio of the
number of photoelectrons produced to the number of incident photons and
second, the level of background. QE is always less than unity, although in certain
solid state detectors the QE approaches unity over a limited wavelength band.
Other detectors, such as photomultipliers (PMTs), are often used at infrared
wavelengths, where QEs are very low. It is, however, still feasible to make meas-
urements under these circumstances since PMTs are capable of detecting single
photoelectrons, by virtue of their high and relatively noiseless gain. Until the 1970s
PMTs were the only commercially available devices with this capability, but now
solid state PMTs, SiPMs, with intrinsic gain are readily available.
A brief introduction to the terminology is appropriate at the outset, to remove
possible confusion. The following terms are encountered throughout the scientific
literature: signal current and signal counts, where the meanings are obvious.
Associated with these two variables we have dark current and dark counts, or
equivalently, background current, and background counts. The words dark and
background apply to the output from a detector in the absence of light input but
the terms actually refer to signals, albeit unwanted ones. Noise is reserved for the
description of statistical aspects of light, such as shot noise; it is not a signal but
rather a fluctuation within an existing one. ‘Noise in signal’ and ‘noise in back-
ground’ are the appropriate terms for the shot noise inherent in the current
produced by a light signal, and that produced by a background signal, respectively.

The Photomultiplier Handbook. Tony Wright.

© Tony Wright 2017. Published 2017 by Oxford University Press.
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780199565092.001.0001
 Aspects of light detection 3 1

Throughout this book background and noise will always refer to different aspects
of performance, as described here.
Light detectors may be divided into two broad categories: those that provide an
image and those that are non-imaging. Further subcategories are:

• vacuum devices, such as PMTs, microchannel plate PMTs (MCPPMTs),

and hybrid PMTs, in which a discrete multiplier is replaced by a solid state
diode
• solid state devices, such as PIN diodes, avalanche photodiodes (APDs);
pixelated silicon PMs (SiPMs), and charge-coupled devices (CCDs)

Throughout the book, the acronym PMT refers to traditional vacuum PMTs.

1.1.2 Brief history of PMTs

The invention of the PMT in 1936 is usually credited to the RCA Corporation in
the USA. However, Lubsandorzhiev (2006) makes a case in favour of L A
Kubetsky, a Russian, who produced a PMT in 1933–4 with an S1 photocathode,
consequently predating the work at RCA. This is arguable, but what cannot be
disputed is the leading role of RCA in the development of commercially available
product, starting in 1934. PMTs evolved from studies in electron secondary
emission at the turn of the twentieth century. It was observed, for certain metals,
that the process of secondary electron emission generated more electrons than
primary emission did—hence a means of amplification. RCA produced a single-
stage PMT in 1935, with a gain of 8 (Engstrom 1980). A multistage magnetically
focussed PMT followed in 1936 from researchers who were to become the leaders
in the PMT industry—Zworykin, Morton, and Malter (1936). This PMT was not
commercialized because of the difficult operating conditions imposed by the need
for both electrostatic and magnetic focussing. The first commercially available
PMT was the side window 931 with electrostatic focussing only, designed by
Zworykin and Rajchman (1939). Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, RCA
extended the range of photocathodes through the research of A H Sommer
(1980), who invented the bialkali and S20 photocathode types. During this period,
Philips and EMI between them enjoyed a share of about 30 % of the market,
specializing, respectively, in fast and low-background PMTs. The development
of negative affinity photocathodes in the 1970s made detection into the far
infrared, beyond one micron, possible. Several specialist companies exploited
these photocathodes mainly for military night vision purposes. Towards the end
of the 1970s a Japanese company, Hamamatsu, began to dominate the side
window market as RCA’s position waned. The only manufacturer of side window
PMTs is currently Hamamatsu, with a range of some 30 types of 10 mm and 30 mm
geometries. The historical industry standards are still available, such as the 931,
IP21, and the IP28; current product is similar in construction to the historical
1 4 Why photomultipliers?

versions but totally different in performance. The introduction of the S20 R928 in
the 1970s signalled a significant advance with infrared sensitivity of two to three
times that offered by the competitors, who to date have yet to find the key to
manufacturing this outstanding side window PMT type. Hamamatsu produce
both the world’s smallest vacuum PMT, the µPMT®, which is about the size of a
thumbnail, and the biggest, which is a hemispherical tube with a diameter of 2000 ;
they are the leaders of the PMT market with a share in excess of 90 %. Hamamatsu
also have the leading position in the silicon detector market. RCA, Photonis, and
Hamamatsu handbooks are available, all of which include a detailed historical
sketch of PMT development (Engstrom 1980; Flyckt and Marmonier 2002;
Hamamatsu 2007). Hamamatsu has set overall standards for consistency of
performance, particularly with respect to gain and sensitivity, and nowadays it is
unnecessary to allow a run-in period. Forty years ago the advice from experienced
users was to switch on a week in advance of intended use. This has long been
unacceptable as customers expect immediate stability of performance.

1.1.3 The statistical case for PMTs

A review article by Lallemand (1962), of the Paris Observatory, makes the case for
PMTs by investigating the limitations imposed by well-known laws of physics.
There are of course other reviews but Lallemand’s treatment is novel, and his
institute has the rare distinction of having made their own PMTs. His approach
will be adopted, based initially on the analysis of a photocell, comprising a
photocathode and an anode only; this is followed by the inclusion of a multiplier.
Consider the illumination of a photocathode with a random but steady source
of light that produces a photocurrent, Ik. Random implies all frequency compo-
nents are equally probable. By steady it is meant that the average current, meas-
ured over sufficiently long successive periods, is constant but superimposed on
this current is a random component arising from the quantized nature of light and
charge. This phenomenon is known as the Schottky effect. The rms noise current,
‹is2 ›1=2 , is the shot noise and is given by

‹is2 ›1=2 ¼ ð2eIk Δf Þ1=2 ; ð1:1Þ

where e is the electronic charge, and Δf is the noise bandwidth. Note that shot noise
only exists when a signal, Ik , is present: it may be interpreted as a random although
quantifiable modulation, ‹is2 ›1=2 , on Ik. Equation (1.1) is one of the more important
relationship in the subject of light measurement, and its influence on detectivity is
particularly felt whenever light levels are low. An inescapable consequence of (1.1) is
that precise measurement of Ik presents a considerable challenge by the presence of
this intrinsic noise, ‹is2 ›1=2 . It is customary in PMT applications to perform current-
to-voltage conversion at the anode by including a load resistor, R. However, all
resistors are a source of EMF with associated noise, the magnitude of which is
given by the Johnson noise formula:
 Aspects of light detection 5 1


4kT Δf 1=2
‹ij2 ›1=2 ¼ ; ð1:2Þ
R
where k = 1.38  1023 J/K is the Boltzmann constant, and T the absolute
temperature, usually taken as 300 K. The thermal noise expression in terms of
voltage follows from (1.2) as

‹ν2j ›1=2 ¼ ð4kTRΔf Þ1=2 ; ð1:3Þ

and it appears to predict an EMF with infinite noise for an open circuit (infinite
resistance). However, the inescapable presence of stray capacitance, in addition to
any deliberately added for bandwidth control, presents finite impedance to the
signal. It is appropriate at this juncture to stress that, wherever noise is under
consideration, the appropriate bandwidth is Δf = 1/(4RC), and not the more
familiar signal bandwidth, 1/(2πRC), although the numerical difference is small.
Equation (1.3) then reduces to ‹νj2› = kT/C. It is useful to compare the relative
contributions to noise from these two major sources, assuming typical values for
the parameters involved.
Consider a photocurrent Ik = 1015 A, for example, which corresponds to an
average flow of 6300 photoelectrons (pe)/s. This is a weak, but not ultra-weak
signal, in PMT terms. Bandwidth, Δf, appears in both noise expressions, and for
the present ratio metric analysis we take Δf = 1, R = 1, T = 300, and ‹g› = 106 in
equations (1.4)–(1.6), which follow. There is no loss in generality because the
formulae readily scale. The mean gain, ‹g›, of the multiplier, is enclosed in chevrons
to emphasize its statistical nature. Shot noise originates from the current flow in the
photocathode but it is enhanced by the multiplier gain, ‹g›, when observed at the
anode. On the other hand, Johnson noise is outside the influence of the PMT, since
its source lies in an added load resistor. The contributions, taking Δf and R equal to
unity, from shot and Johnson noise at the anode are

‹is2 ›1=2 ¼ ð2eIk Þ1=2 ‹g› ¼ ð2  1:6  1019  1015 Þ1=2  106 ¼ 18 pA; ð1:4Þ

‹ij2 ›1=2 ¼ ð4kT =RÞ1=2 ¼ ð4  1:38  1023  300Þ1=2 ¼ 129 pA: ð1:5Þ

The combined noise is given by adding contributions in quadrature, noting that

(1.4) is signal dependent and (1.5) is not,

‹iðsþjÞ2 ›1=2 ¼ ð‹is2 ›2 þ ‹ij2 ›2 Þ1=2 ¼ ð182  1292 Þ1=2 ¼ 130 pA: ð1:6Þ

Equations (1.1), (1.2), and (1.6) are plotted in Fig. 1.1 as a function of R by
adopting unit bandwidth, as is standard practice. Note how the procedure of adding
in quadrature makes the net effect of the shot contribution negligible, in this case.
The two contributions are equal when


‹is2 ›1=2 2eIk R
¼  ‹g› ¼ 1: ð1:7Þ
‹ij2 ›1=2 4kT
1 6 Why photomultipliers?

1000

Combined noise
100

‹ia›1/2 (pA/√Hz)
Shot noise
10
Johnson noise

1
1 10 100 1000 10000
R (Ω)

Fig. 1.1. Comparison of the magnitudes of shot and Johnson noise, at the anode, for an
assumed cathode current of 1015 A, and a multiplier gain of 106. Note that the two noise
sources are the same in magnitude for a load resistance of 50 Ω—a value favoured for signal
transmission via matched coaxial cable. The combined noise is the sum of the two sources
taken in quadrature.

It follows from (1.7) for Ik = 1015 A, and ‹g› = 106, that R is 50 Ω, and
independent of Δf. The smallest measurable cathode current is determined by
the Johnson noise in the load resistor. The principal attribute of an electron multiplier
is that it gives current amplification without a resistor.
Handling fast, nanosecond rise time, output pulses from a detector demands a
bandwidth in the region of 100 MHz and preferably a load resistor of 50 Ω, for the
reasons previously given. The combined noise is
0 11=2
4kT
‹iðsþjÞ 2 ›1=2 ¼@ þ 2eIk ‹g›2 A Δf 1=2 ð1:8Þ
R
11
¼ 2:56  10  √10 ¼ 0:256 μA rms:
8

With, in this example, equal contributions derive from the two noise sources.
The effect of the wide bandwidth is to increase the noise from 25.6 pA rms, at
unity bandwidth, to 0.256 μA rms at 100 MHz bandwidth.
The gain required, such that multiplier noise will exceed Johnson noise is
given by

1=2


4kT 0:052 1=2 0:052 1=2
‹g›  ¼ ¼ ; ‹g›  7000: ð1:9Þ
2eIk R Ik R 109
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
"It's got to be something universal," I told Rizzo. "Something
universal ... in the widest sense of the term."
He looked up from his desk, which was wedged in between the end
of his bunk and the curving dome wall. The desk was littered with
printout sheets from the computer, each one of them part of the
message.
"You've only said that a half-million times in the past couple weeks.
What the hell is universal? If you can figure that out, you're damned
good."
What is universal? I wondered. You're an astronomer. You look out
at the universe. What do you see? I thought about it. What do I see?
Stars, gas, dust clouds, planets ... what's universal about them?
What do they all have that....
"Atoms!" I blurted.
Rizzo cocked a weary eye at me. "Atoms?"
"Atoms. Elements. Look...." I grabbed up a fistful of the sheets and
thumbed through them. "Look ... each message starts with a list of
numbers. Then there's a long blank to separate the opening list from
the rest of the message. See? Every time, the same length list."
"So?"
"The periodic table of the elements!" I shouted into his ear. "That's
the key!"
Rizzo shook his head. "I thought of that two days ago. No soap. In
the first place, the list that starts each message isn't always the
same. It's the same length, all right, but the numbers change. In the
second place, it always begins with 100000. I looked up the atomic
weight of hydrogen—it's 1.008 something."
That stopped me for a moment. But then something clicked into
place in my mind.
"Why is the hydrogen weight 1.008?" Before Rizzo could answer, I
went on, "For two reasons. The system we use arbitrarily rates
oxygen as 16-even. Right? All the other weights are calculated from
oxygen's. And we also give the average weight of an element,
counting all its isotopes. Our weight for hydrogen also includes an
adjustment for tiny amounts of deuterium and tritium. Right? Well,
suppose they have a system that rates hydrogen as a flat one:
1.00000. Doesn't that make sense?"
"You're getting punchy," Rizzo grumbled. "What about the isotopes?
How can they expect us to handle decimal points if they don't tell us
about them ... mental telepathy? What about...."
"Stop arguing and start calculating," I snapped. "Change that list of
numbers to agree with our periodic table. Change 1.00000 to 1.008-
whatever-it-is and tackle the next few elements. The decimals
shouldn't be so hard to figure out."
Rizzo grumbled to himself, but started working out the calculations. I
stepped over to the dome's microspool library and found an
elementary physics text. Within a few minutes, Rizzo had some
numbers and I had the periodic table focused on the microspool
reading machine.
"Nothing," Rizzo said, leaning over my shoulder and looking at the
screen. "They don't match at all."
"Try another list. They're not all the same."
He shrugged and returned to his desk. After a while he called out,
"their second number is 3.97123; it works out to 4.003-something."
It checked! "Good. That's helium. What about the next one, lithium?"
"That's 6.940."
"Right!"
Rizzo went to work furiously after that. I pushed a chair to the desk
and began working up from the end of the list. It all checked out,
from hydrogen to a few elements beyond the artificial ones that had
been created in the laboratories here on Earth.
"That's it," I said. "That's the key. That's our Rosetta Stone ... the
periodic table."
Rizzo stared at the scribbled numbers and jumble of papers. "I bet I
know what the other lists are ... the ones that don't make sense."
"Oh?"
"There are other ways to identify the elements ... vibration
resonances, quantum wavelengths ... somebody named Lewis came
out a couple years ago with a Quantum Periodic Table...."
"They're covering all the possibilities. There are messages for many
different levels of understanding. We just decoded the simplest one."
"Yeah."
I noticed that as he spoke, Rizzo's hand—still tightly clutching the
pencil—was trembling and white with tension.
"Well?"
Rizzo licked his lips. "Let's get to work."

We were like two men possessed. Eating, sleeping, even talking was
ignored completely as we waded through the hundreds of sheets of
paper. We could decode only a small percentage of them, but they
still represented many hours of communication. The sheets that we
couldn't decode, we suspected, were repetitions of the same
message that we were working on.
We lost all concept of time. We must have slept, more than once, but
I simply don't remember. All I can recall is thousands of numbers,
row upon row, sheet after sheet of numbers ... and my pencil
scratching symbols of the various chemical elements over them until
my hand was so cramped I could no longer open the fingers.
The message consisted of a long series of formulas; that much was
certain. But, without punctuation, with no knowledge of the symbols
that denote even such simple things as "plus" or "equals" or "yields,"
it took us more weeks of hard work to unravel the sense of each
equation. And even then, there was more to the message than met
the eye:
"Just what the hell are they driving at?" Rizzo wondered aloud. His
face had changed: it was thinner, hollow-eyed, weary, covered with a
scraggly beard.
"Then you think there's a meaning behind all these equations, too?"
He nodded. "It's a message, not just a contact. They're going to an
awful lot of trouble to beam out this message, and they're repeating
it every seven hours. They haven't added anything new in the weeks
we've been watching."
"I wonder how many years or centuries they've been sending out this
message, waiting for someone to pick it up, looking for someone to
answer them."
"Maybe we should call Washington...."
"No!"
Rizzo grinned. "Afraid of breaking radio silence?"
"Hell no. I just want to wait until we're relieved, so we can make this
announcement in person. I'm not going to let some old wheezer in
Washington get credit for this.... Besides, I want to know just what
they're trying to tell us."
It was agonizing, painstaking work. Most of the formulas meant
nothing to either one of us. We had to ransack the dome's meager
library of microspools to piece them together. They started simply
enough—basic chemical combinations: carbon and two oxygens
yield CO2; two hydrogens and oxygen give water. A primer ... not of
words, but of equations.
The equations became steadily longer and more complex. Then,
abruptly, they simplified, only to begin a new deepening, simplify
again, and finally become very complicated just at the end. The last
few lines were obviously repetitious.
Gradually, their meaning became clear to us.
The first set of equations started off with simple, naturally-occurring
energy yielding formulas. The oxidation of cellulose (we found the
formula for that in an organic chemistry text left behind by one of the
dome's previous occupants), which probably referred to the burning
of plants and vegetation. A string of formulas that had groupings in
them that I dimly recognized as amino acids—no doubt something to
do with digesting food. There were many others, including a few that
Rizzo claimed had the expression for chlorophyll in them.
"Naturally-occurring, energy-yielding reactions," Rizzo summarized.
"They're probably trying to describe the biological set-up on their
planet."
It seemed an inspired guess.

The second set of equations again began with simple formulas. The
cellulose-burning reaction appeared again, but this time it was
followed by equations dealing with the oxidation of hydrocarbons:
coal and oil burning? A long series of equations that bore repeatedly
the symbols for many different metals came up next, followed by
more on hydrocarbons, and then a string of formulas that we couldn't
decipher at all.
This time it was my guess: "These look like energy-yielding
reactions, too. At least in the beginning. But they don't seem to be
naturally occurring types. Then comes a long story about metals.
They're trying to tell us the history of their technological development
—burning wood, coal and eventually oil; smelting metals ... they're
showing us how they developed their technology."
The final set of equations began with an ominous simplicity: a short
series of very brief symbols that had the net result of four hydrogen
atoms building into a helium atom. Nuclear fusion.
"That's the proton-proton reaction," I explained to Rizzo. "The type of
fusion that goes on in the Sun."
The next series of equations spelled out the more complex carbon-
nitrogen cycle of nuclear fusion, which was probably the primary
energy source of their own Cepheid variable star. Then came a long
series of equations that we couldn't decode in detail, but the symbols
for uranium and plutonium, and some of the heavier elements, kept
cropping up.
Then came one line that told us the whole story: the lithium-hydride
equation—nuclear fusion bombs.
The equations went on to more complex reactions, formulas that no
man on Earth had ever seen before. They were showing us the
summation of their knowledge, and they had obviously been dealing
with nuclear energies for much longer than we have on Earth.
But interspersed among the new equations, they repeated a set of
formulas that always began with the lithium-hydride fusion reaction.
The message ended in a way that wrenched my stomach: the fusion
bomb reaction and its cohorts were repeated ten straight times.

I'm not sure of what day it was on the calendar, but the clock on the
master control console said it was well past eleven.
Rizzo rubbed a weary hand across his eyes. "Well, what do you
think?"
"It's pretty obvious," I said. "They have the bombs. They've had them
for quite some time. They must have a lot of other weapons, too—
more ... advanced. They're trying to tell us their history with the
equations. First they depended on natural sources of energy, plants
and animals; then they developed artificial energy sources and built
up a technology; finally they discovered nuclear energy."
"How long do you think they've had the bombs?"
"Hard to tell. A generation ... a century. What difference does it
make? They have them. They probably thought, at first, that they
could learn to live with them ... but imagine what it must be like to
have those weapons at your fingertips ... for a century. Forever. Now
they're so scared of them that they're beaming their whole history out
into space, looking for someone to tell them how to live with the
bombs, how to avoid using them."
"You could be wrong," Rizzo said. "They could be boasting about
their arsenal."
"Why? For what reason? No ... the way they keep repeating those
last equations. They're pleading for help."
Rizzo turned to the oscilloscope. It was flickering again.
"Think it's the same thing?"
"No doubt. You're taping it anyway, aren't you?"
"Yeah, sure. Automatically."
Suddenly, in mid-flight, the signal winked off. The pulsations didn't
simply smooth out into a steady line, as they had before. The screen
simply went dead.
"That's funny," Rizzo said, puzzled. He checked the oscilloscope.
"Nothing wrong here. Something must've happened to the
telescope."
Suddenly I knew what had happened. "Take the spectrometer off and
turn on the image-amplifier," I told him.
I knew what we would see. I knew why the oscilloscope beam had
suddenly gone off scale. And the knowledge was making me sick.
Rizzo removed the spectrometer set-up and flicked the switch that
energized the image-amplifier's viewscreen.
"Holy God!"
The dome was flooded with light. The star had exploded.
"They had the bombs all right," I heard myself saying. "And they
couldn't prevent themselves from using them. And they had a lot
more, too. Enough to push their star past its natural limits."
Rizzo's face was etched in the harsh light.
"I've gotta get out of here," he muttered, looking all around the
cramped dome. "I've gotta get back to my wife and find someplace
where it's safe...."
"Someplace?" I asked, staring at the screen. "Where?"

THE END

[1] Astronomers have been able, since about 1910, to estimate

the distances of Cepheid variable stars by timing their pulsations.
The length of this type of star's pulsation is a true measure of its
intrinsic brightness. Comparing the star's actual brightness to its
apparent brightness, as seen from Earth, gives a good value for
the star's distance.
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