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Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 78 (2013) 516 – 520

PSIWORLD 2012

Self-Concept Pattern in Adolescent Students with Intellectual

Disability
Doru-Vlad Popovicia, Cristian Buic -Belciua*
a
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, os. Pandurilor, nr. 90, S5, Bucharest 050663, Romania

Abstract

Self-concept pattern of people with intellectual disability is characterized by cognitive deficits, labile affects, and motivation
immaturity, poor coping initiatives, competence overestimation, unrealistic self-image. Educational–recuperative strategies
must be designed and implemented by special education teachers in order to ameliorate the self-concept in adolescent students
with intellectual disability and, therefore, to facilitate their full or partial mainstreaming in regular education settings.

© 2013
© 2012The
TheAuthors.
Authors. Published
Published by Elsevier
by Elsevier B.V. B.V.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selectionand/or
Selection and/orpeer-review
peer-review under
under responsibility
responsibility of PSIWORLD
of PSIWORLD 2012 2012

Keywords: special education; intellectual disability; self-concept; W-A-I technique.

1. Introduction

According to Oxford Dictionaries (2012), self-concept is “an idea of the self constructed from the beliefs one
holds about oneself and the responses of others: a self concept is largely a reflection of others towards the
individual [emphasis in the original]” (s.v. “self-concept”). This multi-dimensional construct is centered on one’s
attitudes toward him- or herself, mainly on self-image, self-esteem, sense of well-being, sense of intellectual and
social competence, level of innate abilities and acquired skills comparing to peers and other significant
individuals. There are many interpretations (cf. Shavelson, Hubner & Stanton, 1976) and, also, many theoretical
approaches of the self-concept: neurological (focused on the development of the body image and its subsequent
cerebral cortical projection), psychiatric and psychoanalytical (e.g., the role of kinesthetic perceptions in the
process of differentiation between self and environment), developmental (with emphasis put on stages and
schemata) (Vinter, Mounoud & Husain, 1983). Wallon’s first stages of self development in children include the
impulsive stage (stade d’impulsivité motrice) (from birth to 3 months), the emotional stage (stade émotionnel)

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +40-31-425-3445; fax: +40-31-425-3445.

E-mail address: buicabelciucristian@yahoo.com.

1877-0428 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of PSIWORLD 2012
doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.04.342
 Doru-Vlad Popovici and Cristian Buică-Belciu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 78 (2013) 516 – 520 517

(from 3 to 8 months), the sensorimotor stage (stade sensori-moteur) (between the ages of 8 and 10 months), and
the personalist stage (stade du personnalisme) (around the age of 3 years) (Wallon, 1956/1963). The most likely
milestone of self recognition is around age of three, but signs of self image recognition occurs much earlier (e.g.,
recognition of oneself reflection in a mirror). In general, mirror self-recognition (MSR) appears in some infants
around 15 months of age and gains its climax by age of 24 months (Anderson, 1984).
Emotions were found to be an essential component of self development (Garvey & Fogel, 2007). The child’s
bodily and emotional changes are paramount in the development of self (the so-called “somatic-psycho-social”
model) (Wallon, 1954). Emotions guide the child toward or away from others, making the child more and more
aware of his or her self, a unique sentient identity interacting with others, more or less alike (Wallon, 1956).
Mother’s child-rearing skills and the child’s emotional attachment to the mother have profound influence upon
child’s self-esteem (Perkins et al., 2002).
Self-concept pattern’s vivid expression is the perceived self-efficacy, which was defined by Albert Bandura
(1994) as “people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise
influence over events that affect their lives” (p. 71). As he put it, “efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to the
level and quality of human functioning” (Bandura, 1993, p. 145). Thus for a person with an I.Q. above 85, a feed-
back connection quickly regulates the level of the perceived self-efficacy by social and concrete activity-related
outcomes. Speaking of an individual with disabilities, intellectual disability included, this is another matter.

2. Self-concept pattern in individuals with disabilities

Disabilities (especially the acquired ones) or chronic diseases alter and downgrade people’s self-image (Moore
et al., 2000). Children with mild disabilities were found to have difficulties in maintaining both peer-related and
teacher-related adjustments in school settings. They also displayed poorer social skills, more interfering problem
behaviors than regular peers, and were poorly accepted or rejected by them (Gresham & MacMillan, 1997). A
study conducted by Cuskelly and Jong (1996) found “tentative support” (p. 64) for the hypothesis that children
with Down syndrome with an age of 4 to 7 years use similar cognitive processes to normally developing children
of a similar age in constructing their self-concept. LD students usually developed lower self-concepts than
regular students (academic self-concept being even lower than general self-concept). For most LD children, self-
concept diminution appears by third grade and remain almost unchanged through high school (Chapman, 1988).
Fluctuations in global and academic self-concept among elementary-school children were noted, overestimation
of personal intelligence and competence being significant (Kloomok & Cosden, 1994). Children and adolescents
with learning disabilities have poor coping mechanisms, leading to deviant behaviors (Allington-Smith, 2006),
which in turn backfire against any potential self-concept enhancement. It is no wonder that, “overall, adolescents’
understanding of disability appeared to be grounded in a deficit model” (Jones, 2012, p. 31). On the bright side,
studies have found (cf. Longo & Bond, 1984) that many families cope satisfactory with challenges brought by a
child with disabilities; “marriages are not necessarily torn apart by the presence of a chronically ill child nor do
parents automatically become dysfunctional under these circumstances” (p. 64).
All in all, self-concept pattern in individuals with disabilities varies according to those limitations caused by
the disability itself (e.g., limitations in mobility, communication, socialization), but has one common pervasive
trait: the inferiority complex (i.e., feelings of being unworthy, unintelligent, vulnerable, insecure, unable to cope,
etc.) (cf. Adler, 1907/1917). The inferiority complex, however, is present only in adolescents with mild mental
retardation, being replaced by overestimation and unrealistic high self-esteem in adolescents with lower IQ. The
self-concept pattern is characterized by cognitive processing deficits, labile affects and motivation immaturity,
poor coping initiatives, competence overestimation, unrealistic self-image. The lower the IQ score, the poorer the
self-concept in adolescent students with mental retardation (Buic , 2004; Verza, 1988). Their self-image presents
a broad range of variation, from a highly positive end to a deeply negative one, being dominated by subjective
factors which depend on personality and social influences (Popovici, 2000).
518 Doru-Vlad Popovici and Cristian Buică-Belciu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 78 (2013) 516 – 520

In this study, we will use “students/adolescents with mental retardation” and “students/adolescents with
intellectual disability” wordings interchangeably.

3. Four axes conceptual frame of self-concept in mental retardation

Self-concept is intimately connected to self-esteem and personal identity. A negative self-concept leads to a
negative self-esteem as well as a positive self-concept generates a positive effect on self-esteem due to (negative,
respectively positive) interaction with others (Falvo, 2005, p. 12), giving way to a sui generis “snowball effect”.
Adolescents with mental retardation have lower self-concept and verbal creativity than regular adolescents (Uno
& Leonardson, 1980). Confining students with intellectual disability to special schools leads sooner or later to
some kind of “glass-house effect”, that is an artificial nurturing environment with its own facilities and adaptive
requirements. Living among peers with similar educational and social needs, segregated students with mental
retardation easily overlook the adaptive standards of the “outside world” (Perron, 1979). The most visible effects
upon self-concept are overestimation of competence and lack of adaptive social skills (Diederich & Moyse, 1995,
Ninot et al., 2000). In a previous work (Buic , 2004), a descriptive four axes conceptual frame was given.
In a nutshell, the four axes of self-concept are: the cognitive-actional axis, the behavioral-relational axis, the
affective-motivational axis, and the moral-axiological axis. All of them are poorly developed in individuals with
mental retardation, leading to a specific, easy to recognize self-concept pattern. Some traits are presented below:
The cognitive-actional axis is undermined by low interest in an authentic knowledge of others’ true needs and
motives, unspoken intentions, or divergent points of view. Self-perception depends heavily on his or her mood as
well as on what other people say, no matter what truth might be. There is neither real curiosity, nor “cognitive
dissonance” (cf. Festinger, 1957). Lack of sense of agency leads to an uncommitted, semiconscious self-concept.
The behavioral-relational axis is highly sensitive to environmental parameters. The individual with intellectual
disability builds or learns stereotypical behavior and relational patterns due to superficial involvement in
interpersonal exchanges. Disruptive behavior or inappropriate social responses interfere with self-concept proper
development. For example, a bizarre behavior draws people’s attention inadvertently reinforcing its occurrence.
The affective-motivational axis is dominated by volatile emotions and irrepressible needs. Self-image and self-
esteem are continuously inflated or deprecated by outside influences through an “ebb-tide”-like mechanism.
The moral-axiological axis is the least developed one. A socially responsive, environmentally alert, self-
reflexive, value-oriented self-concept is out of the question. Sense of ownership is confined either to personal
belongings or various items used in daily activities (e.g., cafeteria utensils or workshop tools). The self-concept
does not reach higher stages of moral development (cf. Kohlberg, 1968).

4. Some supporting data of self-concept pattern in adolescent student with intellectual disability

In a recent research, supervised by one of the authors (Doru-Vlad Popovici), 12 male adolescents (ages 14 to
18 years old) were selected among the students of a special school in Bucharest, Romania. Six of them were
diagnosed with mild mental retardation (IQ score ranging between 50 and 70) and the other six with severe
mental retardation (IQ scores ranging between 25 and 35). In-depth case studies were performed using verbal and
non-verbal projective tests. “Who Am I” (W.A.I.) technique (proposed by Bugental & Zelen, 1950 and developed
by Zlate, 2002) aims to investigate five personality “facets” (Bales, 1970): the real personality (PR) (genuine
self-concept), the self-evaluated personality (PA) (self-image), the ideal personality (PI) (desired self-concept),
the perceived personality (PP) (self perceived by others), the projected personality (PPro) (self-projection), and
the manifest personality (PM) (self expression through behavior). According to Zlate (2002), “all these
personality facets don’t possess an intrinsic value, but personality emerges from their interaction” (p. 50).
 Doru-Vlad Popovici and Cristian Buică-Belciu / Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 78 (2013) 516 – 520 519

The overall results show unrealistic self-assessment, overestimation of one’s skills and abilities, whimsical
perception of other selves, low self-awareness, labile and insubstantial self expression. Choice of words reflects
not just their limited vocabulary, but their low functioning of conceptual thinking as well as their faulty memory.
Between the two groups of adolescents with intellectual disability both quantitative and qualitative differences
were noted. Students with mild mental retardation performed better than those with severe mental retardation, but
way below the reference criteria. Confusions between real self-concept and desired self-concept were common in
both groups. However, subjects with mild mental retardation shown certain “down-to-earth” self-assessments
when were encouraged to elaborate on their initial responses. In some cases, a highly optimistic self-image acted
as a defense mechanism, hiding a gloomy, depressive real self-concept.

5. Conclusions

In his seminal paper regarding the normalization principle, Bengt Nirje (1969/1994) wrote: “As almost every
situation for the mentally retarded has a pedagogical significance and often is related to his slow building-up of
self-concept, it is essential that the mentally retarded should be offered appropriate facilities, which assist his
educational processes and development and which make it possible for him to experience himself as becoming
adult in his own eyes and in the eyes of others. This is a basic requirement for helping his life development come
as close to the normal as possible [emphasis added]” (p. 22). One cannot expect significant positive changes in
self-concept pattern without changing first the social interaction pattern and the “pampered” care-giving style
often found in self-contained special education settings for individuals with intellectual disability. Anchoring
self-concept in reality, downplaying overestimation and compensating inferiority feelings, teaching vocational
and social skills and easy to grasp self-assessment techniques are primary objectives in order to enhance self-
concept in adolescents with mental retardation. Educational – recuperative strategies must be customized and
thoroughly implemented by I.E.P. team members in order to ameliorate and enhance self-concept in adolescent
students with intellectual disability and, therefore, to facilitate their full or partial mainstreaming in regular
education settings. In our opinion, making a strong point of changing a dysfunctional self-concept pattern to a
more realistic one, increases chances of successful attainment of the ultimate goal of social normalization.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to special education teacher Marinela Vasile (Special School no. 11,
“Constantin P unescu”) for the permission given to use some of her research data in this paper.

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