Grade 10 History Handout.

Unit: 5

Italo Ethiopian war/1935-41/

Background and Causes (European Ambition)
Tripartite Treaty (1906) signed by the three European colonial neighbors of Ethiopia intended
to partition the region in accordance with their sphere of influence.
But Menelik took measures against the objective of Britain, France and Italy that filled water on
their colonial ambition.
The Plans of Fascist Italy

- The rise of Benito Mussolini and his Fascist party to power 1922 developed colonial ambition of
Italy setting targets such as:
 Erase shameful scare of Adowa
 Ambition of Mussolini prestige in military success
 Divert people’s attention from economic difficulties at home.
 Features of pre-Italian invasion Coverage ( hidden plan)
 Didn’t opposed Ethiopia appealed of the league of Nation in 1923 but Britain.
 As Pretext- Made warm welcome 1924 of Ras Teferi tour to Europe .
 Signed peace & friendship treaty in 1928
 Italy continued its Preparation under cover.
 The preparation consisted of 2 activities
1. Subversive measures carried by Italian governor of Eretria (Corrado Zoli) - Bribe &
agitated the chiefs of Tigre, Wollo, Begemdir and Gojam
2. Military preparation
- Placed armies & war supplies in Eritrea and Somali
- Hoare- Laval (1934) agreement which allowed taking Ethiopia by Britain & France and in
order to encouraged not to ally with German.

Eve of the Invasion

Wal-Wal incident 5 Dec. 1934
Clash b/n Italian troops (accompanied Anglo -Ethio Boundary commission) Ethiopia right the
invasion ill prepared Felt over confident owing to Adowa Incomparable to that of Italy in terms
Weapons Communication, Training of troops and Logistics

3. Course and Fronts of the War (1935-36)

 Northern front under the command Emilio de Bono Replaced by Pietro Badoglio.
Began on 3 Oct, 1935 in the North .
 Southern front- under Rodolfo Grazziani.
 The Ethiopian army ordered to pull back rather to check the advancing Italian owing to two
reasons,
- Exhibition of league of nation

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 - Strategic elongate communication line

The Ethiopian reaction

1. The northern front- under Ras Kassa Hailu

- consisted three sub-front

1.1. shire front (left)-Ras Immiru
1.2. Temben front (center)- Ras Seyoum and Ras Kassa
1.3. Amba Aradom (left) –Ras Mulugeta

2. Southern front-consisted two

2.1 South- under Ras Desta- Damitew
2.2 South east- under Dejazmach Nesibu Zeamanuel

 Course In the North front

1. Temben front 20-24 Jan. 1936.
Adigrat, Adowa & Meqele fallen in to Italian control.

 Ethiopian first counter –offense at Meqele encircle (first military engagement) Under Kassa
Hailu and Seyum Mengesha.
But, Ras Kassa & Seyoum Mengesha were defeated.
 8,000 Ethiopian died and wounded
 60 officers, 605 low ranked soldiers 417 Eritrea Askaris were killed & wounded
 Italian used Yipright or killer gas under Badoglio, who replaced DeBono

2. The Battle of Amba Aradom (Under Ras Mulugeta Yegezu)

 Aerial attack Feb. 10-15, 1936
 Evacuated Ethiopian from mountain hill
 6000 killed including Ras Mulugeta
 - -36 white officers -621 white soldiers -145 Askaris

3. The second Battle of Temben late Feb 1936 Under Ras Kassa & Seyoum
 resulted 8,000 Ethiopia killed and wounded
 Italian killed wounded -34- Officers -350- Soldiers -188- Askaris

4. Shire front under Ras Immiru

 Scored little victory relatively Left the front on 2, April 1936
 due to poor fighting morals of Gojjam and Semen Nobles ,
 and organized retreat towards lake Ashenge 10,000 men

5. Last and Decisive battle of Machew 31 March led by the emperor

 Ras Imru’s army, didn’t join Fresh force in the Ethiopian army Imperial body guard 6000
men Fought March 31- Apr. 1, 1936
 Resulted defeat after 13 continuous hours
 In April 1936 the Italian aggressive force entered Dessie without any problem.

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  In the southern front
A. 1st Qorahe attack (Ogden)

 Ethiopian under Dejazmach Afeworq

- Initial successive defense but not last long
- Fascist entered into Harar
- Significant challenge the fascist met from Dejazmach Mekonnen Endalkachew

B. 2nd Battle of Genale Doraya Janu 26, 1936

- Campaign Dolo Odo under Ras Desta Damtew

- March 2, 1936 Negelle Borana capture and Ras Desta retreated

Why did Ethiopian lose the war in both sides?

1. Superiority of the fascist army in both numerically and technically.
2. Shortage of logistic such as cartridges
- 8 transport air plane (Ethiopian)
- 400 air planes most Bomber (Italy)
- Keep for even month fighting
- Had no doctor and medical supplies
- Had no radio communication
3. Dissatisfaction with in the Ethiopian army
- Hailesilasse Gugsa- (Gov- Tigre)
- Ras Mulugeta (un happy an old man, war minister)
4. Old commander with little knowledge of modern warfare, and Had no war experience after
Adowa .Stayed in comfort & peace without hardship for 40 year since 1896 .

 Fascist Occupation & Patriotic Resistance

Colonial Administration

 Ethiopia became part of Italian east Africa empire

 The empire divided into six regions with respected capital Addis Ababa deserved the capital
of the empire
 Empire held by Mussolini’s viceroy lived in Genet-Leul-palace (the current Addis Ababa
University) is situated Some of viceroy of Italian East-African empire were:- Marshal
Emilio Badoglio,
- Marshal Rodolfo Grazziani.
- Amador Umberto Duck of Aosta was more liberal among all the viceroy .
 Achievements of Italian beside their colonial occupation in Ethiopia, and still some
evidence depicted the legacies, for instance
- Introduced new life style

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 - Opened enterprises and business
- Road & housing construction
- Light scale manufactories included Cotton and cement factory in Dire Dawa, edible oil and
flour mills
- Introduced services such as Electric light, Pure water and Commercial centre in Merkato
Patriotic Resistance
 Started as soon as the defeat Machew, and had two phase and stages.

The first phase led by noble, military officer,

 Lutenat conelel Blay Haileab,
 Kifle Nesibu and Ketema Besha and educated at Holeta Genet military acadamy.
Organized Black lion to liberate Ethiopia
 Ras Immiru took the leadership of the organization, and directed the operation in the Gibe
river basin.
 Ras Desta led the patriotic resistance after he retreated in to the Gurage region around
Butajjira until his defeat at Gogeti
 Two sons of Ras Kassa, Abera and Asfa-wosen
- Planned,
abortive attack on Addis Ababa in the summer 1936.operated in to four direction
1. Abera and Asfaw- North Direction
2. Balcha Safo- South direction
3. Ras Abebe- North west Direct
4. Dejazmach Fiqre- Mariam- East direction
 Combined with Abune Petros anti- fascist speech,
 the plan didn’t achieve success due to poorly planned, Lacked coordination and effective
timing.
 As the result, the two Brothers fled to Selale later killed due to the fake and conspiracy Ras
Hailu made in favor of the colonialists.
 Abune Petros executed and Balcha was killed at fighting at the place of hi memorial hospital
located.

The second Phase and Stage

 February 19, 1937 abortive attempt to kill Marshal Grazziani, the viceroy by Abraham
Debouch and Moges Asgidom,
which resulted wholesale massacre for three days 30, 000,and
499 monks/ Debre Libanos.
 - Country- wide anti-fascist resistance characteristics /forms/ second phase - Carried out on
guerilla warfare (especially strong in Showa, Gojam and Begemdir)
 The Patriots employed various tactics,
- Ambush of enemy convoys
- Cutting communication line.
Times striking(conditions favorable) Led by local notable persons.

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  Problems of patriotic resistance
- Lack of sufficient supplies and logistic
- Competition and rivalry among the leader
- Defections to the fascist .
 Famous resistance leaders are Abebe Argay, Bekele Woya, Geresu Duki, Belay Zeleke,
H/Mariam Mamo, Amoraw Wubeneh, Takele W/Hawariat
 The two exceptional were Zerai Deres & Abdissa Aga in Italy

The war of Liberation and Ethiopian Independence

 Factors that speed Ethiopian independence,

- Italy’s entry into WWII on the side of Germany on 10 June, 1940 and it create threat on Britain
East Africa colonies. B/c Italy had 200,000 troops in East Africa.
- Britain decided to fight in North and East Africa.
Britain began to supply military assistance to the Ethiopian patriots.
- H/Sillassie arrived Sudan and opened military school at Soba

 British campaign against fascists under the comand of,

1. General Platt- Led the operation from Sudan towards the liberation of Eritrea Strong
challenge strong hold of Keren.
2. Colonel Dan Sanford - Major order Charles Wingdale

- Gideon force, the Ethiopian army trained in Sudan, Soba

3. General Cunningham-from Kenya directed to liberate Italy Somali land and Harar. This force is
responsible the first drove the Fascist out of Addis Ababa on 6 April 1941.
On 5 may 1941 the Emperor re-entered Addis Ababa.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939-1945)

The origins of the Second World War

The long-term factors, caused disputes and conflicts

A. The impact of WWI brought Economic Crisis

 The decline in world trade
 Unemployment
 Agricultural depression
 The war debates and Inflation
 The weakness of the treaty of Versailles
 Created new problem
 Facilitated the outbreak of WWII
 The crucial rolling point or up surging Germany nationalism

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B. The Role of Great Depression (1929-1933)
 Revolutionary movement evolved in European countries
 Fascist regime came to power

1. 1917-1923 – Italy in 1922

2. 1924-1929 – Germany in 1933
3. 1929-1933- Japan prepared to the way to start
 Weakened Britain & France to resist aggression
 USA made more isolationist

C. The Emergence of Fascism & Militarism

1. Fascist Italy

 Fascism was come to power in Italy in 1922. Unstable coalition government since 1871 the
very extent of economic difference between north & poor south the situation more enhanced
with the emergence of Nationalist right wing & socialist movement
 Mussolini founded fascist movement in 1919. Latin word, fasces, bundle of sticks bound
together with an axe- symbol of power and unity in ancient Rome.
 Post- war event led Italy in to a grim of economic and political unrest
 August 1922 socialist called general strike against the Italian government which favored
Mussolini to rise power.
 October, king Emanuel III called Mussolini to Rome to form coalition government with
membership name the National Bloc. Mussolini arrived with his Black shirt to Rome and
invited to establish Fascist government (prime minister) consisted
 Fascist
 Internationalist
 Conservatives -

In 1924 gained 665 seats in the parliament.

 Emmanuel III approved Mussolini to enact law without the parliament and other parties
dissolved. Press and trade union banned. Army & police force increased in number High
position in administration posts were distributed to fascist party officials In 1928 Fascist
became the only party to have candidate in election. Italy became a single party state under
Mussolini adopted the title “II Duce” the leader. Established close link with Catholic Church
signed agreement with the pope in 1929. (Official religion in Italy)
2. Nazism in Germany
 The Rise of Nazism in Germany (Hitler) (National Socialist party 1920) There were many
factors that brought Nazism to power.
 The Economic depression - Forced the German government print excessive paper inflation
followed Falling wages and increased unemployment.
 Nazi gained support of the middle class the workers and the unemployed due to its advocacy
of Fear of communism

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  Industrialists, the bankers and other property owners came to stand by the fascists extended
support in finance, Armament and Other provisions
 Nationalism: Nazi by their mob-orator skill exposed their sentiment among the people, and
expressed their anger towards the victorious belligerent nations which dominated the
Versailles Treaty of 1919.
 The Versailles treaty provoked resentment
 The defeat of Germany in WWI had become unacceptable
 The fascist exploited such resentment to inculcate nationalist feeling
 Nazi promised to make the Versailles treaty null and futile
 Request the pre-war Germany colonies
 Request the right to armament
 Hitler declared the “Pure Aryan” race . (Idea of master race produced chauvinism)
 Inclined, students, middle class and army office Hitler’s anti- Jew Stand Announced they to
leave Germany
- Blamed them for Germany’s defeat WWI
 Opposition to the Weimer

Government - Republic government set up in Weimer town. Blamed for defeat and many problems
afterward. Weak and accepted harsh treaty. Many Germans became willing to support the Nazi party
and its promises in economy and glory.

Under the Leadership of Hitler who Born in 1889 in Austria Joined the Germany army in 1914
served in the western front. He was successful in forming national socialist party thanks to his
organizational ability

- Wrote the story of his life during his stay in prison (Mein Kempt)- My struggle (putsch-coup).
(S.A storm troops)
– In this book more discussed his motives of the Nazi Brown shirt party and Nazi Germany.
He initiated people against the Republican government.
To violence, Opposition & Mass rallies

- By 1932 his party have got 37% of total vote had become largest party in Reichstag. President von
Hindenburg forcefully appointed him chancellor In 1933 election Hitler wanted to win majority.

This political transformation Ended up Weimer Republic. Start Hitler’s dictatorial power, and took
the title “Fuhrer” leader

3. Militarism in Japan

The Rise of Military in Japan in early 1930’s

 Intended to achieving greatness through territorial expansion.

 Japan began her move targeted east and south East Asia and the pacific. One of the earliest
tests had been posed by Japan. Japanese military leaders and Ultranationalists (extreme
nationalists) through that Japan Should have an empire equal to those of Western powers.

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  In pursuit of this goal, Japan seized Manchuria in 1931. When the League of Nations
condemned the aggression, Japan withdrew from the organization. Japan’s easy succes
strengthened the militarists.

In 1937, Japanese armies overran much of eastern China. Once again, western protests had no effect
on the conquror.

Activity

1. What do you mean Ultranationalists?

2. Why the Weimer Republic was responsible for the humilation of Germany in world
war
first?

3. what is Mein Kempf?

4. Justify the basic causes of the outbreak of wwII

Su
bsi
di
ary causes of WWII
A) Failure of Appeasement Diplomatic policy aimed at settling a grievance of the Axis powers
through negotiation rather than military force.
Has two distinct phases 1) 1920’s- 1937 must avoid war at all cost (Manchuria, Ethiopia ,
German rearmament and reoccupation of Rhineland) 2) 1937, Chamberlain, prime minister of
Britain sustain long term peace

B. Weakness of the League of Nations:

It didn’t
 keep its objectives
 Stop fascist military aggression
 Hold up terms of Versailles treaty

Soviet- Nazi non- Aggression pact

 pledged to remain neutral
 Divide Eastern Europe into their sphere of influence
 Poland partitioned in to West to Germany and East to Russia
 Baltic republic- Russia however, the pact have no lasting effect .

Military Aspects of the War (Course of the war)

Factors or events that indicate WWII inevitable to break out

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  Japan, Germany and Italy withdrew from League of nations
 Japan in 1931, Germany in 1933 & Italy in 1935
 The establishment of an alliance in 1936, Rome-Berlin Axis OR Rome- BerlinTokyo Axis
(Triangular Axis)
 Rearmament violating the treaty of Versailles.
 Germany- adopted universal military service, and established new navy and huge air
 Japan- increased her naval industry ,Established vigorous naval bases in the Island of the
pacific
 In 1938 (March) Germany annexed Austria (Aeschylus), that is. The annexation of Austria.
 In 1938 demand over Sudetenland (Germen speaking) and 1939 occupied Czechoslovak
 Japanese and Italian had begun official aggression
1931 Manchuria
1937 total invasion on China
1935-36 the invasion of Ethiopia

The league forgotten principle of collective security and return to the old principle of “might is right”

Phases of the course of the War

 WWII has four phases of the course

1st phase: Sep. 1939-Oct. 1940. 3rd phase: 1942-1943

2nd phase: 1941-1942 4th phase: Axis surrender (1943-45)

Brainstorming

1. Why League of Nation didn’t stop Italy to invade Ethiopia?2. Do you consider Ethiopia's Struggle
against Fascist as a part of ww2?3. Explain the Rome- Berlin-Tokyo Axis (Triangular Axis) formation

1. The First phase Sep. 1939-Octo 1940 - Marked the outbreak of Second Armageddon

A. Blitzkrieg of Poland (1 Sep 1939)

- Invasion of Poland in rapid and coordinated attack (Blitzkrieg) – Lightening of war.
First, German planes bombed airfield, factories, towns, and cities, and screaming dive bombers fired
on civilians. Then, fast moving tanks and troops transports roared in to the country. This war tactic
was effective in the early campaigns.
Britain and France declared war on 3 Sept 1939

B. Phony war: (Sitzkrieg)- setting war - Period Oct. 1939- April 1940 in the west.

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Little fight in the west. During that first winter the French hunkered down behind the Maginot Line.
Britain sent troops to wait them.

some reports referred to this quite times as the “Phony war” Germany planned to attack Britain and
France .Russia in the East took Baltic nations and invaded Finland

C. German invasion of Denmark, and Norway, April 1940

The German were Landed the main Norwegian port, and Invaded Denmark. Norway was vital for
German industries (Swedish iron ore)

The Norwegian campaign had profound result for the Germans thus, German assured her bases and
iron ore supply. On the other hand, political unrest in Britain and France.

Two Britain Prime Minister were forced to resign, consequently Churchill came to power in Britain.

D. The fall of France (May 10, 1940) - Occupied nether lands, Belgium and France

- France except south and south east under puppet government, Vichy government under marshal
Henry Petain according 22 June armistice signed

E. The Battle of Britain (12 August- 13 Sep. 1940) Prepared Sea lion operation.

Launched from air (Luft Wafte- air force) bombarded

Military sites , Factories, Capital city (London) German faced strong counter- air attack RAF.
Hitler plan to attack Britain failed

- The Battle of Britain was the first major turning point to check Germany .

F. Mussolini invaded Egypt In Sept. 1940 to share Hitler’s victory in the East Britain defeated the
Italian force in Egypt (N. Africa) and Greece

2. The Second phase (1941-1942)

A) North Africa & Greece - In Feb. 1941 Hitler moves to give support to Italy and dispatched
(Marshal Rommel- Desert Fox) .

Drove out the British force from Libya - In June 1942 German advanced as far as El Alamien
(Egypt). Drove out the British from island Crete in May 1941. In April 1942 invaded Greece .

B. Invasion of the Soviet Union

Named operation Barbarossa after German emperor Fredric I (3rd crusades) German Invasion
against the Soviet Union had three motives

Feared Russia’s attack in the west

Hatred of communism blockage of its spread

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 Strong desire for living space ,Lebensraum

The operation directed into three fronts

1) In the north towards Leningrad

2) In the Centre towards Moscow
3) In the south through the Ukraine -

The German ambition to capture Moscow and Leningrad failed due to the winter season.

On 1942 German advanced south east to the Caucasus area to patrol the oil field but met similar
problem - Russian fought patriotic war “Behind us is Moscow, there is no room left to retreat”

C. The USA Enters the War: - On 7 Dec. 1941 USA ended its neutrality owing to Japan bombed
pearl harbor (USA naval base in pacific) .The event spread the war in the Far East Sank 19 and
destroyed 188 planes 2,400 people died

- Japan was dominated in the pacific .In May 1942 Japan controlled Malaysia, Philippines,
Singapore ,Honking and Burma (Myanmar)

The event also provoked Hitler to declare war on USA

2. The Third phase (1942-43) - Marked the war fully a world war

- The Allied powers beat off the Axis at the major three battles

A) Battle of Midway Island

- June 1942 USA defeated the Japanese fleet at Midway (Pacific)
- Weakened Japan position in the pacific
- US recover the pacific Island

B) El-Alamien - Rommel advance towards Cairo stopped by British and American force
- Prevented Egypt and Suez canal
- Marked the complete expulsion of the Axis force from N. Africa

C) Stalin grad - German attacked the city end of August 1942

- Nov. Russian launched counter attack and trapped the Germans
- General Von Paulo surrendered
- Marked the turning point in the East

4) Fourth phase (1943-1945) - The phase marked Axis power surrender

A) The fall of Italy

 Sicily captured on 10 July 1943 by Anglo-American force. In spite of German attempt to
liberate Italy, the whole Italy failed under Anglo-American force in 1945.
 Italy served as base for bombing the Germans in central and the Balkans. Victor Emanuel
III deposed Mussolini and replaced Marshal Pietro Badoglio Prime Minister.

B) The invasion of France

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  Day 6 June 194 Landing of US, Britain & Canadian forces at Normandy. Finally, they broke
through the German defenses and advanced towards Paris. Meanwhile other Allied forces
from Italy to land in Southern France.
 Such Allied invasion known as operation over lord - On 25 Aug. 1944 General Charles de
Gaulle the leader of free France entered Paris.

C) The surrender of Germany

 Between August & October 1944 USSR cleared major parts of central & East Europe
under General (later Marshal) Zhukov.
 Berlin captured on May 2, 1945 by Soviet troops. Hitler committed suicide week
before the capitulation of Berlin.
 Hitler’s successor, Admiral Karl Doenitz authorized Germany surrender on 7 May
1945. On 8 May which was proclaimed VE –Day (Victory in Europe)

D) The Defeat of Japan

 Japanese surrender hastened by newly invented Atomic bombing on two Japanese cities,
Hiroshima- on 6 August- 80,000 human lives were lost,
Nagasaki- on 9 August- 40,000
 Russia declared war on Japan in August 1945 Played paramount role in ground force
 Japanese government under Hirohito signed unconditional surrender of Japan on 15 August
1945 .

Consequences of the war

1. Economic effect
 Military expenditure 2000 billion
 Cost of property damaged $330 billion
 Entire part of Germany industrial and urban development demolished
 France’s 50% its wealth had been lost
 Significant role for the spread of communist economic system from Russia - East and
central Europe - Many Asian countries
2. Social Effect

 Caused the death of almost 50 mill

 Caused the wound of almost 20 million
 Holocaust the death of 6 million Jewish. 6 million (Gypsies & slow),
 Several people had become homeless and displaces ,25 million Russian ,21 mill people of
Europe and Asia displaced from the home
 Stimulated extensive revival of urbanization

3. Political Effects
 Accelerated struggle for national liberation from colonialism in African & Asian
 The emergence of nuclear era owing to the production of nuclear energy
 Europe’s domination of the rest of the world ended

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4. Emergence of super powers USA
– world’s largest navy, possessed atomic energy U.S.S.R had become world’s largest army. They
entered to cold war.
5. The foundation of international peace keeping organization (UNO)

Unit: 6
Post WWII Global Development
6.1. The goals and structures of UNO
The United Nations Organizations
A. Steps towards the foundation of the UNO.
The Atlantic charter of 1942
- Fran. D. Roosevelt of U.S and Winston Churchill met on board ship in the Atlantic
- They had drawn the Atlantic charter .
 The principles England and US
I. Desired no territorial gains
II. Respect the rights of all people to choose the government of their own form
III. Hoped that all men would like in freedom from fear and want
IV. Believed that nations must abandon the use of force
V. Would seek to establish “system of general security”

B. Tehran Summit 1943 - The USA, Britain and USSR gave support the idea of UNO
C. Moscow conference, Oct. 1943 - Foreign ministers of the three Allied powers
declared their willingness to establish a new international organization for maintenance of peace’s
order.

D. Dumbarton Oaks, conference – August-Oct. (Washington) in 1944

- USA, USSR, Britain, China (reserved to France)
- Discussed detailed on the structure of UN

E. Yalta conference (Feb. 1945) - The Big three, Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill - Agreed
on the procedures for voting in the UN security council - Called the united
nations to send their representatives to san Francisco to draw the charter

F. San Francisco (April-June 1945)

- Attended by 50 nations representatives
- Drew the charter of UN
- Drawn based on Dumbarton discussion
- UN charter signed by 51 founding members

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 - UN officially came into existence in October 1945 when china, France, USA, USSR and
Britain ratified UN Organs

This laid establishment of UNO so nations approved the charter of UNO and formally setup on April
1945.

The Goals of UNO

 Maintain international peace and security.

 Encourage international cooperation Promote respect for human right.
 Take measure for prevention and removal of the act of aggression
 Develop friendly relation among nations.

The Structure of UNO

1. General Assembly
Is made up of representative of the UN member countries.
All had one vote. Though member nation may send upto five delegate to its meeting.
The Assembly meet once a year.
 Responsible of General Assembly,
- admission of new members and expulsion of members.
- supervision of the budget.
- appointment of the UN secretary General.
- Maintain peace and security.

2. Security council
 Responsible for the maintenance of Peace and security.
 It is Leading organ .
 Has five permanent members (Britain, France, Russia, USA and China) called veto power.
 It had none permanent 10 and 1965-15 members.
responsibility;
 Take military action against an aggressor.
 Maintain international Peace and security.
 Elect judges to international court of justice and security council.
3. Trust ship council.

 The function was to protect the interest of people who lived in the trust territories and to lead
them towards self gov't.

4. International court of Justice 15 judges

The court sites at the Hague in the Netherlands.
Its primary function was settle mutual disputes among d/t nation by peaceful method.
5. Economic and social council

6. Secretariat
 Is mainly an administrative body.
 1500 workers

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  Head quarter seated at New York

Major duties were;

 Implement decision of the assembly and the council

 Bring issue of major concern to the General Assembly.
 Draw up annual report of organization.
 Coordinate the activities and direct funds for the many specialized agencies.
 The secretary General was appointed by General Assembly for about 5 years.

1. 1st Trygve Lie (Norway) 1949-1952

2. Dag Hammarskjold (Sweden) 1953-1961
3. U Tant – (Burma) 1961-1970
4. Kurt Waldheim (Austria) 1971-1980
5.Javier Peerez de Cuellar (Peru) 1981-1990
6. Butros Butros Gali (Egypt) 1991-1996
7. Kofi Anan (Ghana) 1997-2006
8. Banki moon (S. Korea ) 2007-2016
9. Antonio Gutierrez ( Portugal) Since 2017.

6.2 Emergence of Rival Supper powers

& COLD WAR
The term Cold war was first used by American journalist in 1948, to describe the
increasing hostile relation between Soviet Union and USA.
 It was neither an era of war or peace
 Major power blocs were

Eastern bloc.
The Eastern bloc led by Soviet Union.
Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany.
Made up of the favoured communist ideology and communist form of gov't.
Western bloc.
“the Western Bloc” led by USA and Great Britain.
- France, West Germany, Bulgaria, Canada, Italy.
Made up of Capitalist form of economy and democratic form of gov't.
 The cold war was marked by international conflict in almost in every field of b/n the
power blocs.
Characteristics of cold war:
 It is war of words ( propaganda)
 Arms race (weapon race)
 Mutual suspension and building military alliance
 The development of Espionage (Spying)
 arms clash (wars)

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  The formation of communist and capitalist bloc
 Economic conflict.

The Western Reaction

 Western struggled against soviet bloc took three reforms;
1. Policy of containment
 In 1947 American president H. Truman called forth end to the communist expansion known
as “Truman Doctrine”
It made ready military financial aid to any nation under pressure from communism.
 On April 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty organization (NATO) was formed.
Another western sponsored military alignment were formed in south east Asia (SEATO)
2. Strengthening Europe’s Economic Defense
On 5, June 1947, George C. Marshall US secretary of state announced “marshal Plan”
(1948-1952)

The USA launched a program of rebuilding European Economy.

European willing to accept this aid formed the organization for European Economic cooperation
(OEEC). Organization of European economic commission.
3. Strengthening of Non- European Economic Defense
To check communist expansion the USA and its allies began program of economic aid under
President Truman’s doctrine of point four programs.

The Eastern bloc Reacation

WARSAW PACT;
It was a treaty of friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance signed by
Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East- Germany, Poland, Romania
and the Soviet Union.
To meet the challenge form the USA and her allies.

Chinese Revolution 1912-1949

 At the beginning of 20thC China was still ruled by the weak Qing dynasty and the country
still under European sphere of influence.
 In 1891 Dr. Sun Yat-Sen founded the Kuomintang or Nationalist party.
- Demand replaced the weak Qing dynasty by strong central gov't
- Introduced Democratic government
- Economic security for all the Chinese
 The Xinhai Revolution, or the Hsin-hai Revolution, also known as the Revolution of 1911 or
the Chinese Revolution, was a revolution that overthrew China's last imperial dynasty, the
Qing Dynasty, and established the Republic of China.

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 The revolution was named Xinhai (Hsin-hai) because in 1911, the year of the Xinhai stem-
branch in the sexagenarians cycle of the Chinese calendar.
 The revolution ended with the abdication of the "Last Emperor" Poi on February 12,
1912, that marked the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule and the beginning of
China's republican era.
 In the context of
a) the political chaos that follows the fall of the centralized dynastic power of the Qing
in the Republican Revolution in 1911 and
b) the growing nationalism that crystallizes as the May 4th Movement
 After the 1919 Peace settlement — two political parties work and compete to reunify
China and to modernize it to face the challenge of imperialist encroachment by the
West and Japan.
These are the Nationalist Party (Guomindang or Kuomintang) KMT and
the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).
 Inadequate political control over the Japanese military, economic strains, and the
worldwide Depression of the 1930s set the stage for the rise of the military in Japan
and the pursuit of Japanese imperialist interests in Asia. Japan feels excluded by the
West in thedivision of spoils in China. Japan pursues its own dominance of China by
occupying Manchuria in 1931 and invading China in1937 and remaining there until
its defeat at the conclusion of WW II in 1945.
 In China, the army of the Nationalist Party, led by Chiang Kai-shek (political heir of
Sun Yat-sen), marches north in 1926 on the "Northern Expedition" from its base in
southern China to establish a new government at Nanking in 1927 and to reunify part
of China. This is sometimes called the Nationalist Revolution.
 The Nationalist government remained in power in Nanking until 1937 (1927-37
known as the "Nanking Decade") when it is forced by the Japanese invasion to move
inland and ultimately establish its wartime capital in Chungking (Chongqing) in 1938,
where it remains until 1945. Japan captures the capital of Nanking in 1937 in a brutal
battle and subsequent reign of terror known as the "Rape of Nanking."
 Members of the Chinese Communist Party, pursued by the Nationalists in the 1930s, March
from southern China to a remote region, Yenan, in northern China where they refine
strategies for rural mobilization and revolution. This "Long March" takes place from 1934-
1935.
 When the Japanese attack the American fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941,
the United States enters World War II and goes to war with Japan; the war ends when the U.S.
drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9) in Japan in 1945 and
Japan surrenders unconditionally to the Allied forces. Japan's first attempt to enter the
modern international system ends in failure.
 During the course of the war Japan conquers other Asian nations, pursuing its own
imperialist objectives and challenging Western powers for economic and military dominance
in Asia. Hostility and unsettled issues resulting from the Japanese occupation remain in
Japan's relations with Korea, China, and the countries of SE Asia.
 When WW II ends in 1945 with Japan's defeat in China, the Nationalists and the Communist
forces fight a civil war for control of China. The Communists are victorious in 1949 and the

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 Nationalists leave the mainland of China and a rival government on the island of Taiwan.
(The rival governments continue to exist today as the People's Republic of China on the
mainland and the Republic of China on Taiwan.)

In October 1949, Mao Tse-tung declares the establishment of the People's Republic of China and
proclaims that "the Chinese people have stood up" after 100 years of subjugation by foreign powers
on China's soil.

October 10 is commemorated in Taiwan as Double Ten Day, the National Day of the Republic of
China. In mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau, the same day is usually celebrated as the
Anniversary of the Xinhai Revolution.[3] Many overseas also celebrate the anniversary in China
towns across the world.

Agrarian Policy and Economic Development

 In order to achieve economic modernization, the government that came to power in 1949 had
to find a way to squeeze the very small surplus out of the countryside (where 80 percent of
the population lived) and invest in industry.
 Leaving it to the market was seen as slow, inefficient and inequitable, so the commune
system of collectivized agriculture was implemented. Property was pooled to form large
tracts of land that be farmed more efficiently.
 Land was owned jointly by large groups of peasants who by sheer force of human labor
rather than relying on state investment, would together carry out projects of land reclamation
and water control. They were rewarded for their communal labor by a system of work points,
while the state exacted as much surplus as possible for investment in industrial development.
Families were given only very small plots for their personal farming, and markets for the sale
of rural produce were limited mostly to the exchange of goods among local residents.
Although the commune system did allow the state to extract the maximum surplus from the
countryside, at times it was disastrous, resulting in widespread famine, particularly during
1959-62 the end of the Great Leap Forward.
 It was ultimately judged inefficient and having major disincentive effects, and was
abandoned in the early.
 Mao and his particular vision of communism in China dominate from 1949 until his death in
1976. The Maoist period is characterized by mass mobilization and the prominence of
ideology.
 The Great Leap Forward of and the Cultural Revolution of 1966-76 are Maoist campaigns
designed, in the first instance, to bring China up to the level of the developed nations by an
economic "great leap" and, in the second instance, to rid Chinese culture of impediments to
the communist society Mao envisions.
The Great Leap Forward results in an estimated 30,000 deaths from famine; the Cultural Revolution
pits Chinese against Chinese in brutal persecution.

The Korean War (1950-1953)

Korea since 1910 was under Japan control during WWII Liberation, Division, and War.

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  The Japanese surrender to the Allies on August 15, 1945, which ended World War II, led to a
time of great confusion and turmoil in Korea.
 38th Parallel was made a dividing line b/n two forces of the two power.
 The country was divided into zones of occupation by the victorious Americans and Soviets,
and various individuals and organizations across the political spectrum from Communists to
the far Right claimed to speak for an independent Korean government.
 The Soviets and Americans failed to reach an agreement on a unified Korean government,
and in 1948 two separate governments were established, each claiming to be the legitimate
government of all Korea: the Republic of Korea in Seoul, in the American zone, and the
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in Pyongyang, in the Soviet zone.
 On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded the South. The Korean War drew in the
Americans in support of South Korea and the Chinese in support of the North.
 In July 1953, after three years of bloody fighting in which some three million Koreans, one
million Chinese, and 54,000 Americans were killed, the Korean War ended in a truce with
Korea still divided into two mutually antagonistic states, separated by a heavily fortified
“DeMilitarized Zone” (DMZ). Korea has remained divided ever since.

The Vietnam War

 Indo-China was under French colonial rule since 1880s. Made up of;
Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam.
During WWII, the region was under the control of Japan.
 French return after Japanese defeat; United States and Britain support the French government
to control Vietnam.
 But, after Japan surrender Vietnam becom an independent state under Ho Chi Minh;
Establishes government in the north.
Dirty War; 1946-1954
 The war b/n French and Vietnam to recolonize.
 French defeated at Dien Bien Phu; Ho Chi Minh takes control of the north
 The Geneva conference; French involvement was ended.
 Vietnam divided into North and South; in 17th parallel.
 Elections proposed for 1956 but never held.
 The south Vietnam led by NGO Dinh Dien supported USA government.
 The opposing communist force formed called NLF in 1960.
Aimed to unifying Vietnam and evaluation of foriegn troops.
Their military wing was Viet Cong. Supported by North Vietnam.
 Communist guerilla as known as the Vietcong murdered NGO Dinh Diem in 1963
 1965: United States involvement in South Vietnam replaces that of the French
 January 1973, a cease fire was signed in Paris by the USA, South Vietnam and North
Vietnam leaders.
 1975, United States and all foreign support leave Vietnam.
 North Vietnam takes control of South Vietnam and establishes a unified country

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  Name of Saigon changed to "Ho Chi Minh City," after Ho, who died before country united.

The Arab-Israeli War

 It refers to the political tension and military conflicts between the Arab League and Israel
and between Arabs and Israelis.
 The roots of the modern Arab–Israeli conflict lie in the rise of Zionism and Arab nationalism
towards the end of the 19th century. Territory regarded by the Jewish people as their
historical homeland is also regarded by the Pan-Arab movement as historically and presently
belonging to the Palestinian Arabs, and in the Pan- Islamic context, as Muslim lands.
 Zionism; was an international jewish movement aimed to establishing a Jewish state in
Palestine. The first Zionist Congress was organized in 1897 in Switzerland by Theodore
Herzel.
 The conflict between Palestinian Jews and Arabs emerged in the early 20th century during
the 1920 Nebi Musa riots, the Jaffa riots, 1929 Palestine riots and the Arab revolt exploding
into a full- scale civil war in 1947 and expanding to all Arab League countries with the
creation of the modern State of Israel in May 1948.
 In 1917 the British and issued that was called the Balfour Declaration this paved the way for
establishment of a national home land for Jews in Palestine. Arabs protested against Jewish
immigration in 1920’s and 1930’s.
 In 1947 the UNO general Assembly decided the partition of palatine as Arab and Jewish
state and Internationalization of Jerusalem.

The creation of Israel state was rejected by Arabs.

This led to first Arab-Israeli war in 1948 by which the Arabs of plastic supported by Arabia Trans
Jordan, Egypt, Iraq Syria Lebanon Yemen the Jewish won the war and proclaimed the new Israel
under David Ben Groin.

The second Arab- Israel war: In 1956 the Egyptian government Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized
the Suez Canal. Israel attacked Egypt and Egypt suffer loss.

The Third Arab-Israeli war or (six day war) was fought 10 June, 1967 between:
Israel and Syria, Iraq, Jordan and Egypt on the other hand in this war the USSR supplied weapons to
Arabs. The USA, Britain and Federal republic of Germany supported Israel and become victorious.

The Fourth Arab Israel War (Yom Kippur War): Took in 1973 when Egypt Syria and other
Arab states open war against Israel. The forces were defeated.
In Sep 1978 a frame work for peace in ME was signed in Washington D.C. Egypt gave recognition
to Israel.
The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime
Minister Meacham Begin on 17 1978, following thirteen days of secret negotiations at Camp
David.[1]
The two framework agreements were signed at the White House, and were witnessed by United

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States President Jimmy Carter.

Non Aligned Movement

 Following WWII, two hostile camps were emerged as a result of ideological difference. i.e.:
“Communist World” led by USSR and “Free World” by USA.
 The movement had its origins in the 1947 Asian Relations Meeting in New Delhi and the
1955 Asian-African Conference in Bandung, Indonesia.
 These Non-Aligned countries, representatives composed of 29 members held their first
conference at Banding inIndonesia in 1955.
 They opposed colonialism in the UNO. India also participated in the 1961 Belgrade
Conference that officially established the Nonaligned Movement, but Jawaharlal Nehru’s
declining prestige limited his influence.
 In the 1960s and 1970s, New Delhi concentrated on internal problems and bilateral relations,
yet retained membership in an increasingly factionalized and radicalized movement. During
the contentious 1979 Havana summit, India worked with moderate nations to reject Cuban
president Fidel Castro’s proposition that "socialism" (that is, the Soviet Union) was the
"natural ally" of nonalignment.

The principles serve as the basis of the Non-Aligned Movement in which members states architect
their policies during the cold war
1. Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity and sovereignty
2. Mutual non-aggression
3. Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs
4. Equality and mutual benefit
5. Peaceful co-existence

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