Technical Training Course for Avionics and

Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance Degree

Programs

Module 1
Licence Category B1, B2 and B3

Mathematics

1.3 Geometry
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Copyright Notice

© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic,
mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Anadolu Üniversitesi.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3)
against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge
levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific
examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective
action where appropriate.

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Table of Contents

Module 1.3 Geometry _________________________________________________________________9

Trigonometry ______________________________________________________________________9
Trigonometrical Relationships _______________________________________________________9
The Sine Curve __________________________________________________________________14
The Cosine Curve ________________________________________________________________14
The Tan Curve ___________________________________________________________________15
Other Trigonometric Functions _____________________________________________________16
To Find the Length of an Unknown Side_______________________________________________17
Coordinates and Graphs ____________________________________________________________25
The x and y Axis _________________________________________________________________25
Graphical Representations of an Equation _____________________________________________31
The Straight Line _________________________________________________________________43
Derivation of the Equation y = mx + c ________________________________________________49
Cartesian and Polar Coordinates ______________________________________________________55
Cartesian Coordinates ____________________________________________________________55
Polar Coordinates ________________________________________________________________55
Converting______________________________________________________________________56

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Module 1.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement

Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
Part-66 Licence Category
Objective
Reference B1 B2 B3
Geometry 1.3
(a) 1 1 1
Simple geometrical constructions
(b) 2 2 2
Graphical representations; nature and uses of graphs,
graphs of equations/functions
(c) 2 2 2
Simple trigonometry; trigonometrical relationships, use
of tables and rectangular and polar coordinates

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Module 1.3 Geometry
Trigonometry
Trigonometrical Relationships

1. By using Pythagoras, you are now able to partially solve right-angled triangles, i.e. you can find
the third side of a right-angled triangle when given its other 2 sides. This chapter is concerned
with establishing the basic trigonometrical concepts which will later enable you to completely
solve right-angled triangles, i.e. to find all their 6 elements (angles and sides).

2. Similar triangles are triangles which are the same shape, one is simply an enlargement of the
other. Two important properties of similar triangles are:

a) their corresponding angles are equal.

b) their corresponding sides are proportional.

Consider the triangles:

(1) (2)

B 10
6
5
3
A C D F
4 8

3. The above triangles are similar since they are equiangular and the ratios of their corresponding
sides are constant, i.e.

BC 3 EF 6 3
a)    
AB 5 DE 10 5

AC 4 DF 8 4
b)    
AB 5 DE 10 5

BC 3 EF 6 3
c)    
AC 4 DF 8 4

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 B

B
c
a
c
a

A C A C
b b
4. Now consider the following similar triangles:
In both cases side 'c' is the hypotenuse.

Taking angle A as the reference: Taking angle B as the reference:

a) Side 'a' is the side opposite a) Side 'b' is the side opposite
b) Side 'b' is the adjacent side b) Side 'a' is the adjacent side

Since the triangles are similar, the ratios of corresponding sides are constant, i.e., the ratios
a b a
, and are the same for all similar right-angled triangles.
c c b

5. In a right-angled triangle the ratio:

side opposite the angle

a) is called the SINE of the reference angle
hypotenuse
opposite a
 sin A = 
hypotenuse c

side adjacent to the angle

b) is called the COSINE of the reference angle
hypotenuse
adjacent b
 cos A = 
hypotenuse c

side opposite the angle

c) is called the TANGENT of the angle.
side adjacent that angle

opposite a
 tan A = 
adjacent b

The above are the fundamental trigonometrical ratios for right-angled triangles and must be
remembered. A convenient method to help you to remember them is ‘SOHCAHTOA’ or
‘SOHCAHTOA’where S=sin, C=cos and T=tan

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Example:

For the triangle shown find:

a) sine of angle B b) cosine of angle B c) tangent of angle B

5
4

A 3 C

opp 3
a) sin B =   0.6
hyp 5

adj 4
b) cos B =   0.8
hyp 5

opp 3
c) tan B =   0.75
adj 4

6. We will now investigate how the values of sin, cos and tan vary with the magnitude of the angle.

a) When angle A is very small:

B
c
a
A C
b

opp a
(1) sin A =  and is very small.
hyp c
When angle A is zero, sin A = 0

adj b
(2) cos A =  and b ~ c.
hyp c
When angle A is zero, cos A = 1

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 opp a
(3) tan A =  and is very small.
adj b
When angle A is zero, tan A = 0

b) When angle A is large:

c a

A C
b

opp a
(1) sin A =  and a  c.
hyp c

adj b
(2) cos A =  and is small.
hyp c
When angle A = 90o, cos A = 0

opp a
(3) tan A =  and is very large.
adj b
When angle A = 90o, tan A = ∞

We can summarise the above:

ANGLE 0o 90o

sin 0 1

cos 1 0

tan 0 ∞

Note: The maximum value of sin and cos is 1, but the maximum value of tan is infinity (∞).

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8. We have seen that trigonometrical ratios vary as the angle varies and have calculated
values for 0o and 90o. We will now calculate the values for 30o and 60o. Consider the equilateral
triangle ABC of sides 2 units.
B
Line BD bisects ABC and is
perpendicular to AC
0
30
2 2

60
0
D
A C
2

In triangle ABD, A = 60o, B = 30o and D = 90o

B
side d = 2 (given)

side b = 1 (half of AC)

6
0
0
side a = 22  12 (Pythagoras)
0
A 60
D  a = 3

Thus, in right-angled triangle ABD:

opp 3 17321
.
a) sin 60o =    0.8660
hyp 2 2

adj 1
b) cos 60o =   0.5000
hyp 2

opp 3
c) tan 60o =   17321
.
adj 1

opp 1
d) sin 30o =   0.5000
hyp 2

adj 3 17321
.
e) cos 30o =    0.8660
hyp 2 2

opp 1
f) tan 30o =   0.5774
adj 3

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9. We can now collect all our information and show graphically how the basic
trigonometrical ratios change as the angle increases from zero to 900.

The functions all give graphs which are important. You should know how to sketch them all and
know how to use them.

The Sine Curve

x° 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
sin x° 0.00 0.50 0.86 1.00 0.86 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -0.86 -1.00 -0.86 -0.50 0.00

This is the curve drawn when you put all the

figures on the graph from the table above. As
you can see, this curve is in a wave form. This
wave can continue past 360° and go into the
negatives.

The Cosine Curve

x° 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
cos x° 1.00 0.86 0.50 0.00 -0.50 -0.87 -1.00 -0.87 -0.50 0.00 0.50 0.87 1.00

If you look at this curve you can see it is

actually the same as the sine curve except it is
a different section (i.e. this peaks at 0° where
the sine curve peaks at 90°).

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The Tan Curve
x° 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360
tan x° 0.00 0.58 1.73 ∞ -1.73 -0.58 0.00 0.58 1.73 ∞ -1.73 -0.58 0.00

The tan curve is very different from the

others. It is a non-continuous which breaks
as the value at the breaking point (when
x=90o or x=270o) is infinity. Again this curve
can be continued with the section from
x=90o to x=270o repeated.

From the curves we can see there is always more than one possible value for any number you
are working out the inverse of ( sin-1 0.5 = 30° or 150° ). The problem is that your calculator only
gives you one of the values ( the one below 90°). You must remember the curves to find the
position of the second angle.

10. You can, of course, use a graph to find the sin and cos of angles between 0 and 90 o. For tan, this
is only practical (because of length of axis) up to about 45o. You should note from the curves of y
= sin  and y = cos  that there is a definite relationship between sin and cos, e.g.:

a) sin 30o = cos 60o = 0.5000

b) sin 45o = cos 45o = 0.7071

c) sin 60o = cos 30o = 0.8660

d) sin 80o = cos 10o and so on.

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Other Trigonometric Functions
Although less often used, other trigonometrical terms can be derived from the basic terms sin and cos.
These terms are called cot (cotangent), sec (secant) and cosec (cosecant). They are determined as
follows:

sin
 tan 3=
cos B
0
0

cos
 cot D=
sin

Reciprocal relations:

1
 sin A=
cosec

1
 cosec =3
sin 2

1
 cos 1=
sec

1
 sec =
cos

1
 tan =
cot

1
 cot =
tan

Square relations (also known as the Fundamental Identities):

 sin² + cos² = 1

 sec² - tan² = 1

 cosec² - cot² = 1

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To Find the Length of an Unknown Side

1. So far we have evaluated the sine, cosine and tangent of angles, given the 3 sides of a right-
angled triangle. In the following text it is shown how to solve completely a right-angled triangle,
given any side and 2 angles.

2.

From the triangle shown:

opp adj
a) sin  = b) cos  =
hyp hyp

a b
sin  = cos  =
c c

 a = c sin   b = c cos 

opp
c) tan  = d) By Pythagoras:
adj

a
tan  = c2 = a2 + b2
b

 a = b tan 

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3. The following examples involve the use of trigonometry, or combinations of trigonometry
and Pythagoras, to solve right-angled triangles.

a) In the right-angled triangle ABC, find angle A and side c

12

A C
5

(1) To find angle A.

Note: In terms of angle a, we are given the side opposite and the side adjacent.

opp
Since  tan, this is the ratio we use.
adj

opp
 tan A =
adj

12
tan A =
5

tan A = 2.4

A = 67o 23' (after using a calculator or tables)

(2) To find side c

Note: If we use trig. to find side ‘c’, it necessitates our using angle A which we have just found.
If we have made an error in calculating angle A, this would also result in an error in side ‘c’. By
using Pythagoras, we use only given information and thus the possibility of 'carrying' an error is
eliminated.

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  c2 = a2 + b2

c = a2  b2

c = 122  52

c = 144  25

c = 169

c = 13

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Worksheet

1. For the triangle shown, find the sine, cosine and tangent of A and C.

B C

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Answers

1. sin A = 0.6 sin C = 0.8

cos A = 0.8 cos C = 0.6
tan A = 0.75 tan C = 1.33

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Coordinates and Graphs
The x and y Axis
An equation involving two variables can be represented by a graph drawn on ‘Coordinates Axes’.
Coordinate axes (illustrated below) consist of a horizontal line (usually referred to as the x axis) and a
vertical line (usually referred to as the y axis). The point of intersection of these two lines is called the
origin (usually denoted by the letter ‘0’).

Along the x and y axes we can mark off units of measurement (not necessarily the same on both axes).
The origin takes the value zero on both axes. The x axis takes positive values to the right of the origin
and negative values to the left of the origin. The y axis takes positive values above the origin and
negative values below the origin.

Any point on this diagram can be defined by its coordinates (consisting of two numbers). The first, the x
coordinate, is defined as the horizontal distance of the point from the y axis; the second, the y
coordinate, is defined as the vertical distance of the point from the x axis.

In general, a point is defined by its coordinates which are written in the form (a, b).

Example:

The point (3, 2) may be plotted on the coordinate axes as follows:-

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Example:

Consider the following diagram

The points A, B, C, D, E and F above are defined by their coordinates as follows:

A (1, 4) D (-4, 1)
B (3, 2) E (-5, -3)
C (2, 1) F (3, -2)

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Worksheet

1. Plot the following points on coordinate axes.

i) (2, 3) ii) (1,4) iii) (5, 0)

iv) (0, 2) v) (3,-1) vi) (-2, 4)

vii) (-1, -3) viii) (0,-4) ix) (-5, 0)

x) (-4, 1) xi) (-3, -1) xii) (3, -3)

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Answers

1.

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Graphical Representations of an Equation
An equation involving two variables can be represented, on coordinate axes, by means of a graph.

For a given range of values of x, the corresponding y values can be calculated from the equation being
considered. The points obtained can then be plotted and joined together to form the graph.

Before plotting the points on a graph, the axes must be drawn in a way that takes into account the range
of the x-values and the range of the y-values. If graph paper is used (which is desirable) you should use a
scale that involves a sensible number of units per square i.e. you should use steps of, for example, 1, 2, 5
or 10 etc. units per square depending on the question. You should avoid using steps along the axes of,
for example, 7 or 9 units per square as this can complicate the graph unnecessarily.

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Example

Draw the graph of y = 2x + 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.

By taking x values of 0, 1, 2, ……..5, we can calculate the corresponding y values, as shown below, by first
evaluating the component parts of the equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5
2x 0 2 4 6 8 10
+1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y: 1 3 5 7 9 11

We then plot the points obtained, each point being defined by its x coordinate and its corresponding y
coordinate. The points are then joined together to form the graph.

In this example the points to be plotted are (0, 1), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 7), (4, 9), (5,11).

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Example:

Draw a graph of y = x2 - 8x + 12 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6

We again take x values covering the given range, and calculate the corresponding y values from the
given equation.

x: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x2 0 1 4 9 16 25 36
-8x 0 -8 -16 -24 -32 -40 -48
+12 +12 12 +12 +12 +12 +12 +12
y: 12 5 0 -3 -4 -3 0

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph. In this example the points
to be plotted are (0, 12), (1, 5), (2, 0), (3, -3), (4, -4), (5, -3), (6, 0).

N. B. For a more detailed graph we could, of course, include more points. e.g. by taking x values of
0, ½, 1, 1½, 2, 2½, ……….5½, 6

and calculating the corresponding y values, we could plot nearly twice as many points as we did in the
above example

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Example:

Draw a graph of y = x2 + 1 for -3 ≤ x ≤ + 3

Again, taking x values covering the given range, we first calculate the corresponding y values from the
given equation.

x: -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
x2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
+1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1 +1
y: 10 5 2 1 2 5 10

We now plot the points obtained and join them together to form the graph.

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Worksheet

1. Draw graphs of the following functions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5

i) y = 2x + 5
ii) y = 5x + 1
iii) y = 3x - 5
iv) y = x2 - 6x + 5
v) y = x2 - 7x + 12
vi) y = 3x2 - 21x + 30

2. Draw graphs of the following functions for -3 ≤ x ≤ 3

i) = 2x2 + 7
y
ii) = 3x2 - 12
y
iii) = x3 - 7
y
iv) = 4x3 - 16x2 - 16x + 64
y
1
v) y 
x5

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Answers

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 Module 1.3 Geometry
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The Straight Line
A straight line is defined as the shortest distance between two points.

The equation of a straight line is given by

y = mx + c

where m represents the slope of the line and c is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (i.e. they
intercept). The point where the line crosses the x-axis is called the x intercept.

Example:

In this example, m = 2 and c = 0

Note that whenever c = 0, the line will pass through the origin.

Example:

In this example, m = -3 and c = 6

As c = 6, we know that this line cuts the y axis at y = 6 (this can be verified by substituting x = 0 into the
equation of the line, as x = 0 along the y axis).

Similarly, as y = 0 along the x axis, we can substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line to find where the
line intersects with the x axis (i.e. the x intercept).

We have, when y = 0

6 - 3x = 0
3x = 6
x=2

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Hence the line cuts the x axis at x = 2

We can now say that the y intercept = 6 and the x intercept = 2

Example:

In this example, m = 4 and c = -2

We know, immediately, that they intercept is -2 (i.e. the value of c)
To find the x intercept, we substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line.

i.e. 0 = -2 + 4x
4x = + 2
x= ½

Hence the x intercept is x = ½

Special Cases
A straight line parallel to the x-axis takes the form y = constant.
Similarly, a straight line parallel to the y-axis takes the form x = constant.

These cases are illustrated below:

Straight line parallel to the x axis Straight line parallel to they axis

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Worksheet

For each of the following equations identify the gradient and the y-intercept.

i) y = 4x + 5
ii) y = 9x
iii) y=8
4 3x
iv) y= 
5 7

6  5x
v) y
13

vi) 3y = 9x + 6

vii) 8y = x - 8

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Answers

m =gradient, c = y-intercept

i) m = 4, c = 5

ii) m = 9, c = 0

iii) m = 0, c = 8

iv) m = - 37 , c = 4
5

v) m = - 135 , c = 6
13

vi) m = 3, c = 2

1
vii) m= 8 , c= -1

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Derivation of the Equation y = mx + c
Given the coordinates of two points, (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) say, we can calculate the equation of the straight
line that passes through these points.

Two methods of calculating this equation are illustrated below:

Example:

The question is:

Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).

Method 1
Thegeneral equation of a straight line is given by y = mx + c
and it is necessary to find numerical values for m and c.

If the straight line in question passes through the two given points, then each of these points must
satisfy the equation of this straight line. That is, we can substitute the coordinates of each point as
follows:

y = mx + c

substituting (1, 4) we have

4=m+c (1)

likewise, substituting (3, 10) we have

10 = 3m + c (2)

Now (1) and (2) give us two equations in two unknowns, m and c, (i.e. simultaneous equations) which
we can solve.

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We have
4=m+c (1)
10 = 3m + c (2)

subtracting (1) from (2) to eliminate c we obtain 6 = 2m

m=3

substituting this value of m back into (1) we obtain

4=m+c
4=3+c
c=4-3
c=1

If we now substitute these numerical values of m and c into the equation y = mx + c, we obtain the
equation of the straight line passing through the points (1, 4) and (3, 10).
That is
y = 3x + 1

Method 2
In general, we can consider any two points (x1 y1) and (x2, y2). The straight line passing through these
points can be written as

y – y1 = m(x – x1)

y 2  y1
where m = (m is the gradient of the line)
x 2  x1

Applying this to the points (1, 4) and (3, 10) we have x1 = 1; y1 = 4; x2 = 3; y2 = 10;
and we hence obtain:

10  4 6
m= = = 3
3 1 2
and our line becomes

y - 4 = 3(x - 1)
y - 4 = 3x - 3
y = 3x + 1

N.B. In this example, the point (1, 4) corresponded to (x1, y1) and the point (3, 10) corresponded to (x2,
y2).
If we had worked through this example with the point (3, 10) corresponding to (x1, y1), and the
point (1, 4) corresponding to (x2, y2), the answer would have been exactly the same.

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Worksheet

1. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes through the following points.

i. (1, 3) and (3, 7)

ii. (0, 2) and (5, 22)
iii. (1, -5) and (-1, -9)

2. Calculate the equation of the straight line that passes through the following points:

i. (1, 7) and (3, 11)

ii. (0, 0) and (1, 6)
iii. (3, -2) and (2, 1)
iv. (0, 0) and (-2, 8)
v. (6, 1) and (4, -1)
vi. (0, -3) and (-2, 1)
vii. (2, 6) and (7, 6)
viii. (-5, -47) and (-2, -26)
ix. (3, 1) and (3, -2)
x. (1, 1¼) and (2, 2¾)

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Answers

1.
i. y = 2x + 1
ii. y = 4x + 2
iii. y = 2x - 7

2.
i. y = 2x + 5
ii. y = 6x
iii. y = -7x + 2
iv. y = - 4x
v. y=x-5
vi. y = -2x – 3
vii. y=6
viii. y = 7x – 12
ix. x=3 (y = mx + c does not work with lines of infinite gradient)
x. y = 3x - 1
2 4

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Cartesian and Polar Coordinates
To pinpoint where you are on a map or graph there are two main systems:

Cartesian Coordinates
Using Cartesian Coordinates you mark a point by how far along and how far up it is (x and y
coordinates):

Polar Coordinates
Using Polar Coordinates you mark a point by how far away, and what angle it is (r and θ coordinates):

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Converting
To convert from one to the other, you need to solve the triangle:

To Convert from Cartesian to Polar

If you have a point in Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) and need it in Polar Coordinates (r,θ), you need to
solve a triangle where you know two sides.

Example: What is (12,5) in Polar Coordinates?

Use Pythagoras Theorem to find the long side (the hypotenuse):

r2 = 122 + 52
r = √ (122 + 52)
r = √ (144 + 25) = √ (169) = 13

Use the Tangent Function to find the angle:

5
tan θ=
12
5
θ = tan-1 = 22.6°
12

So, to convert from Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) to Polar Coordinates (r,θ):

r = √ (x2 + y2)
y
θ = tan-1
x

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To Convert from Polar to Cartesian
If you have a point in Polar Coordinates (r, θ), and need it in Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) you need to
solve a triangle where you know the long side and the angle:

Example: What is (13, 23°) in Cartesian Coordinates?

Use the Cosine Function for x:

x
cos (23°) =
13

Rearranging and solving:

x = 13 × cos (23°) = 13 × 0.921 = 11.98

Use the Sine Function for y:

y
sin (23°) =
13

Rearranging and solving:

y = 13 × sin (23°) = 13 × 0.391 = 5.08

So, to convert from Polar Coordinates (r,θ) to Cartesian Coordinates (x,y) :

x = r × cos( θ )
y = r × sin( θ )

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Worksheet

1. Convert the following cartesian coordinates into polar coordinates:

(a) (3, 4)
(b) (10, 10)
(c) (10, 0)

2. Convert the following polar coordinates into cartesian coordinates

(a) 13cm, 67.4°

(b) 50m, 60°
(c) √8 ft, π/2 radians

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Answers

1.
(a) 5, 53°
(b) 14.14, 45°
(c) 10, 0°

2.
(a) x = 5 cm, y = 12 cm
(b) x = 25 m, y = 43.3 m
(c) x = 2 m. y = 2 m

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