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THE SELF AT WORK

The Self at Work brings researchers in industrial and organizational psychology

and organizational behavior together with researchers in social and personality
psychology to explore how the self impacts the workplace. Covering topics
such as self-efficacy, self-esteem, self-control, power, and identification, each
chapter examines how research on the self informs and furthers understanding
of organizational topics such as employee engagement, feedback-seeking, and
leadership. With their combined expertise, the chapter authors consider how
research on the self has influenced management research and practice (and vice-
versa), limitations of applying social psychology research in the organizational
realm, and future directions for organizational research on the self. This book
is a valuable resource for researchers, graduate students, and professionals who
are interested in how research on the self can inform industrial/organizational
psychology.

D. Lance Ferris is Associate Professor of Management in the Broad College of

Business at Michigan State University, USA.

Russell E. Johnson is Associate Professor of Management in the Broad College

of Business at Michigan State University, USA.

Constantine Sedikides is Professor and Director of the Centre for Research

on Self and Identity at the University of Southampton, UK.
“Just as the self is foundational to our personal understanding of how we con-
nect to the world, so The Self at Work will become foundational to our scholarly
understanding of what it means to ‘be’ in the workplace.”
Blake Ashforth, Horace Steele Arizona Heritage Chair and
Professor of Management, Arizona State University, USA

“The editors have assembled a dynamite volume that will be the definitive
source for understanding the human self in the workplace. Packed with infor-
mation and rich with diverse perspectives, the book covers many vital aspects
of workplace behaviour, including task performance, decision-making, unethi-
cal behaviour, striving for improvement, personnel evaluation, identification
with the company, colleague relationships, leadership, blame time, workplace
aggression, organizational culture, alcohol and drug abuse, and impression man-
agement. Anyone interested in the psychological dynamics of organizations and
work will find this book an invaluable addition to his or her library.”
Roy F. Baumeister, Francis Eppes Eminent Scholar and
Professor of Psychology, Florida State University, USA;
author of New York Times bestseller Willpower

“The Self at Work presents a broad and inclusive view of self research and self
theory as applied to the workplace. Topics from self-esteem and self-efficacy
to narcissism and even cultural models of the self are included. The theory and
research brought together in this volume have the potential to drive a full decade
of research.”
W. Keith Campbell, Professor of Psychology,
University of Georgia, USA

“The Self at Work is an impressive and timely volume on an important topic.

Understanding identity processes in work contexts has emerged as a cutting-
edge area of study across a number of perspectives (e.g., employee, supervisor,
organization). This volume brings together the writings of eminent scholars
who have studied various aspects of the self at work. It is sure to be a valuable
resource for anyone interested in state-of-the-science reviews on essential topics
in this field.”
David V. Day, Professor of Psychology and Academic Director of
the Kravis Leadership Institute, Claremont McKenna College, USA
SIOP Organizational Frontiers Series

Series Editor
Richard Klimoski
George Mason University

EDITORIAL BOARD

Neal M. Ashkanasy
University of Queensland

Jill Ellingson
University of Kansas

Ruth Kanfer
Georgia Institute of Technology

Eden King
George Mason University

Fred Oswald
Rice University

Stephen Zaccaro
George Mason University

Deborah Rupp
Purdue University

Mo Wang
University of Florida

Gilad Chen
University of Maryland
 SIOP Organizational Frontiers Series

Series Editor
Richard Klimoski
George Mason University

Ferris/Johnson/Sedikides: (2018) The Self at Work

Ellingson/Noe: (2017) Autonomous Learning in the Workplace
Ashkanasy/Bennett/Martinko: (2016) Understanding the High Performance Workplace:
The Line Between Motivation and Abuse
King/Tonidandel/Cortina: (2014) Big Data at Work: The Data Science Revolution and
Organizational Psychology
Finkelstein/Truxillo/Fraccaroli/Kanfer: (2014) Facing the Challenges of a Multi-Age
Workforce: A Use-Inspired Approach
Coovert/Foster Thompson: (2013) The Psychology of Workplace Technology
Highhouse/Dalal/Salas: (2013) Judgment and Decision Making at Work
Cortina/Landis: (2013) Modern Research Methods for the Study of Behavior in
Organizations
Olson-Buchanan/Koppes Bryan/Foster Thompson: (2013) Using Industrial
Organizational Psychology for the Greater Good: Helping Those Who Help Others
Eby/Allen: (2012) Personal Relationships: The Effect on Employee Attitudes, Behavior, and
Well-being
Goldman/Shapiro: (2012) The Psychology of Negotiations in the 21st Century Workplace:
New Challenges and New Solutions
Ferris/Treadway: (2012) Politics in Organizations: Theory and Research Considerations
Jones: (2011) Nepotism in Organizations
Hofmann/Frese: (2011) Error in Organizations
THE SELF AT WORK
Fundamental Theory and
Research

Edited by D. Lance Ferris,

Russell E. Johnson, and
Constantine Sedikides
First published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of D. Lance Ferris, Russell E. Johnson, and Constantine Sedikides
to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for
their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and
78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks and are used only for identification and explanation without
intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Ferris, D. Lance, editor. | Johnson, Russell E., editor. | Sedikides,
Constantine, editor.
Title: The self at work : fundamental theory and research / edited by
D. Lance Ferris, Russell E. Johnson, and Constantine Sedikides.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, [2018] | Series: SIOP organizational
frontiers series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017035666| ISBN 9781138648227 (hbk : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138648234 (pbk : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315626543 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Organizational behavior. | Psychology, Industrial. | Self.
Classification: LCC HD58.7 .S453 2018 | DDC 302.3/5—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017035666

ISBN: 978-1-138-64822-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-64823-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-62654-3 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
For my turtle, Richard. Since you’re a turtle you will
outlive me, but since I’m the one that feeds you, it won’t
be by very long.
D. L. F.
For my infinitely patient wife, Daisy, and our kids,
Oscar, Shatner, Espresso, Frappy, and Kitten. Last but
not least, to John McCauley, Suzuka Nakamoto, Yui
Mizuno, and Moa Kikuchi.
R. E. J.
For Anastasia, George, and Alexi
C. S.
CONTENTS

Acknowledgments xii
Contributors xiii
Series Editor’s Foreword xviii

1 The Self at Work: An Overview 1

D. Lance Ferris, Russell E. Johnson, and
Constantine Sedikides

PART I

Fundamental Concepts and Theories 13

2 Self-Efficacy 15
Jeffrey B. Vancouver, Mark Alicke, and
Leah R. Halper

3 Self-Esteem 40
Douglas J. Brown and Virgil Zeigler-Hill

4 Social Identifications in Organizational Behavior 72

Daan van Knippenberg and Michael A. Hogg

5 Self-Enhancement in Organizations 91
D. Lance Ferris and Constantine Sedikides
x Contents

6 Self-Control in Work Organizations 119

Russell E. Johnson, Mark Muraven,
Tina L. Donaldson, and Szu-Han (Joanna) Lin

7 Emphasizing the Self in Organizational

Research on Self-Determination Theory 145
James M. Diefendorff, Nathalie Houlfort,
Robert J. Vallerand, and Daniel Krantz

8 The Role of Guilt in the Workplace:

Taking Stock and Moving Ahead 172
Rebecca L. Schaumberg, Francis J. Flynn, and
Jessica L. Tracy

9 Contextualizing Social Power Research Within

Organizational Behavior 194
Michael Schaerer, Alice J. Lee, Adam D. Galinsky,
and Stefan Thau

PART II

Integrative Themes 223

10 Culture, Work, and the Self: The Mutual

Influence of Social and Industrial
Organizational Psychology 225
Jasmine L. Wheeler, Michele J. Gelfand,
Ying-yi Hong, and Chi-yue Chiu

11 An Actor–Perceiver Model of Impression

Management in Organizations 253
Mark R. Leary and Mark C. Bolino

12 Escaping the Self: Negative Self-Evaluations and

Employee Alcohol Misuse 273
Cynthia D. Mohr, Sarah N. Haverly,
Ariane Froidevaux, and Mo Wang
 Contents xi

PART III

Applications to Organizational Concepts 293

13 How Future Work Selves Guide Feedback

Seeking and Feedback Responding at Work 295
Frederik Anseel, Karoline Strauss, and Filip Lievens

14 The Self and Engagement at Work 319

Sabine Sonnentag and Doris Fay

15 Dual Process Models of Self-Schemas and Identity:

Implication for Leadership and Followership Processes 341
Robert G. Lord and Susanna L. M. Chui

Index 362
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost we would like to acknowledge the incredible efforts of the
chapter authors, without whom this book would literally not be possible. We
are particularly grateful for their willingness to, in many cases, take a leap of
faith: owing to the nature of the book, many chapters were written by co-
authors who had never previously worked together. Separated by disciplines yet
united by their interest in the topic, we hope the authors have learned as much
working together as we have learned in reading their chapters.
Behind the scenes, a number of people also played key roles in helping this
book come together. Mo Wang encouraged Russ and Lance to consider sub-
mitting a prospectus on the topic, and conversations with Doug Brown helped
inspire the idea of bringing together researchers from social psychology and
industrial-organizational/organizational behavior to collaborate on chapters.
Rich Klimoski was instrumental in shepherding us through the early stages of
submitting and revising our prospectus, and the great feedback on our prospectus
from the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology Organizational
Frontier Series Editorial Board helped improve the final product. Finally, on
the publisher side, our collaborators at Routledge – Christina Chronister, Julie
Toich, and Lauren Verity – kept us on track and on time, and were key to put-
ting together the volume.

D. L. F.
R. E. J.
C. S.
CONTRIBUTORS

Mark Alicke is Professor of Psychology at Ohio University. He received his

PhD from the University of North Carolina and was a postdoctoral fellow at
Northwestern University. He is a fellow of the American Psychological Society
and Division 8 of the American Psychological Association. He is the former
editor of Self and Identity and has served on numerous editorial boards. His main
research interests are in the psychology of blame and in self-knowledge and the
role of the self in social judgment.
Frederik Anseel is Full Professor of Organizational Behavior at King’s Business
School, King’s College London, UK. He seeks to understand how people can
remain vigorous in the face of challenge by studying proactive behavior and
learning. His work has been published in Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of
Management, and Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes.
Mark C. Bolino is Professor of Management and Michael F. Price Chair in
International Business in the Price College of Business at the University of
Oklahoma. He received his PhD from the University of South Carolina. His
research interests include impression management, organizational citizenship
behavior, and global careers.
Douglas J. Brown is Professor of Industrial and Organizational Psychology
at the University of Waterloo. He obtained his PhD from the University of
Akron. His current research interests include leadership, motivation, employee
well-being, and workplace deviance.
Chi-yue Chiu is Choh-Ming Li Professor of Psychology and Dean of Social
Science at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. His current research areas are:
intersubjective foundation of culture, globalization and culture mixing, innova-
tion and creativity, and cultural constraints on knowledge diffusion.
xiv Contributors

Susanna L. M. Chui is a PhD candidate at the Durham Business School. Her

research areas include leadership and identity processes and social value creation
in social entrepreneurship.
James M. Diefendorff is Professor in the Department of Psychology at the
University of Akron. His research focuses on emotional labor, work motivation,
and dynamic processes involved in behavioral self-regulation.
Tina L. Donaldson is a graduate student at the University at Albany, State
University of New York. Her research interests include self-control, perception
and happiness.
Doris Fay is Full Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology at the
University of Potsdam, Germany. She received her PhD from the University
of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Her research focuses on proactivity, occupa-
tional stress, and well-being.
D. Lance Ferris is Associate Professor of Management in the Broad College
of Business at Michigan State University. He received his PhD in industrial/
organizational psychology from the University of Waterloo. His research pri-
marily focuses on self-enhancement, self-control, approach/avoidance, and
self-determination motivation processes.
Francis J. Flynn is Professor of Organizational Behavior at Stanford University’s
Graduate School of Business. He received his PhD from the University of
California, Berkeley. His research examines how employees can develop healthy
patterns of cooperation, mitigate racial and gender stereotyping, and emerge as
leaders in the workplace.
Ariane Froidevaux is a visiting postdoctoral researcher in the Management
Department at University of Florida. She received her PhD in psychology from
the University of Lausanne, Switzerland. Her research interests include retire-
ment and bridge employment, identity, careers, and occupational health.
Adam D. Galinsky is Professor and Chair of the Management Division at
Columbia Business School. He has published more than 200 scientific articles
and chapters, including the best-selling book, Friend & Foe (Penguin Random
House, 2015; co-authored with Maurice Schweitzer).
Michele J. Gelfand is Professor of Psychology and affiliate of the RH Smith
School of Business and is a Distinguished University Scholar Teacher at the
University of Maryland, College Park. Her research focuses on cultural influ-
ences on conflict, negotiation, justice, and revenge; workplace diversity and
discrimination; and theory and methods in cross-cultural psychology.
Leah R. Halper has a PhD in Industrial-Organizational Psychology from Ohio
University. Her research focuses on self-efficacy, learning, motivation, and gender
issues in the workplace. Leah is currently working as an Interim Assistant Director
in the Center for the Study of Student Life at The Ohio State University.
 Contributors xv

Sarah N. Haverly is a doctoral student of Applied Psychology at Portland State

University. Her research interests include occupational health psychology, self-
conscious emotional processes, and interpersonal relationships as they impact,
and are impacted by, workplace factors.
Michael A. Hogg is Professor and Chair of the Social Psychology Program at
Claremont Graduate University, and Honorary Professor of Psychology at the
University of Kent. He has published widely on self and social identity, group and
intergroup processes, and influence and leadership, and is editor of Group Processes
and Intergroup Relations and an associate editor of The Leadership Quarterly.
Ying-yi Hong is Choh-Ming Li Professor of Marketing at the Chinese University
of Hong Kong (CUHK). She obtained her PhD from Columbia University, and
has published over 140 journal articles and book chapters.Her research focuses
on culture and cognition, multicultural identity, and intergroup processes.
Nathalie Houlfort is Full Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology
and Director of the Laboratoire de recherche sur le Comportement Organi­
sationnel at the Université du Québec à Montréal. Prof. Houlfort has a PhD
in social psychology from McGill University. Her expertise lies in the moti-
vational processes at work and her current research focuses on passion and
work-life balance.
Russell E. Johnson is Associate Professor of Management in the Broad College
of Business at Michigan State University. He received his PhD in Industrial and
Organizational Psychology from the University of Akron. His research focuses
on person-based (e.g., personality, motives) and situation-based (e.g., fairness,
leader actions) factors that drive organizational behavior.
Daniel Krantz is a graduate student in Industrial and Organizational Psychology
at the University of Akron. His research interests include work motivation and
emotional labor.
Mark R. Leary is Garonzik Professor of Psychology and Neuroscience at Duke
University. He received his PhD in social psychology from the University
of Florida. His research interests include social motivation and emotion, the
deleterious effects of excessive self-preoccupation, and interfaces of social and
clinical psychology.
Alice J. Lee is a doctoral student in Management at Columbia Business School.

Filip Lievens is Full Professor at the Department of Personnel Management,

Work and Organizational Psychology, Ghent University, Belgium. His main
interests deal with talent acquisition and talent assessment. He has published
among others in the Annual Review of Psychology, Journal of Applied Psychology,
Personnel Psychology, and Journal of Management.
Szu-Han (Joanna) Lin is Assistant Professor of Management in the Isenberg
School of Management at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. She
xvi Contributors

received her PhD from Michigan State University. Her research focuses on
self-regulation, leadership, and voice.
Robert G. Lord is Professor of Leadership at Durham University Business
School. He received his PhD in organizational psychology from Carnegie-
Mellon University in 1975. His current research interests involve identity, lead-
ership, motivation, and information processing. He has co-authored the books
Leadership and Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance with
Karen Maher, and Leadership Processes and Follower Self-Identity with Douglas
Brown.
Cynthia D. Mohr is Professor of Social Psychology at Portland State University.
She received her PhD in social psychology from the University of Connecticut.
Her research explores psychosocial influences on subjective well-being and
physical health, interpersonal relationships, and alcohol consumption.
Mark Muraven is Professor of Psychology at the University at Albany, State
University of New York. His research focuses on self-control, motivation, and
emotion. He received his PhD from Case Western Reserve University.
Rebecca L. Schaumberg is an Assistant Professor of Operations, Information,
and Decisions at the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School of Business.
She received her PhD in organizational behavior from Stanford University. Her
research interests concern the psychological, emotional, and demographic drivers
of people’s job performance and leadership outcomes.
Michael Schaerer is Assistant Professor of Organizational Behavior and Human
Resources at Singapore Management University. He received his PhD from
INSEAD. He studies the psychological principles that govern organizational
behavior in hierarchically differentiated environments.
Constantine Sedikides’ research is on self and identity and their interplay with
emotion and motivation, close relationships, and group processes. He is Professor
and Director of the Centre for Research on Self and Identity, University of
Southampton, UK.
Sabine Sonnentag is Full Professor of Work and Organizational Psychology
at the University of Mannheim, Germany. She studies how individuals can stay
healthy, energetic, and productive at work, even when they face a high level
of job stressors.
Karoline Strauss is Associate Professor at ESSEC Business School, France.
She received her PhD from the University of Sheffield. Her research interests
include possible selves in organizations, particularly future work selves, as well
as proactive behavior, and well-being.
Stefan Thau is Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at INSEAD. His
research focuses on understanding social interactions in groups, organizations,
and society.
 Contributors xvii

Jessica L. Tracy is Professor of Psychology at the University of British Columbia,

in Vancouver, B.C. Her research focuses on emotions and emotion expressions,
and, in particular, on the self-conscious emotions of pride and shame.
Robert J. Vallerand is Full Professor of Social Psychology and Director of the
Laboratoire de Recherche sur le Comportement Social at the Université du
Québec à Montréal where he holds a Canada Research Chair in Motivational
Processes and Optimal Functioning. He obtained his PhD from the Université
de Montréal and a postdoc from the University of Waterloo. His research
focuses on motivational processes and the concept of passion.
Daan van Knippenberg is Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Rotterdam
School of Management. His research interests are in leadership, diversity, teams,
and creativity. Daan is Editor in Chief of Academy of Management Annals.
Jeffrey B. Vancouver is Byham Chair for Industrial/Organizational Psychology
at Ohio University. He received his degree in 1989 from Michigan State
University. Dr Vancouver studies the dynamics underlying human motivation
in work contexts using a self-regulatory perspective, rigorous empirical proto-
cols, and computational models.
Mo Wang is the Lanzillotti-McKethan Eminent Scholar Chair of Management
and the Director of Human Resource Research Center at the Warrington
College of Business, University of Florida. He received his PhD in industrial-
organizational psychology and developmental psychology from Bowling Green
State University. His research interests include older worker employment and
retirement, newcomer and expatriate adjustment, occupational health psychol-
ogy, teams and leadership, and advanced quantitative methods.
Jasmine L. Wheeler is a doctoral student at the University of Maryland, College
Park. She obtained her master’s degree under the advisement of Dr. Michele
Gelfand. She is currently working on her dissertation which seeks to examine
racial identity-based impression management strategies utilized by underrepre-
sented minorities in the workplace.
Virgil Zeigler-Hill is Professor in the Department of Psychology at Oakland
University. He received his PhD in social-personality psychology from the
University of Oklahoma. His research interests include self-esteem, the darker
aspects of personality (e.g., narcissism, psychopathy, spitefulness), and interper-
sonal relationships.
SERIES EDITOR’S FOREWORD

This volume is remarkable because it assembles a vast amount of research and

insight regarding what we know (and don’t know) about the nature of the “self”
construct. Moreover, it does so in a way that makes it easy for the reader to
really see how the self at work “works.” And as it turns out, the self is indeed
implicated in helping to understand much of worker behavior. As developed in
the chapters of this book we learn, for example, how the nature of the self might
explain why employees come to join and identify with their company, when
and where they respond to leaders, or why they are or are not engaged at work.
The nature of the self is also portrayed as the foundation for a better understand-
ing of many of the problematics facing work organizations. These include such
things as when and how an organization might provide feedback in a way that
will make a positive impact on learning, behavior or performance, and when
and where the nature of the self can produce inauthentic relationships or even
help us to better “explain” and mitigate against worker substance abuse. With
regard to the latter, at the time that this Forward is being written, the United
States is experiencing what is being termed an “opiate overuse epidemic.” This
is thought to be exacerbated by a feeling of anomie on the part of so many indi-
viduals discouraged about the prospects of becoming re-employed. As you will
learn from this volume, the sense of self can be a powerful force for promoting
success in the workplace but it also plays a major role in undermining one’s
efforts to live up to the workplace-related aspirations of most Americans.
Lance Ferris, Russ Johnson and Constantine Sedikides are extremely quali-
fied as editors. In fact, any one of them could have personally written a book
on the many important topics covered in this volume. But instead they have
brought their years of research and teaching experience relative to self-theory to
bear in scoping out a very fine volume. They have also done us a great service
 Series Editor’s Foreword xix

by reaching out and engaging a set of chapter authors who are similarly well
qualified. In short, this is a book that should not only be read for the wisdom
that it imparts but also for its potential to motivate the reader to pursue future
research relative to addressing the many yet to be answered questions lying at
the intersection of self-theory and workplace behavior as well.

Richard Klimoski
1
THE SELF AT WORK
An Overview

D. Lance Ferris, Russell E. Johnson,

and Constantine Sedikides

Issues pertaining to the self are ubiquitous at work. Consider the case of Maggie,
a senior manager at a large accounting firm who is hoping to be promoted to
partner. Although the promotion comes with a pay raise, Maggie especially
desires the position because of the boost it would give her self-esteem and
because of the greater power and autonomy that being partner affords. For these
reasons, Maggie is motivated to present an overly favorable impression of herself
to the partners by seeking positive feedback about her accomplishments and by
displaying visible signs of being engaged at work (e.g., working late and coming
in on weekends, holding meetings with clients at the office, etc.). Or consider
the case of Erlich, who is a member of a close-knit team working in a software
company. The culture and leadership in this company stresses benevolence and
universalism, which causes employees to see themselves as interconnected with
one another. Erlich’s work can sometimes be quite demanding, which leaves
him feeling mentally depleted and prone to making mistakes. When mistakes
occur, they hinder the performance of his team members, leaving Erlich feel-
ing guilt and shame. To escape negative feelings about himself and his abilities,
Erlich smokes marijuana in the evening. As these two examples illustrate, what
people think and feel about themselves impact how they perform their jobs and
interact with work colleagues. The thoughts and feelings that people have about
themselves are also shaped by their jobs and interactions, and the broader work
environment. The self and work are indeed intertwined, thus necessitating that
industrial and organizational psychologists have an understanding of theory and
research pertaining to the self.
2 D. Lance Ferris et al.

The Self: A Brief Historical Overview

Few concepts are as fundamental or impactful to psychology as the self. The self
is implicated in a mind-bogglingly large array of concepts – a partial list provided
by Baumeister (1998, p. 681) includes “self-affirmation, self-appraisal, self-as-target
effect, self-awareness, self-concept, self-construal, self-deception, self-defeating
behavior, self-enhancement, self-esteem, self-evaluation maintenance, self-interest,
self-monitoring, self-perception, self-presentation, self-protection, self-reference,
self-regulation, self-serving bias, self-verification” – to which we could add self-
efficacy, core self-evaluations, self-determination, self-control, and self-conscious
emotions, among others. This is an impressive catalogue, and one that grows even
larger when we include concepts relevant to the self but that do not contain the
word “self” (such as social comparison, narcissism, authenticity, or engagement).
Fully appreciating what the self is and what it does has historically been chal-
lenging, in part because of this sheer variety of concepts related to the self and
the self’s influence on so many cognitive, affective, conative, and behavioral
processes. Greenwald and Pratkanis (1984) identified work by James (1890) and
Allport (1943) as milestones in scholarly understanding of what the self is and
what it does. In particular, James (1890, p. 291) defined the self thus:

In its widest possible sense . . . a man’s Self is the sum total of all that he CAN
call his, not only his body and his psychic powers, but his clothes and his
house, his wife and children, his ancestors and friends, his reputation and
works, his lands and horses, and yacht and bank-account. (emphasis in
original)

Although this definition of the self may leave females, landlubbers, and the
horseless feeling excluded, it nonetheless illustrates just how broad the concept
of “self” can be. To simplify, James further divided this definition into what he
called the four constituent elements of the self: the material self (broadly, one’s
physical body and possessions), the social self (broadly, the aspects of the self that
are presented to others), the spiritual self (broadly, one’s inner thoughts), and the
pure ego (broadly, the unitary agent, thinker, knower, or observer – what some
refer to as the soul). James also delineated how these constituents can inspire
a variety of feelings (e.g., pride, vanity, shame, and inferiority) and motivate
a variety of actions (e.g., to acquire objects, to be noticed, and to be moral),
which foreshadowed future work on self-relevant emotions and motivations.
Following the publication of James’ (1890) work, the self largely disap-
peared as a topic of serious research. During this ensuing period, as Allport
(1943) noted, behaviorism took hold in psychology (with the exception of
psychoanalysis’ preoccupation with the ego) and cognitive concepts like the
“self,” “identity,” and “esteem” fell by the wayside. Arguing for a greater focus
on the self in psychology, Allport pointed out that a decisive influence on
 The Self at Work 3

human behavior and cognition is the involvement of the self. For example, it is
altogether different when another person’s clothes, relationships, or works are
criticized compared to when that same criticism is leveled at our own clothes,
relationships, or works. These two cases – when the self versus another person
is criticized – give rise to distinct thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. In terms of
how the self should be conceptualized, Allport (p. 459) noted that researchers
conceive of the self in eight ways:

(1) as knower, (2) as object of knowledge, (3) as primordial selfishness,

(4) as dominator, (5) as a passive organizer and rationalizer, (6) as a fighter
for ends, (7) as one segregated behavioral system among others, (8) as a
subjective patterning of cultural values.

In Allport’s list, we see many of the topics that researchers of the self continue to
examine today, such as narcissism (or the self as “primordial selfishness”), power
and status (or the self as “dominator”), the moral self (or the self as “a fighter
for ends”), self-regulation and -control (or the self as “a passive organizer and
rationalizer”), and individualistic and collectivistic self-construals (or the self as
“a subjective patterning of cultural values”).
In line with the cognitive revolution occurring in psychology at the time,
Greenwald and Pratkanis’ (1984) own review highlighted studies on the self
and cognition, including how people remember better material that has been
“touched” by the self (such as material generated by the self vs. someone else,
or relevant to the self like words describing one’s qualities), how people overes-
timate the amount of control they have over events, and how their evaluations
are biased in ways that favor themselves. Greenwald and Pratkanis (p. 166)
ultimately concluded that the self is not only the focus of affective evaluations,
but also a “central cognitive structure, a self-concept with content that varies
from person to person” and can be described as “complex, consisting of diffuse
public, private, and collective facets, each providing a distinct basis for self-
evaluation.”

Three Functions of the Self

The reviews by James (1890), Allport (1943), and Greenwald and Pratkanis
(1984) highlight the broad and wide-ranging impact of the self. More recently,
Baumeister (1998, p. 681) argued the various self-related research findings can
be organized into a tripartite view of the self’s functions, proposing the self is
“an entity marked by reflexive consciousness, interpersonal roles and reputation,
and executive function.” This tripartite view constitutes a parsimonious way to
conceptualize (and ultimately appreciate) what the self does.
First, the reflexive consciousness function of the self refers to humans pos-
sessing the capacity for self-awareness. The self can be both observer and
4 D. Lance Ferris et al.

observed – or, as James (1890) put it, there is both the self-as-subject (the
“I” self) and the self-as-object (the “Me” self) in a phrase such as “I can
see me” (see also Brockner & Wiesenfeld, 2016; Sedikides & Gregg, 2003).
The reflexive consciousness function of the self allows people to appraise
themselves, to know their capabilities and form opinions about themselves,
and ultimately to strive to improve and enhance ourselves. Concepts such as
self-esteem and self-efficacy largely (but not exclusively)1 arise from the self’s
reflexive consciousness function.
Second, the interpersonal function of the self refers to how the self exists
within interpersonal relations – individuals are mothers and fathers, husbands and
wives, daughters and sons, friends and enemies, older and younger, teammates
and competitors, supplicants and superiors – all depending on the interpersonal
context. Moreover, the interpersonal context influences and is influenced by
the self. Indeed, some authors have argued that what people perceive as the self
is largely the reflection of others’ appraisals of the self (i.e., reflected appraisals,
or the looking-glass or mirrored self; Cooley, 1902; Mead, 1934), yet the self
also expends considerable effort to manage the appraisals of others. The inter-
personal function of the self gives rise to concepts such as self-monitoring and
impression management, as well as biases in how people perceive and evaluate
others (e.g., academics and athletes evaluating others based on their CVs or
sports prowess, respectively), their ability to identify with social groups, and
uniquely interpersonal emotions such as guilt, embarrassment, or even anxiety
during a blind date.
Finally, the executive function of the self refers to how the self “makes deci-
sions, initiates actions, and in other ways exerts control over both self and
environment” (Baumeister, 1998, p. 712). Put simply, the self is a doer and is
not relegated to being a passive observer – if anything, the self reacts negatively
to reductions in control and autonomous choices. The executive function of
the self is ultimately what gives rise to motivated behavior, be it job-specific,
prosocial, antisocial, or more neutral everyday behavior. It also gives rise to
attempts – and failures – to exert self-control over our behavior by, for exam-
ple, regulating what goals are chosen, what plans and strategies are formulated,
and when and how goal-directed action is initiated and maintained. It is the
executive function of the self that translates cognition, conation, and affect into
observable action.

The Self at Work

So far, we have primarily drawn upon the literature in social and personality
psychology (what we refer to as social/personality) to discuss the self. Yet as
the tripartite view makes plain, the self is intimately involved in many (if not
most) aspects of one’s lives, including their work lives, where the self is par-
ticularly influential by shaping how employees perceive and understand their
 The Self at Work 5

environment, job tasks, colleagues, and interpersonal interactions. Employees

are continuously evaluating their own work and abilities (and are in turn eval-
uated by others), regulating their behaviors that contribute to and influence
their environment, and interacting with other employees inhabiting different
social roles.
In line with this idea, some of the more explicit organizational applications
of research on the self include organization-based self-esteem (Pierce, Gardner,
Cummings, & Dunham, 1989), workplace contingencies of self-worth (Ferris,
Lian, Brown, & Morrison, 2015), self-control depletion and its effects on devi-
ant and prosocial organizational behavior (Koopman, Lanaj, & Scott, 2016;
Trougakos, Beal, Cheng, Hideg, & Zweig, 2015; Marcus & Schuler, 2004),
organizational and relational identification (Ashforth & Mael, 1989; Lord &
Brown, 2004), workplace identity negotiation and change (Ibarra, 1999; Swann,
Johnson, & Bosson, 2009), and CEO narcissism (Chatterjee & Hambrick, 2007;
Grijalva, Harms, Newman, Gaddis, & Fraley, 2015; Sedikides & Campbell,
2017). In some ways it is surprising that a book on the self at work has not
been published previously, given the pervasive impact the self has on work and
organizational phenomena. Indeed, we would argue that most of the topics that
interest scholars of industrial-organizational or organizational behavior (what
we refer to as IO/OB) stand to be influenced by the self.
Consider, for example, the topics of other volumes within SIOP’s
Organizational Frontiers series. Many of these volumes broadly address rat-
ings and evaluations, either of the self or others, in training and performance
contexts (Ashkanasy, Bennett, & Martinko, 2016; Ellingson & Noe, 2017;
Highhouse, Dalal, & Salas, 2014; Kozlowski & Salas, 2010). Here, the reflex-
ive consciousness functions of the self become implicated, particularly because
numerous studies have shown that the self holds a privileged status in memory
and evaluations (Sedikides, Gaertner, & Cai, 2015; Sedikides, Green, Saunders,
Skowronski, & Zengel, 2016). For example, people retrieve memories asso-
ciated with the self more quickly than unrelated memories (Ross & Sicoly,
1979), they are more likely to remember something that did not happen (so-
called “false alarms”) when it is consistent with their self-views (Bransford &
Franks, 1971), and they are more likely to remember their successes than failures
(Glixman, 1949). Similarly, they judge themselves more positively than others
do, taking credit for successes and denying responsibility for failures (Ferris &
Sedikides, this volume). The self is thus part and parcel of research involving
ratings and evaluations.
Other Organizational Frontiers volumes broadly deal with groups, be they
teams (Eby & Allen, 2012; Salas, Goodwin, & Burke, 2009), demographic sec-
tions (Dipboye & Colella, 2005; Finkelstein, Truxillo, Fraccaroli, & Kanfer,
2015), or political coalitions (Ferris & Treadway, 2012). Being in a group
understandably introduces the interpersonal functions of the self, and decades
of research have been devoted to the study of the self in groups. This research
6 D. Lance Ferris et al.

includes identification with groups (van Knippenberg & Hogg, 2001), how
certain emotions uniquely emerge from group situations (Bohns & Flynn, 2013;
Tracy & Robins, 2004), and how the self reacts to inclusion and exclusion
from groups in prosocial and antisocial ways, with people engaging in risky or
even unethical behavior to gain inclusion (Leary, Tchividjian, & Kraxberger,
1994; Thau, Derfler-Rozin, Pitesa, Mitchell, & Pillutla, 2015). In particular,
self-referenced cognitions and processes are prompted by various forms of inter-
personal mistreatment (e.g., incivility, unfairness, ostracism, etc.), which give
rise to behaviors that protect the self and create psychological separation from
the perpetrator (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Ferris, Chen, & Lim, 2017;
Johnson & Lord, 2010; Rosen, Koopman, Gabriel-Rossetti, & Johnson, 2016).
Given that groups are aggregates of individual selves, the self is an integral con-
cept in understanding groups and emergent properties and processes in groups.
Still other Organizational Frontiers volumes broadly address self-regulation,
motivation, affect, and self-improvement (Ellingson & Noe, 2017; Hofmann
& Frese, 2011; Kanfer, Chen, & Pritchard, 2008; Lord, Klimoski, & Kanfer,
2002). Naturally, such work implicates the executive function of the self. Prior
research has highlighted the self’s relevance for self-regulation and motivation,
including how different types of motivation and emotional reactions emerge
when the self’s basic needs for autonomy, competence, and belongingness are
satisfied or thwarted (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Vallerand, 1997), as well as work
on self-enhancement and power (Lammers, Stoker, Rink, & Galinsky, 2016).
Emotional reactions at work, in particular, are driven by the self-relevance of
organizational features and events (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996). The self’s role
is also implicated in its limited ability to engage in self-control before becoming
depleted (Johnson, Muraven, Donaldson, & Lin, this volume; Muraven, Tice,
& Baumeister, 1998).
Finally, a recent Organizational Frontiers volume addressed nepotism, or the
“psychological and social processes associated with observed phenomena with
respect to family membership (broadly defined) in and around organizations”
(Jones, 2012, p. 2). Suffice to say, we can think of no more relevant topic for
the self than a topic around people who are copies of their genes. Certainly,
nepotism offers unique opportunities to bask in the reflected glories of family
members – or to be shamed by their failures – while also affording opportunities
to be envious of close others (both in a genetic and relationship sense).
We do not claim that these prior Organizational Frontiers volumes or their
associated literatures have overlooked the role of the self. Reviewers are well
aware of the limitations of self-generated ratings of performance and are often
more than happy to point these out. Rather, our aim is to raise awareness
about just how impactful the self is for organizational phenomena. We are
hard-pressed to find any organizational topic where a knowledge of the self’s
reflexive, interpersonal, or executive functions would fail to yield interest-
ing insights and testable hypotheses. Of course, it is not possible to provide
 The Self at Work 7

exhaustive coverage of all IO/OB topics that intersect with the self, thus some
interesting topics unfortunately did not make it into this volume, such as self-
improvement, the moral self, and authenticity, among others. Nevertheless, we
are hopeful (one might even say self-assured!) that the included topics will be of
interest to readers who are curious to learn more about the self.

Origin and Organization of This Book

To this point, we have outlined how the historical roots of the self largely lie in
the social/personality domain, while also arguing the self has crucial implications
for the IO/OB domain. As such, for this latest volume of SIOP’s Organizational
Frontiers series, we decided to bring together leading IO/OB and social/per-
sonality researchers with overlapping interests on the self to co-author chapters
(excluding the Applications section, detailed below). For many of our chapter
authors, these collaborations were entirely new, and thus entailed all the usual
risks of working with someone they had not partnered with before. We were
ecstatic that so many luminaries in our field were willing to take this leap into
the unknown with us!
Our aim in bringing together this diverse group of authors to work together
on specific self-related topics was to foster conversations between IO/OB and
social/personality authors across a range of areas. We asked them to consider,
among other things, what the key theoretical tenets and takeaways are for the
focal topic, how the topic has been used in the IO/OB literature, whether
“translation” issues occurred between the social/personality literature and
IO/OB’s use of that literature, what new insights IO/OB has given back to
the social/personality literature, what burning issues or problems remain in the
literature, and (relatedly) where IO/OB and social/personality research on the
topic can go. Given that it was impossible to predict what would happen when
they began working together, we also encouraged authors to follow whatever
directions they found most interesting. We hope that the resulting chapters are
interesting and useful for both IO/OB and social/personality researchers, in
terms of understanding how IO/OB has used and contributed to the literature
on the self as well as for understanding the roots of this work.
This book is organized into three sections. The first section, Fundamental
Concepts and Theories, covers topics that represent building blocks in the
literature on the self. These topics are fundamental in the sense that they rep-
resent major concepts and theories that are frequently referenced in research
articles (even when the self may not be the specific focus of the articles). The
topics surveyed in these chapters can therefore be viewed as having attained
prominent (or fundamental) status within both social psychology and man-
agement research. These concepts and theories range from self-efficacy to
self-determination to social power, all of which are intertwined with the con-
cept of the self. The first two chapters cover two of the most commonly
8 D. Lance Ferris et al.

studied “self” topics in the IO/OB and social/personality literatures. First,

Vancouver, Alicke, and Halper (Chapter 2) clarify the meaning and function
of self-efficacy in the opening chapter. They also draw attention to criti-
cal theoretical insights and challenges in the self-efficacy literature (e.g., the
causal relation between self-efficacy and behavior) and discuss untapped areas
of inquiry for future research. In the next chapter, Brown and Zeigler-Hill
(Chapter 3) tackle research on intrapersonal and subjective evaluations of one’s
worth and value, namely self-esteem. The authors’ coverage spans numerous
perspectives (e.g., trait vs. state and explicit vs. implicit self-esteem), contro-
versies (e.g., is self-esteem a predictor or outcome of performance? Is extreme
self-esteem beneficial or harmful?), and functions of self-esteem (e.g., as a
gauge of social status and as a source of meaning).
The attention of the next two chapters shifts to conceptualizations of the
self vis-à-vis other people and groups. van Knippenberg and Hogg (Chapter 4)
examine how employees come to define themselves as part of work groups based
on the defining characteristics they share with other members. As reviewed in
their chapter, these social identification processes have key implications for the
goals and values that employees hold, the types of exchange relationships they
develop with others, how employees respond to organizational change efforts,
and who are endorsed as group leaders. Ferris and Sedikides (Chapter 5) explore
the basic motive of self-enhancement, which involves the desire for other peo-
ple to view the self in a favorable light. This motive can lead employees to take
credit for successes and attribute failures to external causes, to solicit positive
feedback from others, or to make downward social comparisons, especially for
defining characteristics of the self.
The two chapters that follow cover topics that pertain in particular to
aspects of self-regulation, which refers to the process of exercising self-control
over cognition, affect, and behavior in order to achieve one’s goals. Johnson,
Muraven, Donaldson, and Lin (Chapter 6) review theory and research on self-
control, and how it appears to operate as a limited resource. After engaging in
demanding activities that require high amounts of self-control (e.g., suppress-
ing self-interest, multi-tasking), employees may become mentally fatigued and,
as a result, show poorer task performance, and exhibit less cooperative and
more destructive interpersonal behaviors. Diefendorff, Houlfort, Vallerand, and
Krantz (Chapter 7) summarize social/personality and IO/OB research on Self-
Determination Theory, which stresses the importance of pursuing goals that
enable individuals to satisfy basic psychological needs for autonomy, relatedness,
and competence. Pursuing such goals requires less self-control on the part of
employees, because self-concordant activities are intrinsically motivating and
they foster greater well-being.
The final two chapters in this section review self-referenced emotions and
forms of power. Schaumberg, Flynn, and Tracy (Chapter 8) discuss the role
of two social emotions – guilt and shame – that arise from evaluating the self
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ‘The greater extent of the plain was in grass, studded with thorny
“sidder” bushes; but some crops of barley and beans looked
flourishing, and here and there, where irrigation had been attempted
by means of watercourses from the river “Ghemáts” vegetation was
luxuriant beneath olive and other fruit-trees.
‘At about 4 p.m. the country assumed a more pleasing aspect as
we passed the villages of the Shloh tribe of Mesfíwa. These Shloh,
like the natives of Sus and Rif, are all of Berber race. Neither
Phœnicians, Goths, Romans nor Arabs ever succeeded in bringing
them completely under subjection, for they retreated before the
conquerors to the mountains, and in these highland fastnesses
maintained their independence. With the exception of a few tribes
they owe no political allegiance to the Sultan, but acknowledge his
spiritual suzerainty as the recognised head of the Mohammedan
religion in Morocco, in virtue of his direct descent from the Prophet.
They altogether differ in appearance from the Arabs, and no affinity
can be traced between the Berber and the Arabic languages,
excepting in words connected with the Mohammedan religion which
were introduced when the Berbers adopted the creed of Islam. In
place of tents the Shloh live in houses, of one or two stories, built of
mud and stone without mortar, the earth of this district having the
peculiar quality, when well beaten down, of being impermeable.
‘Learned writers have disputed the origin of the Berbers, but they
seem to agree that they are not the aborigines of the country, but
displaced another and more ancient race of inhabitants. One of the
traditions of the Berbers is that their ancestors were driven out of
Syria by the “Khalífa” of “Sidna Musa” (“our Lord Moses”), meaning
Joshua, the lieutenant of Moses. Their country in the South of
Morocco is called generally “Sus,” and the manner of their expulsion
is related in yet another legend quoted from a commentary on the
Koran.
‘God said unto David, “Banish the Beraber out of this land, for if
they dwelt in hills of iron they would break them down.” Whereupon,
says the story, King David placed the people on camels, in sacks
called “gharaiar,” and sent them away. When they arrived at the
Atlantic coast their leader called out, in the Berber tongue, “Sus”—
which means let down, or empty out—so the exiles were canted out
of their sacks, and the country is thence called “Sus” to this day!
‘Many of the Shloh proper names appear to have an affinity to the
Hebrew, if not actually of Hebraic origin, such as Ait Usi, Ait Atta, Ait
Emor, Ait Sisac, Ait Braim. The Hebrew equivalent of the first three
being Hait Busi, in our translation the Jebusites, Ha Hitti, the Hittites.
Ha Emori, the Amorites. Ait Sisac may be translated “Those of
Isaac,” or The children of laughter. Ait Braim needs no translation.
‘On our entry into Mesfíwa we were surprised to find signs of
much more industry, and even of civilisation, than in the districts
inhabited by the Arab population. Here irrigation was carefully
attended to; the numerous plantations of olive and fruit-trees, as well
as the fields of grain, were better cultivated; and the condition of the
bridle roads and rude bridges over the streams afforded further proof
of a more intelligent and industrious people.
‘Ascending the slopes we reached the camp pitched in an olive-
grove on a small island formed by the Ghemáts, here called the “Dad
i Sirr,” evidently its Berber name. We crossed with some difficulty this
mountain torrent, which foamed and swirled up to the horses’ girths.
Flowing down a gorge of the Atlas running nearly North and South,
this river then takes a north-westerly direction till it joins the Tensift,
which again flows into the Atlantic near Saffi.
‘On the side of a hill, about four hundred yards from the site of the
camp, lay the village Akhlij, crowned by a castle built of red stone
and earth, and having five square bastions with loopholes for
musketry. In fact every house in these villages can be used as a little
fort, the walls being pierced so that each householder can defend
himself against his neighbour, or all can combine and act against an
invader of their stronghold. The population of Akhlij is said to be
about 500 souls, including some forty Jews, each Jewish family,
according to the custom of the Shloh, being under the special
protection of a Mohammedan chieftain.
 ‘Above the spot where we were encamped rose the mountain of
Zinat Kar, the summit dotted with patches of snow, and, towering
over all, the snowy heights of “Glaui” frowned upon the groves of
palms, oranges and olives which spread below basking in the sultry
temperature of the plains.
‘On our arrival in camp the Sheikh and elders of the village
presented themselves, by order of the Sultan, to welcome the
“Bashador.” The Sheikh, a tall man, was draped in a long, seamless
“haik;” but some of his followers wore a black burnous similar to
those in use among the Jews of Marákesh. The meeting took place
under the British flag—hoisted for the first time in these wild regions
—before Sir John’s tent. In the evening the deputation returned,
bringing an abundant supply of provisions and forage, and, in
addition, huge dishes of cooked food for the soldiers and camp-
followers. This “mona” was collected from the whole province under
the rule of Basha Grenog, comprising some fifteen “kabail,” or tribes,
spread over a district about fifty miles in diameter. The tax therefore
fell lightly on the inhabitants, not amounting to more perhaps than a
half-penny a family, which sum would be deducted from the payment
of their annual taxes.
‘This spot in the valley of Uríka, at the foot of the Atlas, is about
500 feet above Marákesh and 2,000 feet above sea-level, and the
fine air was most enjoyable. The night appeared cold, the
temperature falling below 60° Fahr. At midday it was 74° in the
shade.
‘There were contradictory statements as to the sport to be
expected. But, after much cross-questioning, the natives confessed
that there were no wild boar nearer than the snow; that the
“audad[48],” or wild sheep, was to be found, but only on the highest
hills a couple of hours’ ride distant; and that lions and leopards were
not to be seen within two days’ march, or about thirty miles further
among the snowy ranges. On inquiry whether there were any fish in
the river, we were told that, later in the season, a speckled fish about
nine or ten inches long comes up from the Tensift. This no doubt is
the trout, which is found also in the mountain streams near Tetuan.
On asking the Berber name for large river fish, Sir John was
surprised to hear that it is “selmen,” which would appear to be a
cognate word to our “salmon.”’

The account of the ascent of the Atlas which follows is chiefly

compiled from notes written at the time by Mr. Drummond Hay, who
accompanied the Mission, and who, with one companion, succeeded
in scaling the heights and reaching the snow. An earlier ascent, but
not to so high a point, was made in 1829 by Mr. E. W. A. Drummond
Hay, Sir John’s father. Other travellers have visited the Atlas, both
before and since Sir John; but no Representative of a Foreign
Power, it is believed, had ever yet done so, openly and with the
good-will of the Sultan.
‘May 18. After breakfast all the party, ladies included, mounted
their horses. The son of the Sheikh, a fine handsome fellow, riding a
splendid black horse, led the way up the valley of Uríka, and we rode
along the banks of the torrent. On each side of the gorge rose
conical hills clothed with “el aris[49],” the scented “arrar[49],” and the
lentiscus or wild pistachio. The olive, walnut, orange, apricot and
vine were also abundant.
‘We travelled along a path on the steep river bank, sometimes so
narrow that, if a horse had made a false step, the rider might have
been precipitated into the torrent which foamed below. But as we
advanced the road improved, and showed signs of some knowledge
of road-making and of great care on the part of the inhabitants. Here
and there it was mended with wood and stones; the large boulders
were cleared from the path and built up as walls on either side; and,
where a torrent crossed the way, there was a rude bridge of one or
more arches, composed of trees and branches cemented with mud
and stone. Below us flowed the river, now turbulent and shallow in its
wide bed. By the banks grew numbers of trees which resembled
silver poplars, the timber of which is used in the construction of their
houses by the mountaineers. Their delicate foliage contrasted
pleasantly on the mountain side with the sombre green of the “arrar”
and “aris,” which here do not seem to attain so great a height as they
do in the Rif country. Mingled with them grow the karob, or locust-
tree, and the mountain ash. Numbers of wild flowers filled the
hedges that hemmed in the fields or grew by the wayside; among
them we recognised many English friends. There were also several
flowers new to us, particularly a lovely species of broom bearing a
brilliant violet blossom with an orange centre, and another pretty,
highly-scented, yellow flower all declared must be a wild jasmine, so
closely did it resemble the garden variety.
‘Villages were to be seen on both sides of the gorge, and one of
them saluted us with a feu de joie of musketry. After a gentle ascent
of an hour and a half we arrived at a pretty grove of olives. Here the
Sheikh insisted upon our dismounting, as he said the villagers
desired to welcome our party by giving us a feast. It was in vain the
“Bashador” explained that we desired to push, as far as we could
ride, up the mountains. After waiting an hour, as no food appeared,
he gained his point and we were allowed to re-mount. But, to our
great dismay, just at the moment of moving off, arrived some forty
villagers, every one of whom carried on his head a huge earthen
platter, containing several dishes of meat and “siksu”; each dish
holding sufficient to satisfy ten hungry hunters. Having explained to
these hospitable people that we had only just had our morning
repast and were most anxious to sharpen our appetites by a ride up
the mountain before consuming the feast, we were allowed to depart
in peace—though a solemn promise was first exacted that we would
return without fail in the evening to accept their prodigal hospitality.
We then continued the gradual ascent, passing through villages the
houses of which recalled in some degree the chalets in Switzerland,
though these were of very rude form. Many of them had overhanging
eaves and open galleries on the second story, where the inmates
could sit and enjoy the air and scenery, sheltered from sun or
weather. Some of the houses were decorated with patterns on the
wall below the roof, picked out in crossed lines such as are seen in
old buildings in some parts of England and Germany. But in this
instance the lines were white on the dull background of red earth
with which these houses are built.
‘The population—men, women, and children—turned out to gaze
at us. But neither by word, look, or gesture was there any
demonstration of fanatical or hostile feeling. The villagers seemed
rather to consider our advent to be the occasion for a holiday. A
petition was sent to the “Bashador” by the boys of a school that their
teacher should be asked to grant them a holiday to behold the
English. A few silver coins to the pedagogue and the request of the
“Bashador” set all the boys at liberty, and thus the rising generation
of Uríka will, it may be hoped, retain a friendly recollection of the
“Ingliz.”
‘These mountaineers were fairer than their brethren of the plain,
and some of the women comely. The latter, like their Rifian sisters,
do not hide their faces; and we are told that the state of morality
amongst them is of a very high standard. No female is in danger of
being insulted, and it may be safely declared that there is a better
state of morality amongst the Berber women of Morocco than exists
in England or in any other country in Europe. The women were
draped, like the men, in a long, seamless garment; but they wore it
fastened by two silver brooches on the shoulders or over the breast,
supporting the folds which hung gracefully around their persons.
These brooches are generally connected by long pendent silver
chains. The younger women had long black hair, which appeared to
be carefully dressed, and they showed the same love of adornment
as their European sisters by decorating their tresses with poppies
and other wild flowers.
‘Lady Hay, who rode a mule, on learning that all must now
dismount and proceed on foot if they wished to continue the ascent
of the mountain, decided to remain at the village. A fine-looking
Shloh, hearing of this decision, stepped forward and offered to take
her into his house. She accepted his hospitality, and was placed
under the ægis of the faithful chief of the camp, Hadj Hamed
Lamarti. The rest of the party proceeded on foot.
 ‘The dismounted horsemen of the Bokhári guard were soon blown
and gave up; then the Sheikh’s son—who was rather too well fed
and in bad condition—sat down, looking very grave, and tried to
dissuade us from further ascent. But on we went, accompanied only
by some half dozen stalwart Shloh, armed with long guns. Under the
shade of a locust-tree Sir John and his daughters, having ascended
some way, came to a halt, as the air was sultry and the ascent very
precipitous. Colonel Lambton, Major de Winton, Major Hitchcock,
Captain Sawle, Mr. Hay, and Mr. Brooks plodded on, the
mountaineers leading the way. The ascent was almost as steep as a
vertical ladder, and after climbing some 1,500 feet they began to feel
much exhausted. At this point four of the party gave up, and two of
the mountaineers, glad of an excuse to halt, remained to guard
them.
‘Captain Sawle and Mr. Hay continued their upward way, and, as
Mr. Hay relates, “We appeared to gain fresh wind and strength as we
ascended. On reaching the first snow we fired a shot to announce to
the party our success, for in the morning there had been a great
discussion whether the ascent to the snow could be accomplished in
one day.
‘We reached the summit of the first high range called Zinat Kar at
2 p.m., and at that moment I sprung a covey of partridges, and again
signalled our arrival by a successful right and left, which was greeted
with a yell of delight by the mountaineers who accompanied us. We
could not tell what height we had reached, as my aneroid was out of
order and had stopped registering half-way; but as far as we could
judge by distance we must then have been about 6,000 feet above
the camp. To our astonishment we found here an extensive table-
land with considerable cultivation, though snow was still lying on the
ground in many parts. This plateau extended to the foot of a snow-
covered range which again rose abruptly beyond.
‘Whilst we rested I discharged my gun at an eagle, and afterwards
at a crow, which latter I killed—a curious bird with red beak and legs.
A few minutes after, when we were thinking of again continuing our
route, we heard to our surprise a volley of musketry, and saw the
distant heights around us manned by armed men. Our Shloh
companions informed us that these people were the “Ahal Kubla,” or
people of the South, inhabiting the snowy range before us. This tribe
does not submit to the Sultan’s authority, and a gun fired on a height
is a signal that an enemy is in sight, and consequently, we were told,
in another hour we might find ourselves surrounded by these lawless
people, who were at present at feud with the Uríka, and the latter do
not venture therefore to trespass on their territory.
‘The difficulty the Sultan would experience in subduing these
tribes can be imagined, since the sole access to this district is by the
steep ascent we had just made[50].
‘Discretion being the better part of valour, we determined to beat a
rapid retreat, and descended the escalade as fast as our weary
limbs would carry us. At 4 o’clock we rejoined the rest of the party
under the olive-trees where we had first stopped. They had just
concluded the feast and were starting for camp.
‘While the climbing party were in sight Sir John and his daughters
watched them from under the shade of the locust-tree: then,
descending to the village, found Hadj Hamed waiting for them in one
of the little streets. He conducted them to Lady Hay, whom the
villagers had installed in the open gallery of one of their houses,
looking out on the mountains. It was very clean: there were only
some dry maize husks piled in a corner and a number of beehives
arranged in a row on the floor. The pillars which supported the front
of the gallery were ornamented very rudely with quaint attempts at
arabesque decoration. Lady Hay said she had felt faint on arrival,
and having asked for bread, they brought her a loaf and a piece of
honeycomb.
‘The owner of the house welcomed us warmly, and on Sir John
saying that he was much pleased with the mountaineers and
considered them far finer fellows than the Arabs, he was delighted,
and tried to pay some compliment to the English. Then he brought
us in the skirt of his dress a number of freshly gathered oranges,
which proved delicious.
‘All the climbers now returned except Captain Sawle and Mr. Hay,
and we prepared to leave our comfortable retreat; but, when Sir John
turned to take leave of his kind host, the latter begged and implored
him to wait a little longer—only a few minutes, he pleaded. After
some demur, his earnest request was acceded to; the carpets were
again spread, and all sat down. The hospitable villager hurried away,
but soon re-appeared, followed by another man, each bearing a bowl
of smoking hot paste, resembling vermicelli, boiled in milk. In the
centre of each dish was a little pool of melted butter. We rather
dreaded tasting the food, after our late experience of Moorish
cookery, but were agreeably surprised, when, having grouped
ourselves round each bowl, using our own forks, we tried the mess
and found it excellent. The paste was delicate, well boiled, and
flavoured with some pungent spice, and the butter exquisitely fresh
and sweet. This form of food appears to have been a staple dish with
the Berbers since ancient times. We did justice to this food, which
was followed by a basket of hot cakes made of rye, resembling
scones, accompanied by a bowl of melted butter, and those who had
the courage to dip their bread therein pronounced it good also.
‘Our host no longer made any objection when we again rose to
depart, only saying, when thanked for his hospitality, that not having
expected us to remain at his village he had been unable to prepare
better food at such short notice. He added that, should the
“Bashador” desire at any future time to travel in the Atlas, he could
do so in perfect safety—especially if unaccompanied by an escort
from the Moorish Government. “For,” he said, “your love of justice
towards all and the kindness shown by you to our poorer brethren,
when in distress in the North (of Morocco), is known to us and we
shall not forget. Come amongst us, you will ever be welcome; remain
several months, hunt with us and be our guest, and no injury shall
befall you or yours.”
 ‘Touched and pleased by this kindly speech from a native Sheikh
in a district where few Christians had ever penetrated, Sir John and
his party rode back towards the olive-grove. As we passed through
the narrow lanes, the women and children collected in some of the
orchards, smiling and beckoning, and were delighted when the
ladies lifted the thick white veils they wore and greeted them in
return. The women were fair-skinned, and many of them good-
looking. Here and there we observed really pretty, graceful girls; one
in particular, whom Sir John noticed as she leant against a doorway,
was quite handsome. She was dressed in a curious “haik,” stained in
patterns to represent a leopard skin, and hanging from her neck she
wore a quaint, square-shaped silver ornament, with a blue stone in
the centre.
‘The women’s heads were covered, but they made no attempt to
veil their faces. The men were generally draped in the “haik”; but
those who ran beside us, or climbed the heights, threw aside this
cumbrous garment and appeared in thin long shirts belted at the
waist. Wooden powder-flasks, covered with brightly coloured leather
and studded with brass knobs, gay little shot or bullet bags, and an
ornamented curved dagger hung by their sides from a broad strap
over the shoulder. A long gun was invariably carried by each man.
Some were bare-headed, others had a cord tied tightly round their
shaven skulls, but most of them wore a small white turban.
‘On arrival at the olive-grove, at which we had promised to halt on
our return, we were soon seated round an enormous flat dish full of
“siksu.” It would have been cold, but for the depth of the contents; so
that by digging down we reached some that was hot and palatable.
Our followers assembled in twos and threes about each great platter
and devoured the contents with the greatest avidity.
‘Several of the boys, who gathered about us, we observed busily
working at a curious frame composed of a hollow cane, up which a
number of coarse woollen threads were passed and secured at
either end. Under these, the cane was encircled by a ring which held
the threads away from the rod and enabled the little workman to
deftly weave in bright coloured worsted across the threads, his
fingers being employed without any shuttle, and a small piece of
wood, cut like a comb, used to drive down each cross thread into its
place, making various patterns as they went up the rod. On inquiring
the purpose of this work we were told they were belts. Though we
offered to buy any that were finished, none were forthcoming; but
one of the lads brought his work to be examined, and was much
startled when the “Bashador” on returning him his frame offered him
a small coin, evidently fearing an attempt was being made to buy his
work, frame and all. However he took the money readily, though
shyly, when convinced it was only a present.
‘We returned to Marákesh on the 20th; but, before leaving,
received a visit from some of the Jews who live amongst the
mountain tribes and who wished to consult the doctor attached to the
Mission. They came up as we were all seated, grouped under the
trees about the camp. The elders kissed the heads of those of our
party who were covered; the younger, their shoulders. These Jews
were dressed exactly like the Shloh amongst whom they live, with
the exception that they wore a black skull-cap. The Jewesses also
were attired like the Shloh or Arab women, but with a scarlet
headdress. The men were unarmed; but we were told that, further in
the interior, the Jews carry arms and join in tribal warfare; neither are
they, there, the oppressed people known to the lowlands of
Morocco.’

Two of the stories related to Sir John on the march by the Sultan’s
stirrup-holder may be inserted here as exemplifying the manners and
customs of the officials about the Moorish Court, and especially
those of the military class. The first may be called ‘A Story of a
Moorish Prince.’
 Mulai Ahmed, second son of Sultan Mulai Abderahman Ben
Hisham, was appointed by his father Viceroy of the districts of Beni
Hassén, Zair, Dukála, Shedma, &c. His residence was at Rabát.
This Prince was clever, and endowed with many good qualities,
but he was extravagant and reckless in his expenditure, and thus
became deeply indebted to the merchants and shopkeepers of
Rabát; but no man ventured to press his pecuniary claims on the
wayward youth. His debtors, moreover, had only to ask some favour
by which they might be benefited in their trade, and it was
immediately granted by the Prince; the favour thus conferred amply
recouping them for their unpaid goods.
On the occasion of a visit of the Sultan to Rabát in 1848, Mulai
Ahmed was still Viceroy. Various complaints had been brought by the
inhabitants to the Uzir, Ben Dris, against His Royal Highness for not
paying his debts; but the Uzir endeavoured so to arrange matters as
to avoid reporting the misconduct of the young Prince to his father.
One day, however, when the Sultan was going to mosque, an
Arab from the country called out, from a high wall—on which he had
climbed to avoid being silenced by the troopers who formed the
escort of the Sultan—‘Oh Lord and Master, Mulai Abderahman, my
refuge is in God and in thee! I have been plundered and unjustly
treated during this your reign.’
The Sultan, restraining his horse, desired his attendants to learn
who this man was; and, after hearing their report, sent for the Uzir
and directed him to inquire into the case and report thereon.
On the man presenting himself before the Uzir, the latter
reprimanded him for brawling in the streets for justice. ‘One would
suppose,’ said Ben Dris, ‘that there were no longer governors or
kadis in Morocco! Whence are you? what have you to say?’
‘I am an Arab from Shedma,’ the man replied. ‘I had a fine horse,
for which I had been offered by the chief of my tribe three hundred
ducats, but I refused to sell; for, though a poor man, my horse was
everything to me; I would not have parted with him for all the wealth
that could be offered me. Some weeks ago I came to Rabát, and
Mulai Ahmed—may God prolong his days!—in an evil hour saw my
horse, and ordered his soldiers to seize it, sending me a purse of
three hundred ducats, which however I refused to accept. For forty
long days have I been seeking justice, but can obtain hearing neither
of Mulai Ahmed nor of any one else.’
The Uzir replied, ‘If your story be true, your horse shall be
returned to you; but, if false, you shall be made an example of for
daring to bring a complaint against the son of the Sultan.’
The Uzir then sent a messenger to inquire of Mulai Ahmed
concerning the matter, and by him the Prince sent reply that he knew
nothing about the horse. The Uzir was consequently about to order
the Arab to be bastinadoed, when the latter begged Ben Dris to send
him, accompanied by some of his—the Uzir’s—attendants, to the
stables of Mulai Ahmed, where he felt sure he would find the horse;
begging that his whole tribe might, if necessary, be called upon to
give evidence respecting the identity of the horse.
The Uzir accordingly sent the Arab, with a guard, to the Prince’s
stables to point out the horse, with directions that it should be
brought before him. He also sent to inform Mulai Ahmed that this
order of his father the Sultan must be obeyed.
The attendants took the Arab to the stable, where he immediately
recognised his horse, but had no sooner done so than he was
arrested, along with the Uzir’s men, by some soldiers sent by Mulai
Ahmed, and brought before the Prince, who had them all
bastinadoed and dismissed.
On the return of the Uzir’s men, they reported to their master what
had taken place. The Uzir had them again bastinadoed for not
having carried out his orders, viz. to bring back the Arab and his
horse in safety. Then, mounting his mule, he rode direct to the
palace, where he recounted to the Sultan what had occurred.
His Majesty was highly incensed; his eyes flashed lightning, and
his voice was as thunder. ‘Dare any son of mine disobey the orders
of his father? Are my people to be robbed and ill-used at his caprice?
Summon the chief kaid of our guard.’
The officer appeared. ‘Take,’ said the Sultan, ‘a saddled mule to
the palace of Mulai Ahmed. Bind the Prince hand and foot. Conduct
him this day to Meknes, where he is to be imprisoned until further
orders. Let the Arab have his horse and an indemnity for the rough
treatment he has received. Let a proclamation be issued that all
persons who have been unjustly used by Mulai Ahmed are to
present themselves to me; for there is no doubt,’ added the Sultan,
‘that is not the only case of injustice of which my son has been
guilty.’
The orders of Sultan Mulai Abderahman were obeyed. The chief
of the guard appeared before Mulai Ahmed with a mule saddled and
bridled, and informed the Prince he was deposed from his position
as Viceroy, and that he was to proceed at once with him to Meknes.
At first Mulai Ahmed refused to obey his father’s commands, but,
on being threatened by the officers with fetters and manacles if he
showed any resistance, consented to mount the mule and start at
once on his journey. The third day they arrived at Meknes, where
Mulai Ahmed was confined in prison, whence he was not liberated
for five years.

Another story related by the stirrup-holder was that of Kaid

Maimon and the lion.

In the early part of this century, when Sultan Mulai Suliman

reigned over Morocco, Kaid Maimon was Governor of Tangier, and,
according to custom, had visited the Court at Fas to pay his respects
to His Sherifian Majesty. On his return journey to Tangier he was
conveying, in pursuance of His Majesty’s commands, a large lion in
a cage carried by four mules, as a present from the Sultan to the
King of Portugal.
One evening, after the tents had been pitched, and while Kaid
Maimon was reposing on a divan in his ‘kubba,’ he heard shouts of
alarm and the snorting and tramping of horses and mules which had
broken loose from their tethers and were fleeing from the camp.
The Kaid clapped his hands repeatedly, to summon his
attendants, but no one appeared. Being too much of a Moorish
grandee to rise from the divan and see with his own eyes what had
happened—such a proceeding would have been undignified—he
remained seated, counting the beads of his rosary and muttering
curses on his attendants. After a time he again shouted lustily for his
slave ‘Faraji,’ with a malediction on him and on all slaves.
The Kaid had barely finished these imprecations, when in walked
his huge prisoner, the lion, glaring fiercely at him.
Kaid Maimon was a man of undaunted courage: while realising it
would be folly for him to draw his sword and attack the lion, as he
would most probably be worsted in such a conflict, he was also
aware that even should he succeed in dealing the beast a death-
blow, his own life would be forfeited; as the Sultan would, no doubt,
order his head to be cut off, for destroying the royal gift entrusted to
his keeping for the King of Portugal. The Kaid therefore, looking as
placidly as he could at the intruder, thus addressed his namesake—
for the lion had also been given the name of ‘Maimon,’ or ‘the
trustworthy.’ ‘You are a brave fellow, Maimon, to leave your cage and
take a walk this fine evening. O judicious and well-behaved lion!’ he
added, ‘you do right to roll and enjoy yourself’—as the lion, pleased
with the voice of the Kaid, commenced rolling himself on the carpet.
‘O bravest and most trustworthy!’ the Kaid continued—as the lion,
rising, rubbed himself cat-like against him, repeating this very
embarrassing performance several times, finally stretching himself
and lying down with his head on the Kaid’s knee.
Brave man though he was, Kaid Maimon perspired with horror at
having to nurse such a beast. He tried patting him on the head, but a
lash of the creature’s tail warned him that the lion preferred to take
his repose without such caresses.
Not a sound was to be heard in the camp, save now and then a
snort or struggle near the Kaid’s tent, from some terror-stricken
horse which, winding the lion, was endeavouring to break away from
the pickets which still held him—though most of the horses and
mules had broken away and fled, with their masters after them.
Kaid Maimon now began to consider what kind of severe
punishment he would inflict upon his cowardly attendants and his
body-guard—if the lion did not eat him! ‘Fine warriors,’ thought he;
‘two hundred men to run away from a tame lion!’
At this moment the lion, having rested, awoke from his nap, and,
stretching himself, showed his long and terrible claws. ‘This beast is
not to be trifled with,’ reflected the Kaid; ‘yet if any rascal had shot it
—either in self-defence or to save my life—I should have made him
a head shorter.’
The lion now got up and, stalking towards the door of the tent,
lashed his tail; one switch of which caught the Kaid’s turban and
knocked it off. Calmly replacing it, the Kaid muttered to himself, ‘I
hope this visit is now coming to an end. May it be the last of the kind
I shall have to receive in my life.’
The lion, looking out, espied the horse—still picketed near the tent
—which immediately recommenced its frantic struggles and at last,
succeeding in breaking away, was just galloping off, when the lion, in
two bounds, was on its back and brought his victim to the ground—
panting in the agonies of death, its whole side lacerated and its
throat torn open.
The Kaid, who had moved to the door of his tent, beheld this
scene, and thought it would be a favourable moment, whilst the lion
was enjoying his repast, to recall his cowardly attendants and
troopers; so going out at the back of the tent, unseen by the lion, he
looked around and finally espied his followers about half a mile off,
huddled together, with the horses and mules they had recovered.
The Kaid, on coming up to them, vowed he would bastinado every
cowardly rascal; but that the punishment would be deferred until the
morrow, as they must now return at once to secure the lion before
nightfall, adding—‘The first man who again runs away I will
bastinado until the breath be out of his body.’
The keeper of the lion was a Jew; since, in Morocco, Jews are
always appointed keepers of wild beasts, the Moors believing that a
lion will not attack a woman, a child, or a Jew—as being beneath
notice. The Jew was ordered to attach two long chains to the neck of
the lion, now bloated with the flesh of the horse, then to stretch the
chains in opposite directions and to attach them to long iron stakes
which were driven into the ground for the purpose. The trembling
Jew, who knew he would be cruelly bastinadoed should he fail to
obey this order, did as he was bid, and the lion, lying near the
remains of the horse he had been devouring, suffered the Jew to
fasten the chains to the rings on his collar, which was still about his
neck.
When this had been done, a dozen powerful men were ordered by
the Kaid to fasten strong ropes to the chains, and by pulling contrary
ways to control and guide the lion to his cage, wherein a live sheep
was placed. By these means the lion was induced to enter his cage,
the door of which was then closed.
Kaid Maimon, who was well pleased at the recovery of the
Sultan’s present to the King of Portugal, forgave the conduct of
attendants and troopers, and, assembling the chiefs, related to them
the incidents of the lion’s visit to his tent.
 CHAPTER XXI.

MISSION TO FAS IN 1875.

In 1874 Sultan Sid Mohammed died, and was succeeded by his

son Mulai Hassan. Sir John, writing to Sir Henry Layard on October
29 of that year, says:—

I suppose the young Sultan intends to tread in the footsteps of his ancestors
and remain stagnant.
My belief is that these people, or rather this Government, will never move
ahead until the lever acts at headquarters continuously, by the presence and
pressure of the Foreign Representatives. So long as we preach and pray at a
distance, nothing will be done. On the other hand, if the Foreign Representatives
were removed to the Court, there would no doubt be a rupture of relations, or
some tragedy, before twelve months elapsed.

Again, shortly after the accession of Mulai Hassan, Sir John writes
to the same correspondent:—

I shall make a fresh effort to induce the young Sultan to introduce some
reforms and improvements, but I have but faint hope of success, as the Ministers
and satellites of the Court are either rogues or fools.
From my experience of Turkey and the Turks I confess I have little confidence
in the beneficial effect of any attempt to introduce European grafts on the old
Mohammedan stock. The tree which showed signs of vigour has been cut down,
and the fruit of the European graft contains rather the evils than the virtues of both
the West and the East.

When this letter was written, Sir John was already on his way to
Fas. On March 3, 1875 he left Tangier, accompanied by several
members of his family, some personal friends[51], and the officers
appointed by the British Government to attend the Mission.
The reception at Fas was magnificent, some six thousand troops
having been sent to do honour to the Representative of Great
Britain; but what was more pleasing to him and greatly enhanced the
effect of the entry, was the presence of the citizens of Fas, who had
come to meet him in their thousands, bringing with them their wives
and children; to show, they said, their appreciation of his friendship
and love of justice. The shrill ‘zagharit’ continually raised by the
women as Sir John passed through the crowd, attended by his staff
and escort, completely drowned at times the sound of the brass
band which the Sultan had sent to play before the procession. Soon
after the instalment of the Mission at Fas, the incident occurred
which Sir John relates as follows:—

‘When on my mission to the Court at Fas in 1875, the Uzir had

selected the Kaid of an Arab regiment to command the guard of
honour which had been appointed to attend on our Mission.
‘Another Kaid, named Meno, being superior in rank to the Arab
Kaid, felt aggrieved that this post of confidence had not been offered
to him; moreover, he had rendered important service to the Sultan,
which he considered unrecognised, so he vowed vengeance on his
rival.
‘The men of his regiment, all Berbers, were much attached to Kaid
Meno, not only on account of his famed courage in battle, but also
because whenever a razzia took place, Meno did not, like other
chiefs, insist on having the lion’s share of the plunder, but left all to
his followers.
‘On hearing of my arrival and the appointment of the Arab Kaid,
Meno summoned a dozen stalwart men of his regiment and imparted
to them, secretly, a scheme to bring disgrace upon the Arab officer