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Textbook Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts Volume 2 A N M Alamgir Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts Volume 2 A N M Alamgir Ebook All Chapter PDF
Textbook Therapeutic Use of Medicinal Plants and Their Extracts Volume 2 A N M Alamgir Ebook All Chapter PDF
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Progress in Drug Research 74
Series Editor: K. D. Rainsford
A. N. M. Alamgir
Therapeutic Use of
Medicinal Plants
and their Extracts:
Volume 2
Phytochemistry and Bioactive
Compounds
Progress in Drug Research
Volume 74
Series editor
K. D. Rainsford, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Progress in Drug Research is a prestigious book series which provides extensive
expert-written reviews on highly topical areas in current pharmaceutical and
pharmacological research.
Founded in 1959 by Ernst Jucker, the series moved from its initial focus on
medicinal chemistry to a much wider scope. Today it encompasses all fields con-
cerned with the development of new therapeutic drugs and the elucidation of their
mechanisms of action, reflecting the increasingly complex nature of modern drug
research. Invited authors present their biological, chemical, biochemical, physio-
logical, immunological, pharmaceutical, toxicological, pharmacological and clinical
expertise in carefully written reviews and provide the newcomer and the specialist
alike with an up-to-date list of prime references.
Starting with volume 61, Progress in Drug Research is continued as a series of
monographs.
123
A. N. M. Alamgir
Department of Botany
Chittagong University
Chittagong
Bangladesh
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG
part of Springer Nature
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Neem: the village pharmacy (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.)
Azadirachtin (tetranortriterpenoid)
Nimbin (triterpenoid)
Nimbidinin (tetranortriterpene)
Dedicated to the memory of my beloved
parents, who always inspired me to learn
from nature
Preface
ix
x Preface
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
1.1 Phytochemistry: Introduction, a Borderline Discipline Between
Natural Product Organic Chemistry and Plant Biochemistry . . . . 2
1.2 Medicinal Phytochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Bioactive Compounds of Medicinal Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Metabolomics and Phytoconstituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Metabolomics of Medicinal Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Metabolomics as a Tool for Quality Evaluation
of Herbal Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 17
1.5 Methods (Techniques) of Phytochemical Investigation
and High-Throughput Screening (HTS) for Active Plant
Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21
2 Phytoconstituents—Active and Inert Constituents, Metabolic
Pathways, Chemistry and Application of Phytoconstituents,
Primary Metabolic Products, and Bioactive Compounds
of Primary Metabolic Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Phytoconstituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.1 Active Drug Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.2 Inert Nondrug Constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Metabolic Pathways and the Origin of Primary and Secondary
Metabolites Chemistry of Plant Constituents and Their
Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29
2.2.1 Primary Metabolic Pathways and Primary
Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
2.2.2 Secondary Metabolic Pathways and Secondary
Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 30
2.2.3 Plant’s Defensive or Survival Secondary
Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 34
xi
xii Contents
xvii
xviii Abbreviations
G a-L-guluronate(G) residues
GABA precursor Gamma-aminobutyric acid precursor
GABAA c-Aminobutyric acid type A
GABA Gamma-aminobutyric acid
GAGs Glycosaminoglycans
GalN D-Galactosamine
GC Gas chromatography
GC-MS Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
G-CSF Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
GERD Gastroesophageal reflux disorder
GFR Glomerular filtration rate
GGMMGMMMMMGGM The repeating unit of D-glucose (G) and D-mannose
(M) in a proportion of 5:8 joined by b-1!4
glycoside linkages in glucomannan
GI Glycemic index
GLC Gas-liquid chromatography
GMS Glycerol monostearate
GnRH Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
GOS Galactooligosaccharides
GpyFn a-D-glucopyranosyl-[b-D-fructofuranosyl]
(n-1)-D-fructofuranosides
GSH Glutathione
GSL Glucosinolates
GTX-2 Gonyautoxins 2
GTX Gonyautoxins
HAT Hypoxanthine aminopterin thymidine
HCN Hydrogen cyanide
HDL High-density lipoprotein
HFCS High fructose corn syrup
HGS Hydrogenated glucose syrup
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HMG-CoA Reductase (3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme
A reductase)
HMGCR pathway HMGCR-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A
reductase
hMG Human menopausal gonadotropin
hCG Human chorionic gonadotropin
HNO3 Nitric acid
hnRNA Heterogeneous RNA
HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography
HPMC Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose
HPV Human papilloma virus
HRT Hormone replacement therapy
HSH Hydrogenated starch hydrolysates
HSV Herpes simplex virus
Abbreviations xxi
HTN Hypertension
HTS High-throughput screening
IDDM Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
IDL Intermediate-density lipoprotein
IL1b Interleukin-1 b
IP6 Inositolhexaphosphate
IPP Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
ISH International Society of Hypertension
ISSRs Inter Simple Sequence Repeats
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
JA Jasmonic acid
JFM Japanese Folk Medicine
K+-ATP chanel An ATP-sensitive potassium channel
KB Kenacid blue
KDO Ketodeoxyoctulosonic acid
KTTKS Collagen pentapeptide (Lys-Thr-Thr-Lys-Ser)
LA Linoleic acid
LAL Limulus amebocyte lysate
LBG Locust bean gum
LCFA Long-chain fatty acids
LC-HUFA Long-chained highly unsaturated fatty acids
LC Liquid chromatography
LC-MS Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
LC-MUFA Long-chained monounsaturated fatty acids
LC-PUFA Long-chained polyunsaturated fatty acids
LDL Low-density lipoprotein
L-DOPA L-dihydroxyphenylalanine
LHRH Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone
LPS Lipopolysaccharide
LRF Luteinizing hormone-releasing factor
LSA d-lysergic acid amide
LSD Lysergic acid diethylamide
M b-D-mannuronate (M)
MAbs Monoclonal antibodies
MAH Monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
MAPs Medicinal and aromatic plants
MCFA Medium-chain fatty acids
MDMA Methylenedioxymethamphetamine
MEP Methylerythritol phosphate or methylerythitol
phosphate pathway
MGDG Monogalactosyl diacylglycerol
MHRA Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory
Agency
miRNAs MicroRNAs
MLSA Multilocus sequence analysis
xxii Abbreviations
The active opiates are found in the opium poppy are morphine, codeine, thebaine,
and papaverine having analgesic or pain-relieving effects. Atropine is commonly
classified as an anticholinergic.
Phytochemicals of secondary metabolic origin of plants are biologically active
compounds and they protect plants from damages due to biotic (e.g., against prey,
predators, herbivores, insect, diseases, pathogens and competing organisms, etc.)
and abiotic (e.g., pollution, UV radiation, drought, salinity, temperature, etc.)
stresses; and secondary metabolites also contribute to the plant’s color, aroma and
flavor to assist insect pollination (Gibson et al. 1998; Mathai 2000). Phytochemicals
are non-nutritive plant chemicals that have health curative and disease preventive
properties when their dietary intake is significant. They provide health benefits for
humans further than those attributed to macronutrients and micronutrients (Hasler
and Blumberg 1999). Phytochemicals are plant-derived chemical compounds and
phytonutrients refer to phytochemicals that come from edible plants.
Phytochemicals have important biological properties such as antioxidant activity,
antimicrobial effect, modulation of detoxification enzymes, stimulation of the
immune system, decrease of platelet aggregation and modulation of hormone
metabolism and anticancer property. There is abundant evidence from epidemio-
logical and other studies that the phytochemicals in fruits and vegetables can sig-
nificantly reduce the risk of cancer, probably due to antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory effects. Phytonutrients, vitamins and minerals contained in plants
had been hinted at for millennia (Seddon et al. 1994; Yoshizawa et al. 1998; Agarwal
and Rao 2000; Dalessandri et al. 2004, Letavayova et al. 2006; McGuire et al. 2006;
Rao et al. 2006; Ray et al. 2006; Canene-Adams et al. 2007; Hurwitz et al. 2007).
Phytonutrients or plant nutrient are natural compounds found in plant foods,
spices, beverages, e.g., vegetables, fruit, whole grain products, legumes and
sprouts, nuts and seeds, onion, garlic, cumin, anise, basil, bay leaf, sparsely,
cilantro, allspice, condiments, tea, coffee, chocolate, algae, etc. Phytonutrients are
often referred to as phytochemicals and there are hundreds of phytonutrients and
some common phytonutrients include allyl sulfides, anthocyanins, b-carotene,
b-sitosterol, caffeic acid, capsaicin, carnosol, catechins, chlorogenic acid, coumar-
ins, cryptoxanthin, dietary fiber, 3,3′-Diindolylmethane, ellagic acid, epicatechin,
essential and fixed oils, ferulic acid, flavonoids (2-phenylchromans), folate, folic
acid, hydrolysable tannins punicalagins, indoles, indole-3-carbinol, isoflavones (3-
phenylchromans), isothiocyanates, lactones, lignans, limonene, lutein, lycopene,
monoterpenes, monounsaturated fat, nasunin, niacin, organosulfures, omega
(omega-3, omega-6 fatty acids), oxalic acid, perillyl alcohol, phenols and
polyphenols, phytic acid, phytosterols, protease inhibitors, saponins, sesquiterpene,
soluble fiber, sulforaphane, quercitin, resins, oleoresins, resveratrol, sulforaphane,
tannic acid, thiosulfinates, saponins, silymarin, tartaric acid, vitamins B1, B6, E, K,
vitamin C, xanthones, zeaxanthin, etc., as well as elements potassium, copper,
manganese, selenium, magnesium, zinc, iodine, iron, chromium, etc. Phytonutrient
rich food includes red, orange and yellow vegetables and fruit (e.g., tomatoes,
carrots, peppers, squash, sweet potatoes, peaches, mangos, melons, citrus fruits, and
berries); dark green leafy vegetables (e.g., spinach, kale, bok choy, broccoli, Swiss
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