Thermal Non-Equilibrium in

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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  COMPUTATIONAL MECHANICS

Marcelo J.S. de Lemos

Thermal Non-
Equilibrium in
Heterogeneous
Media

123
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

Computational Mechanics

Series editors
Holm Altenbach, Magdeburg, Germany
Lucas F.M. da Silva, Porto, Portugal
Andreas Öchsner, Southport, Australia
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8886
Marcelo J.S. de Lemos

Thermal Non-Equilibrium
in Heterogeneous Media

123
Marcelo J.S. de Lemos
Departamento de Enegia—IEME
Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica—ITA
São José dos Campos, São Paulo
Brazil

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISSN 2191-5342 ISSN 2191-5350 (electronic)
SpringerBriefs in Computational Mechanics
ISBN 978-3-319-14665-2 ISBN 978-3-319-14666-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14666-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015949447

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© The Author(s) 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
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The true sign of intelligence is not
knowledge but imagination.

Albert Einstein
To my lovely wife Magaly
Preface

This is the second book of Springer Briefs in Applied Sciences and Technology,
Series in Computational Mechanics by Springer, which I contribute with pleasure.
As a comment for future work at the end of “Turbulent Impinging Jets into Porous
Materials”, ISBN 978-3-642-28276-8, Springer Briefs in Computational
Mechanics, 2012, two suggestions for extending the model therein were mentioned,
namely the inclusion of chemical reactions in the fluid phase and the movement
of the solid phase. Following it, this book fulfills that aspiration and I hope that the
material herein can be of interest to the readers.
This work is way overdue as I had in mind finishing it by the middle of last year
(2014). My sincere apologies to the publishers for postponing the delivery of this
manuscript as unexpected difficulties arose. As in the previous issue, here again I
am thankful to Professor Dr.-Ing. Andreas Öchsner, Editor-in-Chief of the Springer
book series on “Advanced Structured Materials” and Dr. Christoph Baumann,
Springer Senior Engineering Editor.
Once more the continuous support from our research funding agencies in Brazil,
namely, CNPq, CAPES, and FAPESP, is grealy appreciated. In this volume, most
of the presented material is related to graduate research work done by my former
students, in particular those conducted by Dr. M.B. Saito, Dr. A.C. Pivem, and
Master graduate J.E.A. Coutinho. To them and to all my other former students who
have contributed to our efforts over the last 15 years, my sincere thanks. Last but
not least, I would like to express my appreciation to Mrs. Ingrid Maiara Souza
Chagas for her careful and skillful typing of the manuscript.

São José dos Campos Marcelo J.S. de Lemos

July 2015

ix
Contents

1 Heterogeneous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Outline of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Modeling of Thermal Non-equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.1 Local Instantaneous Transport Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.2 Double-Decomposition of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.3 Macroscopic Flow Equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.4 Macroscopic Energy Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.5 Correlations for Interfacial Heat Transfer, hi . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 Periodic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Numerical Method and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.2 Film Coefficient Hi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3.3 A Correlation for Interstitial Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Laminar Flow in a Channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.1 Non-dimensional Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Numerical Method and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . 26
2.4.3 Local Nusselt Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Turbulent Flow in a Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3 Moving Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Macroscopic Laminar Model for Fixed and Moving Beds . . . . . . 43
3.2.1 Fixed Bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2.2 Moving Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

xi
xii Contents

3.3 Turbulence Model for Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.3.1 Fixed Bed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3.2 Moving Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Thermal Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.1 Two-Energy Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.4.2 Interfacial Heat Transfer Coefficient. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.4.3 Wall Treatment and Boundary Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5 Results for Laminar Parallel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.1 Effect of Reynolds Number, ReD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.5.2 Effect of Slip Ratio, us =uD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.3 Effect of Darcy Number, Da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.4 Effect of Porosity, / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5.5 Effect of Thermal Capacity Ratio ðqcp Þs =ðqcp Þf . . . . . . . . 57
3.5.6 Effect of Thermal Conductivity Ratio ks =kf . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.6 Results for Turbulent Parallel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.1 Effect of Reynolds Number, ReD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.2 Effect of Slip Ratio, us =uD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6.3 Effect of Darcy Number, Da . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.6.4 Effect of Porosity, / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4 Combustion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Porous Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3 Macroscopic Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.1 Macroscopic Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.2 Macroscopic Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3.3 Turbulence Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4.1 Local Thermal Non-equilibrium Model (LTNE). . . . . . . . 72
4.5 Combustion Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5.1 Mass Transport for Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5.2 Chemical Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.6 Heat Release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.6.1 Double-Decomposition of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.6.2 Macroscopic Fuel Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.7 Numerical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7.1 Simulation Details and Boundary Conditions. . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7.2 Grid Independence Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.7.3 One Dimensional Combustor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Contents xiii

5 Double Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.2 Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.3 Averaging Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.4 Time Averaging for Buoyant Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.5 Volume Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.5.1 Mean Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.5.2 Mean Momentum Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.5.3 Macroscopic Turbulence Field. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6 Two-Energy Equation Model (2EEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.6.1 Interfacial Heat Transfer, hi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.7 Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.8 Double-Diffusion Effects with a 2EEM Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.8.1 Mean Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.8.2 Turbulent Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.9 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

6 Final Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Nomenclature

Latin Characters
Ai Interface total area between the fluid and solid
cF Forchheimer coefficient
cp Fluid specific heat
C‘ Volumetric molar concentration
cp Specific heat
D‘ Diffusion coefficient
Ddisp Mass dispersion
Ddisp;t Turbulent mass dispersion
Dt Turbulent mass flux 
Da Darcy number, Da ¼ K H 2
D Square rods of lateral size
g Gravity acceleration vector
hi Interfacial convective heat transfer coefficient
H Channel height, Periodic cell height
I Unit tensor
J‘ Mass diffusion coefficient
K Permeability
kf Fluid thermal conductivity
ks Solid thermal conductivity
Kdisp Dispersion tensor
Kf ;s Thermal conductivity tensor in fluid phase
Ks;f Thermal conductivity tensor in solid phase
Kt Turbulence conductivity tensor
Kdisp;t Turbulent dispersion tensor
k (1) Thermal conductivity; (2) Turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass,

k ¼ u0  u0 2
hkii Intrinsic (fluid) average of k
keff Effective thermal conductivity

xv
xvi Nomenclature

L Channel length
‘ Chemical species
m‘ Mass fraction of component ‘
M‘ Molar weight of component ‘
Nu Nusselt number Nu ¼ hki Df
P Pressure
P P ¼ Pmax
PPmin
Pmin , Nondimensional Pressure
Pr Pr ¼ m=a, Prandtl number
Prt Turbulent Prandtl number
PeD Peclet number based on D and the macroscopically uniform velocity
hpii Intrinsic (fluid) average of pressure p
p Thermodynamic pressure
qw Integral wall heat flux
q/w Integral wall heat flux will porous layer
ReD Reynolds number based on D and the macroscopically uniform velocity
Re Reynolds number based on the jet width, Re ¼ q m0 B=l
Su Source term
Sct Turbulent Schmidt number
T Temperature
Tms Bulk temperature of the solid phase
Tmf Bulk temperature of the fluid phase
u Local instantaneous velocity
uB Bulk velocity

D
u Darcy velocity vector (volume-time average of u)
u‘ Velocity of species ‘
huii Intrinsic (fluid) average of u
x, y Cartesian coordinates
X X ¼ x=H, Dimensionless longitudinal coordinate
Y Y ¼ y=H, Dimensionless transversal coordinate

Greek Characters
b Thermal expansion coefficient
bC Salute expansion coefficient
b/ Macroscopic thermal expansion coefficient
bC/ Macroscopic salute expansion coefficient
DV Representative elementary volume
DVf Fluid volume inside DV
l Fluid Dynamic viscosity
lt Eddy viscosity
lt/ Macroscopic eddy viscosity
m Fluid kinematic viscosity
Nomenclature xvii

q Bulk density of fluid or mixture

q‘ Mass density of species ‘
h Tw T
hðs;f Þ ¼ Tw T inlet
, Dimensionless local temperature
ðs ; f Þ

H Tmðs;f Þ Tinletf
Hðs;f Þ ¼ Tinlets Tinletf , Dimensionless bulk temperature
/ / ¼ DVf =DV, Porosity
a Fluid thermal diffusivity
q Density
m Kinematic viscosity
σtϕ Macroscopic turbulent Prandtl number
e Dissipation rate of k
heii Intrinsic (fluid) average of e

Special Characters, Subscripts and Superscripts

u General variable
huii Intrinsic average
w Wall
o Inlet conditions
huiv Volume average
i
u Spatial deviation
ϕ Macroscopic
β Buoyancy
B Bulk
C Concentration
D Particle or rod diameter
hi Interfacial heat transfer coefficient
i Intrinsic (fluid) average
v Volume (fluid + solid) average
s,f Solid, fluid
t Turbulent
List of Figures

Figure 1.1 Applications of heterogeneous media modeling:

a Gasifiers. b Porous Combustors. c Hydrogen
reactors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 2
Figure 1.2 Averaging operators: a Volume average over
a representative elementary volume (R.E.V.).
b Time averaging over an interval of time Δt
(see [15]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 3
Figure 1.3 Flow configurations. Two-dimensional channel flow:
a Fixed bed. b Relative velocity. c Parallel flow.
d Counter Flow. One-dimensional combustors:
e Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 5
Figure 2.1 Infinite medium: a Physical model and coordinate
system, b Non uniform computational grid . . . . . . . . . .... 19
Figure 2.2 Results for periodic cell: a Nondimensional pressure
field for ReD = 105 and / ¼ 0.65, b Isotherms
for Pr ¼ 1; ReD = 105 and / ¼ 0.65, c Turbulence
kinetic energy for ReD = 105 and / ¼ 0.65. . . . . . . . . .... 22
Figure 2.3 Results for unit cell: a Effect of ReD on hi for Pr ¼ 1
and / ¼ 0.65, b Effect of porosity on hi for Pr ¼ 1. . . .... 23
Figure 2.4 Comparison of the numerical results for unit cell:
a With proposed correlation Eq. (2.57), b With various
correlations for / ¼ 0.65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 24
Figure 2.5 Effect of Re on longitudinal Nusselt number.
Da ¼ 104 ; / ¼ 0:6; D=H ¼ 5:2  102 ; ks =kf ¼ 25;
a ReD ¼ 10; b ReD ¼ 1000; c Both Re;
present results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 27
Figure 2.6 Effect of porosity on longitudinal Nusselt number,
ReD ¼ 100; D=H ¼ 5:2  102 ; ks =kf ¼ 25: a / ¼ 0:3,
b / ¼ 0:6, c Both porosities, present results . . . . . . . . .... 29

xix
xx List of Figures

Figure 2.7 Effect of D on longitudinal Nusselt number.

Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 100; / ¼ 0:6; ks =kf ¼ 25;
a D=H ¼ 2:6  102 , b D=H ¼ 101 , c Both D/H
ratios, present results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 30
Figure 2.8 Effect of solid-to-fluid thermal conductivity ratio
on longitudinal Nusselt number. Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼
100; / ¼ 0:6; D=H ¼ 5:2  102 ; a ks =kf ¼ 5,
b ks =kf ¼ 50, c Both ks =kf ratios, present results . . . . . .... 31
Figure 2.9 Comparison between present results with various
correlations and Alazmi and Vafai (2000)
results. Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 100; / ¼ 0:6;
D=H ¼ 5:2  102 ; ks =kf ¼ 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 32
Figure 2.10 Fluid and solid cross-sectional averaged temperatures
along the flow, Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 5  104 ;
/ ¼ 0:6; D=H ¼ 1:03  101 ; ks =kf ¼ 25:
a heff ¼ 10hi , b heff ¼ hi , c heff ¼ 0:1hi . . . . . . . . . . . .... 33
Figure 2.11 Effect of thermal dispersion on local non-dimensional
temperatures, Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 5  104 ;
/ ¼ 0:6; D=H ¼ 1:03  101 ; ks =kf ¼ 25: a X ¼ 0:1,
b X ¼ 0:5, c X ¼ 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 34
Figure 2.12 Effect of ReD on Nu for turbulent flow,
Da ¼ 104 ; / ¼ 0:6; D=H ¼ 1:03  101 ; ks =kf ¼ 25:
a ReD ¼ 104 , b ReD ¼ 105 , c Both ReD . . . . . . . . . . . .... 35
Figure 2.13 Effect of ϕ on Nu for turbulent flow,
Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 5  104 ; D=L ¼ 1:03  102 ;
ks =kf ¼ 25; a / ¼ 0:3, b / ¼ 0:6, c Both / . . . . . . . . .... 36
Figure 2.14 Effect of D=L on Nu for turbulent flow,
ReD ¼ 5  104 ; / ¼ 0:6; ks =kf ¼ 25:
a D=L ¼ 5:16  103 , b D=L ¼ 2:06  102 ,
c Both D=L. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 38
Figure 2.15 Effect of ks =kf on Nu for turbulent flow,
Da ¼ 104 ; ReD ¼ 5  104 ; / ¼ 0:6;
D=H ¼ 1:03  101 : a ks =kf ¼ 5, b ks =kf ¼ 50. . . . . . .... 39
Figure 3.1 Non-dimensional temperatures for ks =kf ¼ 25, / ¼ 0:9,
Da ¼ 3:371  103 , ðqcp Þs =ðqcp Þf ¼ 1:5; a as a
function of ReD , us =uD ¼ 0:5, b as a function of
us =uD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 55
Figure 3.2 Non-dimensional temperatures for us =uD ¼ 0:5,
ðqcp Þs =ðqcp Þf ¼ 1:5, ks =kf ¼ 25; a as a function of Da,
/ ¼ 0:9, b as a function of /, ReD ¼ 62:5 . . . . . . . . . .... 57
Figure 3.3 Non-dimensional temperatures as a function
of ðqcp Þs =ðqcp Þf , us =uD ¼ 0:5; ks =kf ¼ 25; u ¼ 0:9;
Da ¼ 1:498  103 ; ReD ¼ 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 58
List of Figures xxi

Figure 3.4 Non-dimensional temperatures as a function of ks =kf ,

/ ¼ 0:6, Da ¼ 2:601  104 , ðqcp Þs =ðqcp Þf ¼ 1:5;
a us =uD ¼ 0:0, b us =uD ¼ 0:1, c us =uD ¼ 0:4 . . . . . . . .... 59
Figure 3.5 Non-dimensional turbulent kinetic energy as a function
of ReD , with us =uD ¼ 0:5, / ¼ 0:6: a High Reynolds
model and b low Reynolds model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 63
Figure 3.6 Non-dimensional turbulent kinetic energy as a function
of us =uD , with ks =kf ¼ 25, / ¼ 0:6,
Da ¼ 1:665  104 : a High Reynolds model
ReD  105 , b low Reynolds model ReD  103 . . . . . . .... 64
Figure 3.7 Non-dimensional turbulent kinetic energy as a function
of Da, with us =uD ¼ 0:5, / ¼ 0:6: a High Reynolds
model, Re ¼ 3:875  106 ; b low Reynolds model,
Re ¼ 3:1  105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 65
Figure 3.8 Non-dimensional turbulent kinetic energy as a function
of /, with us =uD ¼ 0:5: a High Reynolds model,
ReD ¼ 5  104 ; b low Reynolds model
ReD ¼ 2:5  103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 66
Figure 4.1 Grid independence studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 82
Figure 4.2 Code validation, experiments by Pereira [46]: a Case 01
(w ¼ 1:0, Uin ¼ 0:15), b Case 02 (w ¼ 0:67,
Uin ¼ 0:21), c Case 03 (w ¼ 0:67, Uin ¼ 0:40) . . . . . . .... 83
Figure 4.3 Effect of excess air Ψ for Uin = 0.1 m/s and zero thermal
radiation flux at exit, x = 12 cm: a Temperature fields.
b Fuel and carbon dioxide. c Water and oxygen . . . . . .... 84
Figure 4.4 Effect of inlet gas velocity on temperature fields . . . . . .... 85
Figure 4.5 Comparison of different model solutions:
a Uin = 0.1 m/s, b Uin = 1.0 m/s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 86
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Correlations for heat transfer coefficient and fluid-to-solid

specific area ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 3.1 Damping functions and constants for high and low Reynolds
turbulence models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Table 3.2 Cases and parameters used for laminar flow (Sect. 3.2) . . . . . . 53
Table 3.3 Cases and parameters used for turbulent flow (Sect. 3.3,
High Reynolds Turbulence Model, Launder
and Spalding (1974) [10]) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3.4 Cases and parameters used (Sect. 3.3, Low Reynolds
Turbulence Model, Abe et al. (1992) [11]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Table 4.1 Coefficients in the general combustion Eq. (4.25) . . . . . . . . . . 77

xxiii
Overview

Often thermal equipment characterized by a solid permeable structure and a moving

working fluid are used in advanced materials manufacturing and in energy
production processes. The advantages of having a clearer picture of how distinct
temperatures of each phase behave is beneficial to the design and optimization of
engineering equipment. Or say, the ability to more accurately analyze transport
processes in such devices can be of advantage in developing a more efficient and
reliable thermal machinery, including gasifiers for biomass or coal, direct reduced
iron (DRI) equipment for steel production, porous burners for household heating,
hydrogen production reactors, moving bed based devices, and nuclear reactor core,
to mention a few applications.
More specifically, this volume presents, in a self-contained fashion and orga-
nized way, a series of studies on flow and heat transfer in porous media, in which
distinct energy balances are considered for the porous matrix and for the permeating
fluid. Detailed mathematical modeling is presented considering both volume and
time averaging operators simultaneously applied to the local instantaneous gov-
erning equations. Besides presenting a correlation for interstitial heat transfer
between phases, examples of systems involving combustion in the gaseous phase,
moving bed, and double-diffusion mechanism are analyzed here. Numerical results
are then presented for each case. In the end, this book contains the description of a
tool that might benefit engineers in developing and designing more efficient thermal
equipment.

xxv
Chapter 1
Heterogeneous Media

1.1 Introduction

This book presents, in a self-contained fashion, a series of studies on flow and heat
transfer in porous media, in which distinct energy balances are considered for the
porous matrix and for the permeating fluid. Detailed mathematical modeling is
presented considering both volume and time averaging operators simultaneously
applied to the governing equations. System involving combustion in the gaseous
phase, moving bed and double-diffusion mechanism are also here presented by. On
the overall, this book contains the description of a tool that might be interesting to
engineers in developing more efficient thermal equipment such as gasifiers
(Fig. 1.1a), porous household combustors (Fig. 1.1b) and reactors for production of
a hydrogen reach (Fig. 1.1c).
Accordingly, for analyzing heat transfer in porous media there are two
approached to follow. One can assume thermal equilibrium between the solid
matrix and the working fluid (Local Thermal Equilibrium Model—LTE), or else,
one can analyze each phase with an independent energy balance equation (Local
Thermal Non-equilibrium Model—LTNE). Figure 1.2a illustrates the idea of a
Representative elementary volume (R.E.V.), over which volume average are
obtained. If the averaging process is taken over the fluid phase, then one can obtain
an average temperature hTf ii where the superscript “i” denotes the intrinsic average
over the volume occupied by phase “i”. The same reasoning applies for the solid
temperature leading to hTs ii , where the superscript “i” in this case would refer to the
volume occupied by the solid matter. On the other hand, if properties values also
present a fluctuation with time, the employment of statistical tools can be used to
find time-mean values over an interval of time Δt (Fig. 1.2b). In this case, an
overbar commonly used in the literature to represent time averaging would result in
hTf ii and hTs ii (see for example [1] for details). In the literature, thermal equilib-
rium is assumed when hTf ii  hTs ii  hTi i , or say, when the time-volume average
value for temperature on each phase does not differ substantially from the other.
© The Author(s) 2016 1
M.J.S. de Lemos, Thermal Non-Equilibrium in Heterogeneous Media,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Mechanics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14666-9_1
2 1 Heterogeneous Media

Fig. 1.1 Applications of heterogeneous media modeling: a Gasifiers. b Porous Combustors.

c Hydrogen reactors
1.1 Introduction 3

Ai
(a)
Tf fluid
ϕ i

ϕ′ i
ϕ i iϕ
iϕ

iϕ′
ϕ
Ts solid ϕ′
x2
ϕ

x
ΔV

x1

x3

(b)

Fig. 1.2 Averaging operators: a Volume average over a representative elementary volume (R.E.
V.). b Time averaging over an interval of time Δt (see [15] )

However, the hypothesis of local thermal equilibrium (LTE) demands several

constraints that have been considered by a number of authors [2–7]. For instance,
the LTE hypothesis is no longer valid when the particles or pores are not small
enough, when the thermal properties differ widely, or when convective transport is
not important. Also, most recent papers on the effects of local thermal
non-equilibrium deal with unsteady situations [8, 9], which are here not considered.
4 1 Heterogeneous Media

Further, when there is a significant heat generation in any of the phases, the system
will rapidly depart from the local thermal equilibrium condition [10]. For such
extreme conditions, the one-energy equation model (LTE) is inadequate to correctly
describe both the transients associated with the quench front penetrating the hot dry
porous layer, as well as regions where dry out occurs.
As mentioned, when the assumption of local thermal equilibrium fails, one
possible solution is to develop separate transport equations for each phase [11–13]
and this leads to macroscopic models, which are referred to in the literature as
LTNE closures. For heat transport through a porous medium, a LTNE model
involves the derivation of energy equation for both the solid and the fluid, which, in
turn, requires additional information on the interfacial heat transfer coefficient
between the fluid phase and the solid phase [14, 15]. For that, the use of LTNE
models is, overall, more involving [16].
Important applications on the LTNE model are found in analyses of advanced
materiais manufacturing and in renewable energy productions processes, such as in
modern steel production and biomass gasification in fixed and moving bed con-
figurations. With respect to pelletization of iron ore, Parisi and Laborde [17] and
Negri et al. [18] presented a study about the direct reduction of iron oxide in a
countercurrent reactor in a moving bed. Also within this context, Valipour et al.
[19] developed a mathematical model to simulate grain kinetics and thermal
behavior of a pellet of porous iron oxide. Their study considered chemical reactions
with a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Further, Valipour et al. [20] presented a mathematical model to simulate the mul-
tiple heterogeneous reactions in a moving bed of porous pellets on a reactor.
Valipour et al. [21] described a model to predict flow in a cylindrical reactor in
which pellets of iron ore went through a gas mixture.
In advanced manufacturing, Henda and Falcioni [22] described the thermal
performance of a pre-heater that consists of a moving bed of pellets of nickel in
concurrent flow with a gas, using both one and two equations energy models.
Further, biomass pelletization and preparation for energy production may be
considered as a system having a moving porous bed. Examples are given by Ryu
et al. [23], Boman et al. [24] and Shimizu et al. [25], who presented mathematical
models of the gasification a system using a moving bed in the burning of biomass.
Already Kayal and Chakravarty [26], Rogel et al. [27] and Nussbaumer et al. [28]
investigated technologies to cope with the problem of pollutant emission during of
combustion and co-combustion of biomass. Other basic studies on reactive flow in
fluidized beds can be found in the literature [29–31].
For thermal analysis of non-reacting systems, Nakayama et al. [32] presented the
exact solution of different energy equations, for solid and fluid phases, for cases of
engineering interest. They included in their study heat transfer analyses for
one-dimensional porous plate with internal heat generation and thermally devel-
oping unidirectional flow through a semi-infinite porous medium. Such two-energy
equation model has been investigated by a number of authors and is based on the
1.1 Introduction 5

idea that under certain conditions the two phases, namely the solid and the fluid,
cannot have their temperatures considered to be equal and, as such, they need be
evaluated using distinct transport equations [33–35].

1.2 Outline of This Book

In this book, a macroscopic model for heat transfer in porous media is proposed in
Chap. 2. For closing the model, we present a correlation for interstitial heat transfer
obtained after integrating distributed numerical values in a unit cell, which here
represents an infinite porous medium. Then, we consider the plug flow of an
incompressible fluid in a two-dimensional channel fitted with porous material.
Several cases are investigated in Chap. 2, including heat transfer through a fixed
porous bed (Fig. 1.3a). In this configuration, the solid phase remains still while the
working fluid is pumped through the permeable medium.

(a)
(b)
u rel us

uD us

urel

qw = 0
(c) (d)
Ts in

us H
uD
Tf in

L qw = 0

u v
0
x x
Outlet: qe qr
(e) m fu
i
mox
i

0
x x X

Combustion Region Wall:

Wall: u v
u v 0
0 y y
y y Tf
i
Tp
i
i i
Tf Tp 0
0 y y
y y m fu
i
m ox
i
i i
m fu m ox Preheating Region 0
0 y y
y y

Y u U in , v 0
Inlet: T f i T p i T in
i
m fu m fu , in , mox i m ox , in

Fig. 1.3 Flow configurations. Two-dimensional channel flow: a Fixed bed. b Relative velocity.
c Parallel flow. d Counter Flow. One-dimensional combustors: e Boundary conditions
6 1 Heterogeneous Media

Also include in this book are cases where the movement of the solid phase in
relation to that of the fluid is considered, as will be seen in Chap. 3. The additional
drag forces on the mean flow and extra term on the turbulent kinetic energy equation
with depend on the relative velocity between the two phases (Fig. 1.3b). When both
the fluid and solid move in the same direction, such configuration is here recalled
“parallel flow” (Fig. 1.3c) whereas for the case when both phases move against each
other such configuration is here named “counter flow” (Fig. 1.3d).
An important extension of the general model detailed in [1] is presented in
Chap. 4, where exothermic chemical reactions are considered in the fluid phase.
Such numerical results allow for the determination of temperature levels for the
so-called “filtration combustion” systems. A schematic of systems envolving
chemical reaction is presented in Fig. 1.3e.
Finally, double-diffusion effects are included and discussed in Chap. 5, which
considers the change in the weight of a mixture by both the temperature drive
(lighter hotter fluid) or mass drive (lighter of heavier mixture component).

References

1. Saito MB, de Lemos MJS (2010) A macroscopic two-energy equation model for turbulent
flow and heat transfer in highly porous media. Int J Heat Mass Transf 53(11–12):2424–2433
2. Schumann TEW (1929) Heat transfer: liquid flowing through a porous prism. J Frankl Inst
208:405–416
3. Vafai K, Sozen M (1990) Analysis of energy and momentum transport for fluid flow through a
porous bed. J Heat Transf 112:690–699
4. Amiri A, Vafai K (1994) Analysis of dispersion effects and nonthermal equilibrium,
non-Darcian, variable porosity incompressible flow through porous media. Int J Heat Mass
Transf 30:939–954
5. Whitaker S (1991) Improved constraints for the principle of local thermal equilibrium. Ind Eng
Chem Res 30:983–997
6. Quintard M, Whitaker S (1993) One- and two-equation models for transient diffusion
processes in two-phase systems. In: Advances in Heat Transfer,vol 23. Academic Press, New
York, pp 369–464
7. Quintard M, Whitaker S (1995) Local thermal equilibrium for transient heat conduction:
theory and comparison with numerical experiments. Int J Heat Mass Transf 38:2779–2796
8. Hsu CT (1999) A closure model for transient heat conduction in porous media. J Heat Transf
121:733–739
9. Sözen M, Vafai K (1990) Analysis of the non-thermal equilibrium condensing flow of a gas
through a packed bed. Int J Heat Mass Transf 33(6):1247–1261
10. Kaviany M (1995) Principles of heat transfer in porous media, 2nd edn. Springer, New York
11. Quintard M (1998) Modeling local non-equilibrium heat transfer in porous media. In:
Proceedings of the 11th international heat transfer conference, Kyongyu, Korea, vol 1,
pp 279–285
12. Ingham DB, Pop I (1998) Transport phenomena in porous media. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
pp 103–129
13. Quintard M, Kaviany M, Whitaker S (1997) Two-medium treatment of heat transfer in porous
media: numerical results for effective properties. Adv Water Resour 20:77–94
14. Wakao N, Kaguei S, Funazkri T (1979) Effect of fluid dispersion coefficients on
particle-to-fluid heat transfer coefficients in packed bed. Chem Eng Sci 34:325–336
References 7

15. Kuwahara F, Shirota M, Nakayama A (2001) A numerical study of interfacial convective heat
transfer coefficient in two-energy equation model for convection in porous media. Int J Heat
Mass Transf 44:1153–1159
16. Saito MB, de Lemos MJS (2005) Interfacial heat transfer coefficient for non-equilibrium
convective transport in porous media. Int Commun Heat Mass Transf 32(5):667–677
17. Parisi DR, Laborde MA (2004) Modeling of counter current moving bed gas-solid reactor used
in direct reduction of iron ore. Chem Eng J 104:35–43
18. Negri ED, Alfano OM, Chiovetta MG (1991) Direct redution of hematite in a moving-bed
reactor: analysis of the water gas shift reaction effects on the reactor behavior. Am Chem Soc
30:474–482
19. Valipour MS, Hashemi MYM, Saboohi Y (2006) Mathematical modeling of the reaction in an
iron ore pellet using a mixture of hydrogen, water vapor, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide: an isothermal study. Adv Powder Technol 17(3):277–295
20. Valipour MS, Saboohi Y (2007) Modeling of multiple noncatalytic gas-solid reactions in a
moving bed of porous pellets based on finite volume method. Heat Mass Transf 43(9):881–
894
21. Valipour MS, Saboohi Y (2007) Numerical investigation of nonisothermal reduction Hematite
using Syngas: the shaft scale study. Model Simul Mater Sci Eng 15:487–507
22. Henda R, Falcioni DJ (2006) Modeling of heat transfer in a moving packed bed: case of the
preheater in nickel carbonyl process. J Appl Mech—ASME 73(1):47–53
23. Ryu C, Yang YB, Khor A, Yates NE, Sharifi VN, Swithenbank J (2006) Effect of fuel
properties on biomass combustion: part i. experiments—fuel type, equivalence ratio and
particle size. Fuel 85:1039–1046
24. Boman C, Nordin A, Thaning L (2003) Effects of increased biomass pellet combustion on
ambient air quality in residential areas—a parametric dispersion modeling study. Biomass
Bioenergy 25:465–474
25. Shimizu T, Han J, Choi S, Kim L, Kim H (2006) Fluidized-bed combustion characteristics of
cedar pellets by using an alternative bed material. Energy Fuels 20:2737–2742
26. Kayal TK, Chakravarty M (1994) Mathematical modeling of continuous updraft gasification
of bundled jute stick—a low ash content woody biomass. Bioresour Technol 49(1):61–73
27. Rogel A, Aguillón J (2006) The 2D Eulerian approach of entrained flow and temperature in a
biomass stratified downdraft gasifier. Am J Appl Sci 3(10):2068–2075
28. Nussbaumer T (2003) Combustion and co-combustion of biomass: fundamentals,
technologies, and primary measures for emission reduction. Energy Fuels 17:1510–1521
29. Li SY, Bie RS (2006) Modeling the reaction of gaseous HCl with CaO in fluidized bed. Chem
Eng Sci 61(16):5468–5475
30. Zhao J, Huang J, Wu J, Fang Y, Wang Y (2008) Modeling and optimization of the moving
granular packed bed for combined hot gas desulfurization and dust removal. Powder Technol
180:2–8
31. Baron J, Bulewicz EM (2006) The combustion of polymer pellets in a bubbling fluidized bed.
Fuel 85:2494–2508
32. Nakayama A, Kuwahara F, Sugiyama M, Xu G (2001) A two energy equation model for
conduction and convection in porous media. Int J Heat Mass Transf 44:4375–4379
33. Quintard M (1998) Modeling local non-equilibrium heat transfer in porous media. In:
Proceedings of the eleventh international heat transfer conference, vol 1, pp 279–285
34. Kaviany M (1995) Principles of heat transfer in porous media, 2nd edn. Springer, New York,
pp 391–424
35. Hsu CT (1999) A closure model for transient heat conduction in porous media. J Heat Transf
121:733–739
Chapter 2
Modeling of Thermal Non-equilibrium

2.1 Introduction

Convection heat transfer in porous media has been extensively investigated due to
its many important engineering applications. The wide applications available have
led to numerous investigations in this area. Such applications can be found in solar
receiver devices, building thermal insulation, heat exchangers, energy storage units,
etc. From the point of view of the energy equation there are two different models,
local thermal equilibrium model and two energy approach. The first model assumes
that the solid temperature is equal to the fluid temperature, thus local thermal
equilibrium between the fluid and the solid-phases is achieved at any location in the
porous media. This model simplifies theoretical and numerical research, but the
assumption of local thermal equilibrium between the fluid and the solid is inade-
quate for a number of problems [1, 2]. In recent years more attention has been paid
to the local thermal non-equilibrium model and its use has increased in theoretical
and numerical research for convection heat transfer processes in porous media [3,
4]. Saito and de Lemos [5] considered local thermal non-equilibrium and obtained
the interfacial heat transfer coefficient for laminar flow using a single unit cell with
local instantaneous transport equations.
This chapter details the proposition of a new correlation for obtaining the
interfacial heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow in a packed bed. The bed is
modeled as an infinite staggered array of square rods and the range of Reynolds
number, based on the size of the rod, is extended up to 107. In-line rod arrangement
is here not considered as the objective of this work is first to consolidate results for
staggered arrays. Future investigations shall consider different array arrangements
as well as distinct rod shapes, such as elliptical and circular rods.
The next sessions details the basic mathematical model, including the mean and
turbulent fields for turbulent flows. Although the discussion of turbulent motion in
porous media isn’t present in this work the definition and concept to calculating the
interfacial heat transfer coefficient for macroscopic flows are presented.

© The Author(s) 2016 9

M.J.S. de Lemos, Thermal Non-Equilibrium in Heterogeneous Media,
SpringerBriefs in Computational Mechanics,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-14666-9_2
10 2 Modeling of Thermal Non-equilibrium

2.2 Governing Equations

2.2.1 Local Instantaneous Transport Equations

Microscopic transport equations or local time-averaged transport equations for

incompressible fluid flow in a rigid homogeneous porous medium have been already
presented in the literature and for that, they are here just presented [6]. The governing
equations for the flow and energy for an incompressible fluid are given by:

Continuity: r  u ¼ 0: ð2:1Þ


@u
Momentum: q þ r  ðuuÞ ¼ rp þ lr2 u: ð2:2Þ
@t
 
  @Tf    
Energy-Fluid Phase: qcp f þ r  uTf ¼ r  kf rTf þ Sf : ð2:3Þ
@t

  @Ts
Energy-Solid PhaseðPorous MatrixÞ : qcp s ¼ r  ðks rTs Þ þ Ss : ð2:4Þ
@t

where the subscripts f and s refer to fluid and solid phases, respectively. Here, T is
the temperature kf is the fluid thermal conductivity, ks is the solid thermal con-
ductivity, cp is the specific heat and S is the heat generation term. If there is no heat
generation either in the solid or in the fluid, one has further Sf ¼ Ss ¼ 0.
For turbulent flows, the standard time averaged transport equations can be
written as:

 ¼ 0:
Continuity: r  u ð2:5Þ

u
Momentum: qf ½r  ðu Þ ¼ rp þ r  l r uÞT  qu0 u0 :
u þ ðr ð2:6Þ

where the low and high Reynolds k  e model is used to obtain the eddy viscosity,
lt , whose equations for the turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass and for its
dissipation rate read:
Turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass:


lt
 k Þ ¼ r 
qf ½r  ðu lþ rk  qu0 u0 : r
u  qe ð2:7Þ
rk

Turbulent kinetic energy per unit mass dissipation rate:


lt    e
 eÞ ¼ r 
qf ½r  ðu lþ re þ c1 qu0 u0 : r
u  c2 f2 qe ð2:8Þ
re k
2.2 Governing Equations 11

Reynolds stresses and the Eddy viscosity is given by, respectively:

 2
qu0 u0 ¼ lt r uÞT  qkI
u þ ðr ð2:9Þ
3

k2
lt ¼ qcl fl ð2:10Þ
e

where, q is the fluid density, p is the pressure, l represents the fluid viscosity.
In the above equation set rk , re , c1 , c2 , and cl are dimensionless constants
whereas f2 and fl are damping functions of the low Re k  e turbulence models is
justified by the fact that the turbulent flow in porous media occurs for Reynolds
number relatively low. To account for the low Reynolds effects, the following
damping functions were adopted.
( " # )2 ( "  2
#)
ðmeÞ0:25 y 5 ðk2 meÞ
fl ¼ 1  exp  1þ exp  ð2:11Þ
14m ðk2 =meÞ0:75 200
( " #) 2 ( "  2
#)
ðmeÞ0:25 y ðk2 meÞ
f2 ¼ 1  exp  1  0:3 exp  ð2:12Þ
3:1m 6:5

where y is the coordinate normal to the wall. The turbulent model constants are
given as follows,
cl ¼ 0:09, c1 ¼ 1:5, c2 ¼ 1:9, rk ¼ 1:4, re ¼ 1:3.
For the high Re model the standard constants of Launder and Spalding [7] were
emplyed.
Also, the time averaged energy equations become:
         
Tf ¼ r  kf rTf  qcp f r  u0 Tf0 :
Energy-Fluid Phase: qcp f r  u
ð2:13Þ

Energy-Solid Phase ðPorous MatrixÞ: r  ðks rTs Þ þ Ss ¼ 0: ð2:14Þ

2.2.2 Double-Decomposition of Variables

Macroscopic transport equations for turbulent flow in a porous medium are

obtained through the simultaneous application of time and volume average oper-
ators over a generic fluid property u. Such concepts are defined as [8–10].
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their ammunition, was, of course, thoroughly soaked. This attempt
was made below the dam, and the enemy, when he saw their
intention to cross, let in more water upon them by a floodgate.
While the men were in the stream, a large body of the enemy,
estimated at three regiments, opened upon them from a rifle-pit on
the bank, and this terrible fire cut down nearly half their number.
Never was a fire received with greater steadiness or more glorious
intrepidity. Except the poor fellows who had been killed or wounded,
not a man of the magnificent Vermonters wavered, but all pushed on,
and with one shout leaped to the bank, rushed upon the enemy with
their bayonets, and fairly drove them in utter rout and confusion. But
the contest was too unequal. No supports were within proper
distance; and though the enemy was driven away from the first line
of pits, and the other two companies of the Third were in the water to
cross, those on the other side were ordered to retreat.
After the remnant of these companies returned, the Union
batteries, which had in the mean time ceased firing, opened in full
force again. Then the Sixth Vermont regiment was ordered to storm
the work by the left flank.
Led by their gallant Colonel Lord, they rushed into the water.
Seven companies had entered, and some had reached within three
yards of the breastwork, when they were met by the fire of a long line
of rebel rifles, which appeared above the parapets. A running fire
from a thousand small arms was poured upon the Union men, who
stood three feet deep in water. It was returned as gallantly as the
circumstances would warrant. The breastwork was lighted up with a
continuous sheet of flame, the artillery belched away at the enemy,
shells were bursting over their breastworks, the smoke of the battle
was ascending, and for a few moments the scene was one of appalling
grandeur. Not a man flinched, and the fire of the enemy was
returned with deadly effect. Wherever a head appeared above the
parapet it became the mark for a hundred guns. Finding that rebel
reinforcements were still advancing, and despairing of a successful
assault with the bayonet, Colonel Lord retired with his men, who
brought most of their wounded comrades away with them.
The loss of the Federals in this engagement was between thirty and
forty killed, and one hundred and thirty-two wounded and missing.
The object of the demonstration was fully accomplished, the rebels
being compelled to relinquish their work, and abandon it as a
defensive position. Their loss was not ascertained, but it must have
been very considerable, their number being large, and the firing of
the Federal gunners fatally precise. Captain Wheeler reported that he
fired 313 shots, 126 of which were case shot, the remainder shell.
Ayers’ and Kennedy’s batteries threw about 450, and Captain Mott
reported 954, making more than 1,700 shot and shell hurled upon
the rebels. The behavior of the Federal troops was excellent, and the
event of the day successful, although the object was dearly
purchased.
 CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS.

BOMBARDMENT OF FORTS JACKSON AND

ST. PHILIP.
April 18–26, 1862.
The work of opening the Mississippi river, which had been so
magnificently commenced and prosecuted by that portion of the
army and fleet above Memphis, was destined to find an equally
imposing, if not more brilliant counterpart, in the naval operations
near the city of New Orleans, once more to open that important
commercial point to the world, and restore its citizens to the
protection of the national flag. As an important auxiliary to this
grand enterprise, a fleet of mortar-boats was fitted out in Brooklyn,
N. Y., and other places, which formed a rendezvous at Ship Island,
awaiting orders. Commodore David D. Porter was assigned to the
command of the mortar fleet. The entire fleet, under the command of
Commodore D. G. Farragut, was composed as follows:
 SECTION OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER.

SHOWING THE DISTANCES BELOW

NEW ORLEANS.

First Division of Ships, Flag-officer D. G. Farragut, commanding

—Hartford, R. Wainright; Brooklyn, Craven; Richmond, Alden.
Second Division of Ships—Pensacola, Morris; Portsmouth,
Swartwout; Mississippi, Smith.
First Division of Gunboats, Captain T. Bailey—Oneida, Lee;
Varuna, Boggs; Katahdin, Preble; Kineo, Ransom; Wissahickon,
Smith; Cayuga, Harrison.
Second Division of Gunboats, H. H. Bell—Iroquis, De Camp;
Sciota, Donaldson; Kennebeck, Russell; Pinola, Crosby; Itasca,
Cauldwell; Winona, Nichols. Total, 18.
The mortar flotilla consisted of twenty-one brigs and schooners,
and was divided into three squadrons of seven each. Besides these,
five steamers, the Harriet Lane, (flag-ship,) Miami, Owasco,
Westfield, and Clifton, were connected with the mortar flotilla, and
these were afterwards joined by the Octorora, a new boat,
commanded by Captain George Brown, of Indiana, which afterwards
became Porter’s flag-ship.
The entire fleet, thus constituted, numbered forty-six vessels,
carrying two hundred and eighty-six guns. On the morning of April
16th, it made a rendezvous in the river, at a distance of about four
miles below Forts Jackson and St. Philip, the two formidable
fortifications on the river, which it was necessary to pass before
reaching the city of New Orleans. On the morning of the 16th,
Commodore Porter brought up several schooners, and stationed
them about two miles and a half from the forts, in order to ascertain
the range of the mortars before opening the bombardment. After
several hours of practice, in which the range was admirably obtained,
and the execution on the works was plainly visible, Commodore
Porter expressed himself fully satisfied, and suspended operations
for the night.
Fort Jackson, which is by far the stronger work, is a regular
pentagonal bastioned fortification, having two fronts bearing on the
river, and three on the land side. The land fronts have each a glacis
and covered way, and the channel is commanded by a battery of
twenty-five guns. A wet ditch, from forty to seventy feet wide, and six
feet deep, surrounds the main work on the river, and a similar ditch,
one hundred and fifty feet wide, the land fronts. There is also a wet
ditch, six feet deep, and thirty feet wide, around the channel-bearing
battery. The two channel-bearing fronts have each eight casemated
guns, which are the only casemated ones in the work. The ditches are
defended by twenty-four-pounder howitzers at either flank. The
parapet is carried across the gorge of the bastion, so that there is no
flank parapet defence. The bastions are only arranged for musketry
fire from the walls. The main work of the lower battery mounts in the
aggregate one hundred and twenty-five guns, of which one hundred
bear on the channel. There was a one-story brick citadel within the
fort, having two tiers of loop-holes for musketry defence, the walls of
which are five feet thick. The entrance to the work is by a wooden
bridge on the west side, connected with a draw bridge ten feet wide.
Fort St. Philip consists of a main work and two attached batteries,
which bear respectively up and down the river. The principal work is
irregular in form, having seventeen faces. It is surrounded by a wet
ditch six feet deep, and from twenty to thirty feet wide. At the foot of
the glacis is a ditch from seventy to one hundred and forty feet wide.
There is a glacis and covered way entirely around the fort. Outside of
the principal ditch is another, which was dug to furnish earth for the
levee, and this is twenty feet wide, and four feet deep. Fort St. Philip
mounts one hundred guns, of which seventy-five bear on the
channel. All the guns were mounted en barbette. The scarp works
were strengthened by relief arches, which were pierced with loop-
holes for musketry.
Both forts are built of brick. The guns of Fort Jackson are twenty-
five feet above the level of the river, and those of St. Philip nineteen
feet. The guns of the outer batteries of both forts are fourteen feet
above the river. When the rebels took possession of these forts there
were only thirty-six guns mounted, none of which were of larger
calibre than thirty-two-pounders. All the carriages were poor. The
plans for completing these forts were taken from the Custom house
at New Orleans, just after the rebellion broke out, and the works
were finished in accordance with the original intention. From centre
to centre of the forts the distance is three-quarters of a mile, and the
river between them half a mile in width.
On the 17th the rebels commenced their defence against the
Federal fleet, by sending down the stream a fire raft. This incendiary
messenger was a common flat-boat, about one hundred and fifty feet
long, fifty broad and eight deep, filled with pine knots and other
combustible matter, which burned fiercely, and sent a dense column
of black smoke rolling heavily upwards as it was borne along by a
fresh breeze that blew up the river. As soon as the raft floated near
enough it was fired into and destroyed, without damage to the fleet,
and then ran ashore. It was a timely warning to the squadron, for
during the day the vessels were fitted up with grapnel-ropes, fire-
buckets, axes and other appliances with which to attack other of
these fiery islands that might be set adrift by the enemy.
The arrangements were scarcely completed, and the review made,
when, about ten o’clock at night, a brilliant fire appeared on the
river, flaming out from a heavy dense column of smoke, which rolled
up and displayed another of the fiery pioneers of the rebel flotilla
lying near the forts. It burned magnificently, and made a splendid
pyrotechnic display for the sailors, who were waiting impatiently to
reach the grand magazine whence it issued. Signals were made, and
in a few moments a vast crowd of boats were launched upon the
waters and moved rapidly toward the island of fire. The Westfield
came plowing her way up and plunged her prow into the blazing
mass, at the same moment opening her steam-pipes and pouring a
heavy force of water into the hottest of the conflagration. Amid the
steam and smoke and seething struggle of the flames, the men leaped
upon the raft with their buckets, and completely extinguished the
fire. Then the blackened and smoking mass of logs was sent
contemptuously adrift to follow its companion.
The sailors of the mortar fleet enjoyed this amusement with the
greatest zest, and pursued their work among the logs with laughter
and enthusiastic cheering. When the floating monster had been sent
blackened and smoking down the river, they retired to their various
boats and slept soundly in preparation for the contest of the
following day.
On the mortar fleet a portion of the day was given to the very
singular duty of disguising the vessels. Large quantities of branches
were cut from the forest trees on the banks of the river, which were
bound with all their fresh leaves to the masts, rigging, and around
the hulls. This was so adroitly done that from the distance it was
impossible to distinguish the fleet from the groups of trees on the
banks, thus concealing the position of the vessels entirely from the
enemy.
On the following morning, Good Friday, April 18th, at early dawn,
the towing vessels of Commodore Porter’s fleet took each five mortar
boats, and proceeded up the river to their fighting station. The fleet
thus in motion presented a splendid spectacle—the noble steamers
leading a group of vessels, each embowered in green, as though some
oasis of lofty trees had migrated from their forest home and were on
an excursion to a distant shore. The larger number were anchored on
the right bank of the river, while five were put in position on the left
bank.
At nine o’clock precisely, and before all the mortar boats had taken
their position, the rebels opened fire. It was instantly returned by the
mortars, and the grandest naval engagement of the war, and one of
the most memorable bombardments in the history of the world
commenced.
 For some time the fire of the forts fell short of the range, but after
about an hour their shot passed over the vessels and fell harmless
beyond the fleet. The mortar practice for the first half hour exhibited
a similar defect, but the range was then obtained, and the bombs fell
thick and fast over and around the entrenched foe. At ten o’clock the
Iroquois, Cayuga, Sciota and Wissahickon opened upon the forts
with their 11-inch shells and fifteen-second fuses.
The scene now became one of thrilling grandeur. The loud roar of
the mortars as they hurled their immense projectiles into the air, the
quick succession of guns from the war ships, and the rapid
discharges from the forts in reply; the flashes of fire, the clouds of
smoke, as they rolled blackly together, filling the air, and the shells
flying up to a great altitude, then pencilling their arching line against
the blue sky as they sped to their mark, passing and repassing in
almost momentary rapidity, presented a spectacle awfully sublime.
At times eight or ten of the destructive missiles were to be seen
rushing away on their errands of death and destruction at the same
moment, sometimes exploding and scattering the fragments in wide
circles over the water, throwing it up in vast silver columns, or on the
shore plowing up the earth and sending soil and foliage in thick
masses high in the air.
The rebels diversified their operations during the day by again
sending two immense fire-rafts down the river, which would have
occasioned much confusion among the fleet, but for the precautions
already taken, and the previous experience of the sailors in the
reception of these pyrotechnic visitors. The sailors not employed at
the guns were allowed to witness the contest from the yards and
rigging of the vessels. As soon as the rafts appeared they were called
down from their places, manned the boats, and soon piloted these
burning islands to the shore, where they were left to smoulder away
for the entertainment of the fleet. These rafts were now regarded as a
side-play. At six o’clock Fort Jackson was reported to be on fire, and
at half-past six the Harriet Lane signalled the mortar boats to cease
firing. Two of these boats were struck during the day. The cabin of
one was destroyed by a shot, and a ball plunged through the
magazine of another which sent her out of the action for an hour in
order to make repairs. The men on board had been exhausted by
their heavy labors, and when the night came they were heartily glad
to rest.
A morning of serene beauty dawned upon the fleet, with a light
south-east wind, that gradually increased in volume till about ten
o’clock. Notwithstanding the breeze, the sun was warm, and the heat
sometimes oppressive. At half-past six the mortar boats opened the
bombardment. The fire at first was slow, and the vessels which were
on the left bank of the river the day before, were placed in position
on the other bank near the anchorage. At seven o’clock the gunboats
Oneida, Pinola and Sciota were sent up to support and cover the
mortar vessels, while the Wissahickon and Cayuga were relieved—
having been on duty twenty-four hours. As soon as these vessels had
opened fire, Fort Jackson replied from her casemate guns, and kept
up a very heavy fire.
At half-past eleven o’clock a rifle shot went through the schooner
Maria J. Carlton, and she sunk in about twenty minutes. Everything
was saved from her except the mortar, and only two or three men
were injured slightly by splinters.
Just after the sinking of the M. J. Carlton the gunboats Itasca and
Kineo were ordered into close action, the Owasco being sent up by
Captain Porter to assist. The firing now was frequent and terrific.
Each moment it seemed as if some one of the boats must be sunk.
The Oneida attracted much attention by her coolness and her heavy
fire. At two o’clock she was struck twice, one ten-inch solid shot from
a Columbiad striking a thirty-two pounder gun-carriage and
knocking off one of the trucks, and passing out of the ship on the
port side. Shortly afterwards another shot of the same description hit
the forward part of the starboard after port, striking the carriage of
an eleven-inch pivot gun and then lodging on deck. This shot
wounded nine men, but none mortally. One poor fellow lost his left
hand. The pivot gun of the Oneida was not injured, but the pivot rail
was slightly damaged, and to repair it she hauled out of action.
At about half-past three o’clock the firing from the forts began to
slacken. At four o’clock Fort Jackson was silent, and only the water
battery and Fort St. Philip were at work. The mortar shells were
falling all around the fort. One appeared to fall into the water battery
soon afterward, and silenced it. The gunboats were throwing shells
with fine effect, the Kineo in particular. At five o’clock General Butler
and his staff went on board the Hartford to confer with Commodore
Farragut, and at half-past six the signal was given to discontinue the
firing.
A number of men were wounded during the day, and were placed
on board of the Katahdin, to be conveyed to the hospital at Pilot
Town, down the river.
Night closed around the fleet as it lay at its moorings. The mortar-
boats kept up the firing during the night at stated intervals, by
divisions, and so continued until the morning of Sunday, the 20th,
when the contest was renewed on both sides, with the same zeal and
industry as had marked the bombardment of the first two days.
During the forenoon a deserter from Fort Jackson came to the shore,
and hailed one of the mortar vessels. A boat was immediately
dispatched to him, and he was taken on board the Harriet Lane,
where he had an interview with Commodore Porter. He was a citizen
of Pennsylvania, and reported that great execution had been done by
the well-directed fire of the fleet.
Commodore Farragut began to fear, from the protracted resistance
of the forts, that they would hold out so long that the supply of shells
and material of the fleet would become exhausted, and the enterprise
result in a simple blockade. He therefore issued orders for running
the forts, at an early opportunity, and arranged the vessels in several
divisions for this important undertaking, when the signal should be
given to move. While passing the forts, Commodore Porter’s mortar
fleet were to engage the batteries, in order to distract and divide the
fire of the forts.
During the afternoon, Fort Jackson suspended its fire, but Fort St.
Philip sent its iron messengers about the fleet in a perfect hail,
without, however, doing much injury. After continuing this work for
a short time the fire was slackened, and gradually fell off, a shot only
being sent at long intervals.
During the afternoon preparations were made for removing the
obstructions which the rebels had placed in the river. The principal
of these was a strong and heavy iron chain thrown across the stream,
supported by six or eight vessels, which formed a line across from
shore to shore. Beyond this battery, and above the forts, lay a fleet of
eighteen gunboats, and a monster ram, called the Manassas, a
massive and heavily mailed vessel, built expressly for running down
and destroying any vessel that it might attack.
About two o’clock the expedition to accomplish this work started
on its errand. The night was as dark as could be desired, and, closely
watched by the fleet, the Itasca and Pinola left their moorings to cut
the chain, and, if possible, destroy some of the vessels supporting it.
At a given signal the mortar vessels, which had been keeping up a
slow fire, opened a tremendous volley of shell, presenting a spectacle
which has seldom been witnessed in naval warfare. The sky was like
a vast arch in conflagration from the explosions of the shells, which
vaulted upwards, and fell in a meteoric shower upon the forts. From
three to eight or ten were in the air almost all the time, and the
beauty and grandeur of this vast pyrotechnic display was heightened
by the use of the Caston signal lights. Dimly in the distance could be
seen the Iroquois, Winona, and Kennebec, who were in the advance
of the mortar fleet. A signal light was sent up from Fort Jackson, and
both forts opened fire with all their heavy guns.
An hour was spent in this manner, when the Pinola sent a boat
down to report that the chain was cut, and that the Itasca was ashore.
The forts had slackened their fire, and there was good cause to fear
that if she were not rescued before the moon rose, she would be
captured by the rebels. Orders were immediately sent to the picket
boats, which repaired to her aid, and although the project of blowing
up some of the supporting schooners was not accomplished, the
vessels all returned in safety, having cleared the river of its barrier.
The mortar fleet then subsided into the accustomed routine of a
bombshell at regular intervals, to prove to the rebels at the forts that
their visitors were at the post of duty.
At two o’clock on Monday morning, the 21st, the moon rose clear
and beautiful, lighting up the entire scene. It was the fourth day of
the bombardment, and with accustomed promptitude the
entertainment of the day commenced with a fire raft, sent down the
river from Fort Jackson, larger and more formidable than any that
had preceded it. The current was running swiftly, the wind was fresh,
and the blazing mass sped fiercely over its watery pathway. It burned
with terrific fury, a high wind sweeping its flames back in fiery
banners; while the pine knots, crackling and roaring, sent their
forked flames leaping like tongues of fire through the dense column
of smoke which rolled its huge black pall against the azure of the sky,
as it floated past the fleet, scattering a storm of harmless fire on the
water. The mortar boats took it in charge, and the men fell to work
extinguishing the flames. When this was done it was towed ashore to
keep company with its forerunners, a harmless, charred mass of
timbers.
During the day the bombardment was continued. The forts for a
time responded with more determination even than they had
previously exhibited. Attempts were made by the rebels to repair the
massive fragments of the chain, and to destroy one of the Federal
vessels by a submarine torpedo, but without success. The fifth day
proved like the others, but it became apparent that the crisis of the
contest was approaching. The mortar boats continued their usual
practice during the night, and on the return of day, (Wednesday, the
23d,) renewed the severer labors of the bombardment.
There was an ominous silence on the part of the forts. The look-
outs at the mast-heads reported that the shells were doing their work
at Fort St. Philip, and that there were twelve steamers in sight. The
forts maintained profound silence during the day, and this
circumstance occasioned much discussion on the Federal vessels. On
consideration, it was deemed that the time had come to hazard an
attempt to run the forts, destroy the rebel fleet, and ascend to New
Orleans. The Itasca was selected as the picket boat, to advance and
ascertain whether the chain had been repaired; and the fleet of ships
and gunboats was alive with enthusiasm and excitement, at the
prospect of running the gauntlet of fire which would be opened on
either side when their desperate attempt became known. Not only
were the two forts to be passed, but the rebel fleet, with its monster
of destruction, the Manassas, and the fire-rafts which would be let
loose upon them, to spread conflagration and death in their most
fearful forms: while a foe desperate with energy and hate, was
working the formidable engines of destruction.
At eleven o’clock, P. M., the Itasca signalled that the chain was clear.
Everything was quiet around the fleet, save the hissing of the steam
as it escaped from the boilers. The night was moderately dark, and a
gentle southerly wind made the weather rather hazy. The mortar
vessels kept up an incessant roar, and bright globes ascended high
aloft to curve downward in fury at the forts. The second division,
under Captain Bailey (of the Colorado), formed on the left bank of
the river, while the third division was in the centre of the lines—the
first division lying on the right bank of the river.
The fleet was to sail in the following order:—
First Division—Flag-officer Farragut commanding: Hartford,
Brooklyn, Richmond.
Second Division—Captain Bailey commanding: Cayuga, Pensacola,
Mississippi, Oneida, Varuna, Katahdin, Kineo, Wissahickon,
Portsmouth, towed by J. P. Jackson.
Third Division—Captain Bell commanding: Sciota, Iroquois,
Pinola, Itasca, Winona, Kennebec.
At one o’clock all hands were called, hammocks stowed, and
everything put in readiness to weigh.
At two o’clock on the morning of the 24th, red lights at the peak of
the Hartford announced the time to get underweigh. At three o’clock
the moon rose, and a silvery path was marked out on the swift waters
of the river, so soon to be the scene of one of the grandest naval
fights known to history. The moon had lifted itself above the horizon
just thirty minutes, when the fleet sailed in order for the battle-
ground. In the dim distance could be seen the signal fires of the
enemy, built to light up the river, and reveal the position of the fleet.
At precisely twenty minutes of four o’clock the enemy opened fire
from Fort St. Philip. At that moment the star-spangled banner was
hoisted at the peak of the Hartford. Full speed was given to the ship,
the engineers performed their duty nobly, and on she went, as it
were, into the jaws of death. At the time the enemy opened fire the
mortar vessels went to work, and the rapidity with which they threw
shells at the enemy was terrific.
At five minutes to four o’clock the bow gun of the Hartford belched
forth fire and smoke, and a messenger, in the shape of a nine-inch
shell, was sent to Fort Jackson. In a few minutes more the broadside
firing was commenced. Both forts were replying as fast as they could.
Broadside after broadside was delivered to them in rapid succession,
while the mortar vessels lent their aid to make the scene one of
wonderful grandeur.
 BOMBARDMENT OF FORTS
JACKSON AND ST. PHILIP,
APRIL 24, 1862.

1. Fort Jackson.
2. Fort St. Philip.
3. Federal Ships of War and Gunboats.
4. Rebel Gunboats and Rams.

A scene like this has probably never before been witnessed.

Steadily the vessels steamed on, the forts firing rifle shot and shell,
ten-inch columbiads, forty-two, thirty-two and twenty-four pounder
balls, while the thirteen steamers of the enemy, and the floating
battery Louisiana, were pouring into and around the fleet a storm of
iron perfectly indescribable. Not satisfied with this, one fire raft after
another was kindled, and set adrift to do their fiery work. The ram
was busy trying to force them under the bows of the Federal vessels.
One of them approached the Hartford, when Captain Broome opened
on her with two nine-inch guns. An explosion—a loud burst of terrific
cries and wails,—a careen, and the rebel steamer, with its wretched
multitude of victims, plunged beneath the waters, and disappeared
from view. The rebel vessels were crowded with troops, who fired
volleys of rifle balls, most of which did no harm. Their steamers were
bold and fearless; but no sooner did they come in sight of our
gunners than they were sunk. The Varuna sunk six of them one after
another.
In the midst of this awful scene a tremendous fire raft came down
the river, and the ram shoved her under the port-quarter of the
Hartford. The flames caught her rigging and side, and for a moment
it seemed as though the flag-ship must fall a prey to the flames. A fire
was also burning on the berth-deck. The fire hose was on hand, and
the crew soon subdued the flames, and gave the ram a return of rifle
shell. She, however, returned to the onset, when some other vessel
assaulted her, and she hauled off. During this stage of affairs the
Hartford grounded, and her fate seemed to be sealed; but the men
worked splendidly, and the engineers soon got the ship astern and
afloat. The scene of the engagement at this time almost defies the
power of description. The river and its banks were one sheet of
flame, and the messengers of death were moving with lightning
swiftness in all directions. Steadily the Federal fleet poured upon the
enemy their shell and grape, interspersed with shrapnel. The rebel
boats were fast being riddled by well directed broadsides, and their
commanders who were able made for the shore to run them on the
bank and save their lives. Some were on fire and others were sinking.
The crews of the Union fleet broke out in frequent cheers as they saw
the havoc that was made, and the retreat of the rebel vessels. The
flag-ship had been on fire three times, and was riddled from stem to
stern. The cabin was completely shattered, the starboard steerage
torn up, and the armory severely damaged.
After being under a terrific fire for one hour and twenty minutes,
the Federal vessels passed the forts. The flag-ship was badly cut up
with a shot through the mainmast, two in the stern, and several
through her. Language cannot give an adequate idea of the
engagement. Wrapped up in smoke, shot and shell were whistling
around, above, before and in the rear; flames from fire-rafts
encircling the ships, splinters flying in all directions, shells bursting
overhead; while the roar and booming of the guns rolled almost
incessantly, and made the contest as destructive as it was terrible.
So effective had been the work of the fleet, that at half-past five
o’clock no less than eleven rebel steamers were in flames along each
side of the river. The Federal vessels steamed up to the Quarantine to
anchor, when the Manassas made her appearance, and saucily fired
at the Richmond.
The Mississippi being near at hand, put about for the ram, with the
intention of running her down. The Manassas endeavored to elude
the attack, but finding the Mississippi gaining on her, ran into the
bank of the river, and immediately about thirty men came up out of
the hatch and went on shore. The Mississippi fired two or three
broadsides into her, and boarded her, but finding that she was of no
importance, again fired into her, and she drifted down the river,
sinking very fast.
Besides the ram, the rebels had a heavy floating battery, called the
Louisiana, which carried eight large guns, and which occasioned a
good deal of annoyance, although, to use the language of the
Charleston Mercury, it was a complete failure. In addition to this,
they had an immense steam-ram, called the Mississippi, which had
just been launched, but which was then unfinished. She was a
propeller, with three screws and six engines, and to be mounted with
twenty guns of the largest calibre. She was twice as large and
powerful as the Merrimac, and without a gun would have been
almost sufficient to have run down the Federal fleet. There was,
however, about forty days’ work required to complete her, and to
prevent her falling into the hands of the victors, she was scuttled, set
on fire and sunk.
At six A. M., the Varuna, Commander Boggs, was attacked by the
Morgan, iron-clad about the bow, commanded by Beverly Kennion,
an ex-naval officer. This vessel raked her along the port gangway,
killing four and wounding nine of the crew, butting the Varuna on
the quarter, and again on the starboard side. Three three-inch shells
were fired into her abaft her armor, also several shot from the after
rifled gun, when she dropped out of action, partially disabled.
While still engaged with her, another rebel steamer, iron-clad, with
a prow under water, struck the Varuna in the port gangway, doing
considerable damage. The Varuna’s shot glanced from her bow. She
backed off for another blow, and struck again in the same place,
crushing in the side; but by going ahead fast, the concussion drew
her bow around, and the Varuna was able with the port guns to give
her, while close alongside, five eight-inch shells abaft her armor. This
settled her and drove her ashore in flames. Finding the Varuna
sinking, she was run into the bank, when they let go her anchor, and
tied her up to the trees. During all this time the guns were actively at
work, crippling the Morgan, which was making feeble efforts to get
up steam.
The fire was kept up until the water was over the gun-trucks, when
attention was turned to getting the wounded and the crew out of the
vessel. The Oneida, Captain Lee, seeing the condition of the Varuna,
had rushed to her assistance, but was not needed, and the Morgan
surrendered to her, having over fifty of her crew killed and wounded.
She was set on fire by her commander.
In fifteen minutes from the time the Varuna was struck, she was
on the bottom, with only her topgallant forecastle out of water. The
officers and crew lost everything they possessed, no one thinking of
leaving his station until driven thence by water.
The Federal vessels made their rendezvous at the Quarantine,
some miles above the forts, and took possession of the camp of the
Chalmette regiment of rebel sharpshooters, some of whom escaped,
while the others surrendered, and were paroled. The officers were
taken to the flag-ship and paroled. The wounded men of the various
ships were now carefully attended to. The heroic dead who had fallen
in defence of their flag were taken ashore, and laid in their last
resting-place, in a manner worthy of the cause in which they had
shed their blood, and the national flag was left floating over their
graves. The Federal loss was 30 killed and 120 wounded. The loss of
the rebels was very severe, some of the estimates making it as high as
800 or 1,000 in killed and wounded.
 THE SURRENDER OF THE FORTS.
When the fleet started in its attempt to pass the forts, the mortar
vessels opened a tremendous fire, which was continued until five
o’clock, when they were signalled to cease. During the forenoon,
Commodore Porter dispatched Captain Grant, in the Owasco, with a
flag of truce, to demand the surrender of the forts. The vessel
approached Fort St. Philip to within about a mile, when the batteries
were opened upon her and five shots were fired, upon which she
withdrew. The flag of truce was hauled down, but soon afterwards a
boat flying a flag of truce at her bows, and the secession flag at her
stern, approached, and Captain Grant went out and held a
conference with the rebel officer. He offered an apology in behalf of
his superior officer for the unintentional firing upon the flag of truce,
declaring that its color had not been seen, and could not be
distinguished in the distance. He then returned to the fort, and the
bombs again commenced their thunders, which lasted until
Commodore Porter ordered the fleet down the river.
Oh the 25th, Commodore Porter sent six of the mortar vessels to
guard the bayous in the rear of Fort Jackson, when three of them, the
Henry Janes, Kittatinny and Geo. W. Maryham, on the 26th, drifted
off to Fort Livingston, a stronghold of the rebels, guarding one of the
passages. There was a flag of truce flying on the fort, and on boats
being sent ashore, they found the place deserted by all except several
men, women and children, who resided on the island. The Federals
found eleven 32-pounders, three 12-pound howitzers, two 24-
pounders, one 8-inch columbiad, one 80-pound rifled cannon, one
thousand 32-pound shot, and other articles of minor importance.
The fort was in good condition, with all its property. It was left in
charge of Acting Master Tamsen, of the U. S. navy.
On the 28th, Lieutenant-Colonel Higgins, commanding the forts,
sent a communication to the Commodore, offering to surrender. The
Harriet Lane (flag-ship) accordingly steamed up to the forts, and
received the commander on board, when the articles of capitulation
were drawn up and signed. Not to prolong the contest by very
exacting terms, Commodore Porter received the forts and property,
and allowed Brigadier-General Duncan, commander of coast
defences, and Lieutenant-Colonel Higgins, commanding the forts, to
retain their side arms, under parole. The other officers and privates
were to retire on parole, giving up all arms and accoutrements, the
United States to transport the men from the forts.
Three steamers of the rebel fleet remained, and were under the
direction of Commander J. K. Mitchell. Lieutenant-Colonel Higgins
said he had no command over them, and was not responsible for
their conduct. While the flag of truce was up, and the capitulation
was under conference, they towed the iron floating battery,
Louisiana, to a place above the forts, set it on fire, and turned it adrift
upon the Federal fleet. The guns soon becoming heated, began to
discharge, throwing their shot around the river, and in a little while
the battery itself exploded with a terrific report, scattering the
fragments all over the river, and wounding one of their own men in
Fort St. Philip.
As soon as the terms of capitulation were concluded and signed,
Commodore Porter started for the rebel fleet. One vessel had been
sunk by the Federal guns during the consultation, and another was
taken by the Commodore. He immediately put the officers in close
confinement, for the attempt to blow up the Federal vessels while
under the flag of truce.
While the reduction and surrender of the forts was effected
apparently by the fleet, it was evident that they could have held out
in defiance of the bombardment for an indefinite period. The
successful passage of the gunboat fleet threw an immense force
above the forts, while a competent force remained below. In addition
to this, General Butler had succeeded in finding a passage for a
portion of his land forces through the channels in the rear of Fort St.
Philip, and thus threatened the forts in a direction where they were
easily vulnerable. Under these circumstances a considerable part of
the garrison revolted, on the night of the 27th, refused to serve, and
demanded a surrender, because defence was no longer of the least
service to their main purpose, that of defending the approach to the
city. The discontented part of the troops, about two hundred in
number, were permitted to leave the fort, and they proceeded to the
Quarantine and gave themselves up to General Butler. This timely
co-operation of General Butler led to the decision of the commander,
and on the following morning the capitulation was completed, and
the national flag was restored to the walls of Forts Jackson and St.
Philip.
The forts were placed in command of General Phelps. Fort Jackson
suffered most from the bombardment, the chief object being to
compel its surrender, Commodore Porter knowing that the other
would inevitably follow. Nearly 8,000 shells and round shot were
thrown from the Federal fleet, of which more than 2,000 fell into or
exploded over the forts. More than 1,100 were counted on the ground
near the forts, lying around after the capture.