Sustainability in Developing Countries

Case Studies from Botswana s journey

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Keitumetse
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Susan Osireditse Keitumetse
Luc Hens
David Norris Editors

Sustainability
in Developing
Countries
Case Studies from Botswana’s journey
towards 2030 Agenda
Sustainability in Developing Countries
Susan Osireditse Keitumetse • Luc Hens
David Norris
Editors

Sustainability in Developing
Countries
Case Studies from Botswana’s journey
towards 2030 Agenda
Editors
Susan Osireditse Keitumetse Luc Hens
Okavango Research Institute (ORI) Department of Economics,
University of Botswana Entrepreneurship and
Maun, Botswana Business-Administration
Sumy State University
David Norris Sumy, Ukraine
University of Botswana
Vlaamse Instelling voor Technologisch
Gaborone, Botswana
Brussels, Belgium

ISBN 978-3-030-48350-0    ISBN 978-3-030-48351-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48351-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
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Preface

The year 2020 marks the ten-year period before 2030 agenda for sustainable devel-
opment (SD) elapses. This timeframe has been declared “A Decade of Action for the
Sustainable Development Goals” by United Nations Secretary-General. During this
period, 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) and their 169 targets adopted in
2015 must be delivered worldwide. Baseline knowledge becomes necessary in this
regard. This book volume is produced as an effort to add to the decade of action for
SDGs by addressing the task of “engagement of stakeholders”—whereby African
academic publishing provides the voice (experiences as outlined by authors) that
propels action with direction. This mode of sustainability reporting is lacking in
most African regions.
The United Nations Secretary-General, Antonio Gutteres, in his 2019 address to
a High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development said: “I am calling on
civil society, grassroot organizations, media, private sector, unions, academia and
others to mobilize partnerships like never before” (https://www.un.org/sg/en/con-
tent/sg/speeches/2019-09-24/remarks-high-level-political-sustainable-develop-
ment-forum). This publication adds this call by contributing knowledge that feeds
into actions toward the 2030 agenda.
Although the African continent hosts a hub of experiences with potential to pro-
vide quality case studies for the content of the 17 SDGs, African academia lacks
behind in contributing knowledge for solutions to global challenges. This is mainly
because African academics struggle to secure quality publishing platforms such as
Springer, the one hosting contributions in this book. Therefore, the publication of
this volume is a step forward in adding the African experience to tackling global
sustainability discourse.
The SDGs were developed in 2012 at the Rio Conference on Development and
Sustainable Development (https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/rio20) as a build
up from the eight Millennium Development Goals (https://www.un.org/millenni-
umgoals/) adopted in 2000. The SDGs were launched in 2015.
Contributions in this book volume provide a “dialogue with stakeholders” aspect
of sustainability reporting. In addition, the book illustrates the potential of academic
publishing to supplement and enhance conventional forms of sustainability

v
vi Preface

reporting in a developing African country such as Botswana. In engaging academic

publishing as an alternative platform through which state of country sustainability
is collated and described allows for more detailed descriptions and experiences on
the ground, as well as increases the diversity of stakeholders who become indepen-
dent “reporters” on topics addressed by the SDGs. The sample topics covered in this
volume illustrate this point well. Academic publishing therefore provides an alter-
native reporting platform that can be used to monitor the 2030 agenda.
The most conventional country experiences the achievement of SDGs usually
through a designated country’s government department in a ministry. For Botswana,
this is the task for the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (https://www.
bw.undp.org/content/botswana/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html;
Government of Botswana and United Nations Sustainable Development framework
(UNSDF), 2017–2021). Targeted reporting from other stakeholders such as aca-
demic research can also bring insights on sustainability tracking. Unlike country
reports, academic research on sustainability tracking can inform regional and conti-
nental perspectives. This approach resonates with the need to build local strategies
to achieve various SGDs as outlined by the United Nations.
Several stakeholders have made this book possible. In particular, we are grateful
to the contributors for working hard to provide content-rich topics for the manu-
script. We appreciate the publishing editor (Nitesh Shrivastava)’s patience and the
publisher’s willingness to put an African viewpoint on an international academic
platform. Earlier contribution by our colleague Dr Michael V. Flyman at the concep-
tual stage of this volume proposal is also acknowledged as it enriched the book
perspective.
We invite you to go through the book content and give feedback through various
online academic interaction channels.

Gaborone, Botswana David Norris

September 2020
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION – Sustainability Reporting in African

Countries: The Research Outlet Approach ������������������������������������������    1
Susan Osireditse Keitumetse, Luc Hens, and David Norris

Part I Biodiversity/Habitat
2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species
on Ecosystem Services in Botswana: A Review
on Prosopis juliflora and Salvinia molesta����������������������������������������������   11
Keotshephile Kashe, Roger Heath, Alison Heath, Demel Teketay,
and Benjamin O. Thupe
3 Nutrients in a Changing Environment:
Implications on the Sustainability of the Okavango Delta������������������   33
Oarabile Mogobe, Bernice Setomba,
and Wellington R. L. Masamba

Part II Water Management & Human-Wildlife Nexus

4 Changing the Scale and Nature of Artificial Water
Points (AWP) Use and Adapting to Climate Change
in the Kalahari of Southern Africa��������������������������������������������������������   51
J. S. Perkins
5 Sustainable Management of Water, Wildlife
and Agriculture in Botswana: The Case of Mmadinare Area��������������   91
Masego Ayo Mpotokwane, O. M. Modise, R. N. Lekoko,
and O. T. Thakadu

vii
viii Contents

Part III World Heritage

6 Linking African World Heritage and Sustainable Development:
Appraisal of Policies, Concepts, Principles and Approaches
to Agenda 2030 ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
Susan Osireditse Keitumetse
7 Land Use Planning, Land Development and Sustainable
Management of Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site,
Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe�������������������������������������������������������������� 131
Ashley L. C. Maganzo and Marlvern Mabgwe

Part IV Tourism
8 Sustainable Tourism and the SDG’s in Botswana:
Prospects, Opportunities and Challenges Towards 2030 �������������������� 153
Lesego S. Stone, Patricia K. Mogomotsi, Moren T. Stone,
Goemeone E. J. Mogomotsi, R. Malesu, and M. Somolekae

Part V Gender
9 Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) as a Gender Inequality Practice:
Applying Sustainable Development Goals �������������������������������������������� 185
Nankie M. Ramabu

Part VI Education
10 Environmental Sustainability Education:
Driving Towards Achieving SDG 4 Through Teacher Education�������� 207
Ntha Silo and M. J. Ketlhoilwe
11 Environmental Education in Botswana:
Successes and Constraints Towards the 2030 Agenda�������������������������� 225
Kgosietsile Velempini

Part VII Institutions
12 Conservation Challenges, Resource Management
and Opportunities to Sustain Wildlife Biodiversity
in the Kalahari: Insights from a Local NGO,
Cheetah Conservation Botswana������������������������������������������������������������ 243
L. K. Van der Weyde, J. Horgan, N. Ramsden, D. Thamage,
and R. Klein
13 Implementing Sustainable Development Goals
at Institutional Level: The Case of University of Botswana���������������� 265
Julius R. Atlhopheng, Bontle Mbongwe, and Thatayaone Segaetsho
Contents ix

14 Positioning the University of Botswana Towards

Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)������������������������ 281
Goemeone E. J. Mogomotsi, Patricia K. Mogomotsi,
and David Norris

Part VIII Concluding Chapter

15 Realizing Sustainable Development Goals
in the Southern Sub-Region of Africa���������������������������������������������������� 297
Luc Hens and Susan Osireditse Keitumetse

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 303
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION – Sustainability
Reporting in African Countries:
The Research Outlet Approach

Susan Osireditse Keitumetse, Luc Hens, and David Norris

Abstract Sustainability reporting in most developing countries is perceived to be the

sole responsibility of national governments. However, targeted reporting from other
stakeholders such as research for instance can also bring insights to sustainability
tracking that may complement the country perspectives. This layer adds to the
“Dialogue with stakeholders” aspect of conventional sustainability reporting. Unlike
country reports, research on sustainability tracking can cover regional as well as con-
tinental perspective of issues that are perceived as local. This mode of sustainability
reporting is lacking in most African countries. The chapters in this book present a
country research perspective on sustainability issues, outlining the situation on the
ground, as well as potential solutions towards the 2030 Agenda.

Keywords Research and sustainability · Developing countries · SD Goals ·

Botswana · Southern Africa

1.1 Background

This publication provides case studies from various stakeholders on experiences

and strategies that can allow for achievement of SDGs in developing countries.

S. O. Keitumetse (*)
Okavango Research Institute (ORI), University of Botswana, Maun, Botswana
e-mail: keitumetses@UB.AC.BW
L. Hens
Department of Economics, Entrepreneurship and Business-Administration,
Sumy State University, Sumy, Ukraine
Vlaamse Instelling voor Technologisch, Brussels, Belgium
D. Norris
University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
e-mail: norrisd@ub.ac.bw

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 1
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. O. Keitumetse et al. (eds.), Sustainability in Developing Countries,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48351-7_1
2 S. O. Keitumetse et al.

The 2030 Agenda was conceptualized at the United Nations Conference on

Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 2012 and has 17
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) together with 169 targets and at least 230
indicators. The SDGs are aimed at shaping public policy, achieving resource sus-
tainability as well as guiding the development of human beings in their geographic
setting.
The most conventional country experiences on achievement of SDGs is usually
through a designated country’s government department in a Ministry. For Botswana,
this is the task for the Ministry of Finance and Development Planning (ref weblink:
https://www.bw.undp.org/content/botswana/en/home/sustainable-development-­
goals.html; Government of Botswana and United Nations Sustainable Development
framework, UNSDF 2017 – 2021).
This form of reporting provides opportunities for easier monitoring of the 2030
sustainable development goals. However, this exercise is often the preserve of offi-
cial government reports, rather than an engagement of wider stakeholder descrip-
tion of their experiences, challenges and suggestions on way forward. This volume
is an example of how academia could supplement these existing forms through
which obligations to report on sustainability are4 monitored in a country and region.
The book provides a supplement to the conventional ‘state of environment’ reports.
By engaging academic publishing as a strategy through which state of country sus-
tainability is collated and described, the platform provides for more detailed descrip-
tions and experiences in the reports, and also increase the variety of stakeholders
who represent independent “reporters” on certain topics addressed by SDGs. This
provides another form of information that can subsequently be used to monitor the
2030 Agenda through stakeholders’ individual experiences at their local contexts.
This resonates with the building of local strategies (academic regional publishing
here being one), to achieve the various sustainable development goal (SGDs) out-
lined by the United Nations (UN).
Also, conventional country reports are more focused on generalized policy
directions and extrapolated implementation strategies; while academia, through
publishing does provide the framework for situation-analysis and grass-root expe-
riences per topic thus offering an opportunity for the Sustainable Development
milestones to be tracked. For instance, the adopted Cape Town Global Action plan
for Sustainable Development (https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/hlg/Cape-Town-Global-
Action-Plan) calls for traceable data/information on sustainable development. To
achieve this, countries must start with a coherent and documented discussion, and
in this regard partnership with academia in this project, through publishing
becomes important.
Literature with similar mode of reporting on sustainability issues (Publishing) in
Botswana has yielded books that can provide ideal material to compare progress or
lack thereof on certain issues of sustainability in the country. The following are
profiled:
• Atlhopheng, J., Molebatsi, C., Toteng, E., & Totolo, O. (1998). Environmental
issues in Botswana: a handbook. Lightsbooks.
1 INTRODUCTION – Sustainability Reporting in African Countries… 3

Environmental issues in Botswana: a handbook.

The book was produced for environmental education into the school curricula,
“…as a step towards augmenting teaching materials on Botswana’s environment.
Six environmental issues of major concern to the country were identified in
Botswana’s National Conservation Strategy: industrial and urban pollution; pres-
sure on water resources; rangeland degradation; depletion of wood resources; and
overuse of veld products (wild animals and wild plants, in particular wild food
plants and drug plants).” ISBN: 9991271058; Publisher: Lightsbooks
• Arntzen, J. W., & Veenendaal, E. M. (1986). A profile of environment and devel-
opment in Botswana. A profile of environment and development in Botswana.
The book provides a profile of environment and development in Botswana with
a focus on agriculture and economic development. As per the abstract:
This report analyses the major research findings on environment and development in
Botswana. It uses a sector-oriented approach. The report gives: (a) an overview of the state
of the environment in relation to economic development; (b) a review of major present and
anticipated environmental problems and of presently known options to remedy them; (c) a
survey of relevant legislation, institutions and development programs Record Number:
19876704565

This book volume is even more relevant for the relatively recent document
“Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development”, adopted
by the United Nations at its 70th session on 21st October 2015 General Assembly.
At this meeting, 17 sustainable development goals and 169 targets were outlined for
every country to implement (http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-
agenda/)

1.2 Aims and Objectives of This Publication Are:

(a) Provide a handbook of evidence of what takes place on the ground where imple-
mentation of the effaced MDGs and now the 2030 agenda for SD takes place.
(b) Illustrates the on-ground real-life experiences that provides challenges and
opportunities for the implementation of 2030 agenda for SD.
(c) Isolate (strip out) what takes place on the ground of an African country conser-
vation efforts versus what is expected within the 17 SDGs and 2030 agenda for
SD milestones.
(d) Provides a framework for alternative engagement by highlighting a somewhat
unique perspective of what transpires in African countries like Botswana. These
experiences can later be referred to when providing support to African countries
in their bid to achieve some of the sustainable development initiatives high-
lighted by the contributors.
4 S. O. Keitumetse et al.

1.3 Contents

The sample topics covered in this volume are as diverse as their contributors. Future
volumes could collate topics per each sustainable development goal to cover all the
seventeen (17) goas of the United Nations and increase the combination of stake-
holders at a country level. However, this runs the risk of similar repeated observa-
tions that can nonetheless be a good output necessary to emphasize scenarios on the
ground. One way to avoid similar conclusions from one country will be to make a
region-focused volume that illustrates case studies from various countries, e.g.
southern Africa and/or Sub-Saharan Africa.
Therefore, as tempting as it was to list the 17 SDGs as sub-themes; this publica-
tion allowed contributors the freedom to choose topics for submission so that they
reflect experiences on the ground as exhibited by the work of the authors. It is
important to note that as per majority of topics submitted, the issue of sustainability
is still highly associated with environment and education, and other areas such as
world heritage, gender, and others appear to be under-represented and still need to
be mainstreamed into the international policy framework.
Summary of themes that emanated from the various contributions are catego-
rized as habitat, water management and wildlife nexus; World Heritage; Tourism;
Gender; Education and Institutions.
The following are summaries of titles represented in the volume:
Chapter 2: Invasion by alien species in the Kalahari and the Okavango Delta envi-
ronments of Botswana is discussed and their impacts on ecosystem services out-
lined. Alien species potential to negatively impact sustainable development Goal
2 (food security) and associated is highlighted. The specific invasive plants
referred to in this chapter are Prosopis juliflora and aquatic weed, Salvinia
molesta on ecosystem services in Botswana. The authors observe that that P. juli-
flora has the potential to lower water table in water-limited ecosystems, resulting
in negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services, and in some areas, it
inhibits growth of keystone species hindering their capacity to provide services.
A Salvinia molesta invasion in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, has the potential
to decrease ecosystem services.
Chapter 3: With aquatic ecosystems facing multiple water quality threats, effective
management of water resources is therefore critical because water quality and
quantity are key drivers in maintaining ecosystem function and structure. This
chapter uses the Okavango Delta as a case study to assess the spatial and tempo-
ral variations of inorganic nitrates and phosphates species within as a way to
evaluate possible impact of reported land use changes on surface water quality
and sustainability of the Okavango delta. The assessment is important in contrib-
uting to knowledge relating to United Nations (UN) sustainable development
goal (SDG) #15
Chapter 4: By using a case on the impact artificial water provision (AWP) has had
upon the sustainable management of both livestock and wildlife populations in
the semi-arid savannahs of Botswana, this paper illustrates how the existing tools
1 INTRODUCTION – Sustainability Reporting in African Countries… 5

for conservation can only be meaningfully achieved when local communities are
rewarded for co-existing with African wildlife and protecting essential ecologi-
cal good and services. Topics covered include range management, livestock
populations, wildlife populations community-based conservation approaches
amongst others.
Chapter 5: The topic on human-wildlife interaction and its solution, is addressed by
several SDGs. Some of the possible impacts have been highlighted in this paper.
However, Impact Scenario 6, shows that climate change could trigger an intense
human wildlife interaction with negative consequences. This chapter uses
Mmadinare village, Botswana scenario to illustrate the dynamics between agri-
culture by locals, wildlife and water management by the Government. The
Mmadinare community, through the Mmadinare Development Trust, proposes a
co-existence benefit between human wildlife relationship to enable humans and
elephants to live side by side. The paper explored potential approaches to inte-
grate sustainability into local initiatives and challenges.
Chapter 6: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are now a common policy
framework amongst most countries. However, they are not mainstreamed into
most areas of conservation as they should be. Chapter 6 discusses the infusion of
SDGs in world heritage, with emphasis on cultural heritage resources. The ques-
tion of how compatible the platform of sustainable development is to African
heritage resources conservation and its development needs is deliberated on
through analysis of existing policies surrounding the topic. With African
resources largely embedded in people who through practical interaction with the
resources constantly produce and consume heritage, the chapter acknowledges
that indeed SD framework is important for heritage management because the
concept of needs and limitations embraced within the sustainable development
framework is applicable to African cultural heritage resources. As such, a call for
formulation, development and implementation of explicit cultural resources con-
servation indicators is made.
Chapter 7: This chapter focuses on a case study of a World Heritage site, Great
Zimbabwe ruins, to illustrate issues that arise as a result of failure to examine
conservation and management of African world heritage sites from a perspective
of land-use planning and development. Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site is
in the center of a contested landscape and as such, the lens of land-use planning
could bring a much-needed cooperation between stakeholders, resulting in sus-
tainable useof the monument. This study illustrates that Government’s desire to
present Great Zimbabwe World Heritage Site to an international audience has
nurtured the emergence of an economic value which has obscured other values
that need to be addressed to achieve a sustainable use of the landscape. For
instance, the proposed construction of Great Zimbabwe University campus by
Government within the vicinity of Great Zimbabwe World Heritage site became
an occurring concern during interviews with representatives of the local tradi-
tional chiefs. The general appreciation was that while this would have been an
invaluable idea for the development of Masvingo the city, the setting was inap-
propriate for the sacredness of the site.
6 S. O. Keitumetse et al.

Chapter 8: International environmental awards have demonstrated that Botswana

promotes tourism to stimulate rural development, encourage environmentally
sustainable development and to diversify the economy. This chapter uses this
status to analyze prospects, achievements and challenges to attaining sustainable
tourism in general, and how far the experiences have and can address the sustain-
able development goals going forward. The country has adopted a tourism policy
that promotes high-paying low-volume visitors (Government of Botswana,
1990) to its pristine natural areas to advance sustainability and conservation in
these biodiversity-rich spaces. In addition, the country promotes Community-­
Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) to encourage local communi-
ties to participate in conservation through Community Based Organizations.
Discussion in the chapter illustrate mixed scenarios that can be enhanced to
achieve SDGs mandate.
Chapter 9: The subject of gender equality, espoused in SDG 5, is commonly assessed
from factors such as access to employment and education by women and girls in
African contexts, and rarely from a perspective of child sexual abuse. This chap-
ter explores some gender elements that perpetuate CSA in Botswana by first
providing the background to CSA and development in the country. Ending all
forms of violence against children is discussed at a national level, with some
highlights illustrating that though certain laws were amended to enhance women
and children’s participation in decision making, the Botswana family system is
still gendered in a way that may provide fodder for women and children to expe-
rience violence from certain social customs that may negates the country’s aspi-
rations towards international treaties such as espoused in SDG5.
Chapter 10: The quality of teacher education is a key of sustainable education indi-
cator that is judged through equipping learners with appropriate skills and
­competences to respond to the environmental and socio-ecological risks that may
plight the nation. This chapter addresses education for sustainable development
(ESD) from perspective of environmental education and discusses how teacher
education can draw largely on SDG 4 and the Global Action Program (GAP)
priorities to realize the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. A case study of
the University of Botswana’s faculty of Education is used to illustrate how ESD
can be achieved at a university faculty level.
Chapter 11: While Chap. 10 focused on general aspects of quality education that
include environmental components, Chap. 11 takes a laser focus approach by
assessing several teaching approaches in pedagogical spaces of the Okavango
Delta schools in Botswana as indicators developed towards achievement of two
priority action areas of the Global Action Program of Education for Sustainable
Development, being (1) transforming learning and training environments and (2)
building capacities of educators and trainers. Assessment of teaching approaches
in pedagogical spaces is discussed as an essential initiative towards instilling
effective environmental education and attaining sustainability in local education.
Chapter 12: The role of NGOs in achieving sustainable development goals is
espoused in SDG 17 on partnerships. Cheetah Conservation Botswana (CCB) is
a not-for-profit organization that is applying a holistic approach to encourage
1 INTRODUCTION – Sustainability Reporting in African Countries… 7

community-based conservation in the Kalahari region of Botswana. CCB’s pri-

mary aim is to foster coexistence with cheetah and other large carnivores in the
district and the surrounding region, with a focus specifically in the non-protected
areas. A case study presented in this chapter is from the Kalahari areas of
Botswana, outlining activities undertaken by CCB, with a focus on the chal-
lenges and successes in reducing livestock loss, increasing tolerance towards
carnivores and adapting behaviors towards coexistence in the context of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). In particular, the chapter illustrates
examples that reflect key components related to sustainable use and management
of ecosystems (SDG #12 and #15) and awareness and education (SDG #3
and #4).
Chapter 13: In the advent of building knowledge economies, universities in Africa
are becoming key institutions in the implementation of SDGS. This chapter pro-
vides a case study of the University of Botswana (UB)’s efforts whereby the
University, in its partnership with the country’s government and other stakehold-
ers has established an SDGs hub. “The objective of the hub is to mainstream
SDGs into the institutional mandate, to enhance inclusive SDGs implementation
through amplifying the messages, connecting stakeholders and activities to
ensure impact”. Themes addressed by the hub are cross cutting such as commu-
nity development, health, education, technology, planning, sustainable develop-
ment and climate change, groundwater, policy analysis, and business programs.
Chapter 14: This chapter also uses the University of Botswana as a case study illus-
trating operational aspects of an African university and how they can be addressed
to position a University attaining both sustainability within its systems such as
finance and leadership.

References

Arntzen, J. W., & Veenendaal, E. M. (1986). A profile of environment and development in Botswana.
Amsterdam: Institute for Environmental Studies, Free University.
Atlhopheng, J., Molebatsi, C., Toteng, E., & Totolo, O. (1998). Environmental issues in Botswana:
A handbook. Gaborone: Lightsbooks.
Government of Botswana and United Nations Sustainable Development Framework (UNSDF)
2017–2021. https://www.bw.undp.org/content/botswana/en/home/library/un-publications/the-
government-of-botswana-and-united-nations-sustainable-develo.html. Accessed 30 Jan 2020.
Sustainable Development Goals. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-
agenda/. Accessed 30 Jan 2020.
The State of the Environment – Report of UNEP. Studies in Environmental Science, Volume
23, Issue null, Pages 33–45 Environment Liaison Centre. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0166-1116(08)71215-9
 Part I
Biodiversity/Habitat
Chapter 2
Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant
Species on Ecosystem Services
in Botswana: A Review on Prosopis
juliflora and Salvinia molesta

Keotshephile Kashe, Roger Heath, Alison Heath, Demel Teketay,

and Benjamin O. Thupe

Abstract Perceptions about the ability of alien species to provide superior ecosys-
tem services over the native species have motivated their importation and distribu-
tion across the world. While these species may be providing goods and services,
some have now escaped the area of their introduction and invaded other ecosystems
posing a threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services. Invasion by alien species
threaten achievement of Sustainable Development Goal 2 (food security), 6 (water
availability), 12 (sustainable consumption and production patterns) and 15 (protect-
ing ecosystems and forests). This article discusses the potential impact of terrestrial
invasive plant, Prosopis juliflora and aquatic weed, Salvinia molesta on ecosystem
services in Botswana. Information for this study was collected by review of aca-
demic journal articles on the invasiveness of P. juliflora and S. molesta and their
impacts on ecosystem services in Africa and other developing countries. The litera-
ture review has shown that P. juliflora has the potential to lower water table in water-­
limited ecosystems, resulting in negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem
services. In some countries P. julifolia inhibits growth of keystone species hindering
their capacity to provide services. A Salvinia molesta invasion in the Okavango
Delta, Botswana, has the potential to decrease ecosystem services. It will, thus,
impact negatively on the welfare of the riparian communities who depend on fishing
and tourist-related activities for their livelihoods. The review contributes towards
understanding of the impacts of terrestrial and aquatic invasive plant species on

K. Kashe (*) · B. O. Thupe

Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana, Maun, Botswana
e-mail: kkashe@ub.ac.bw
R. Heath · A. Heath
Plants and People Africa, London, UK
D. Teketay
Department of Crop Science and Production, Botswana University of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, Gaborone, Botswana

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 11
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
S. O. Keitumetse et al. (eds.), Sustainability in Developing Countries,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48351-7_2
12 K. Kashe et al.

ecosystem services, and importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services in

achievement of Sustainable Development Goals. The review further recommends
quantifiable monetary assessment of the services delivered by different ecosystems.
Such assessment provides information on the value of ecosystem services and can
yield information on how much is lost due to invasion by alien plant species.

Keywords Invasive species · Biodiversity · Ghanzi · Prosopis · Salvinia ·

Kgalagadi · Okavango Delta

2.1 Introduction

Traditionally, alien plants have always been favoured over the indigenous species
because of their potential to confer better production and economic benefits to com-
mercial enterprises such as the agricultural, horticultural, fibre production and orna-
mental plants industries (Ferdinands et al. 2011). In addition to these commercial
enterprises, importation of alien plants is also driven by the search for plants that
can mitigate the effects of climate change and restore degraded lands (Gordon et al.
2008; Ayanu et al. 2015). Most of these alien plants have been selected and bred to
be highly productive on marginal lands with limited inputs for economic benefits
(Meyerson 2008). These desirable agronomic traits, however, also enhance inva-
siveness (McCormick and Howard 2013). Most species thus introduced outside
their natural habitat have the inbuilt ability to grow vigorously, spread and outcom-
pete the native species in conducive environments (Chimera et al. 2010), possibly
due to the absence of natural enemies. Deliberate introductions of exotic plants for
research, horticulture and forestry have been cited as the major pathways for global
spread of alien invasive plants (Caley et al. 2006). In fact, these intentional introduc-
tions are more responsible for the introduction of invasive plants than accidental
introductions (Drew et al. 2010). While climate change may not necessarily influ-
ence biological invasions, it is likely to exacerbate the damage they cause (Mainka
and Howard 2010).
When a species is introduced outside its native ecosystem, if it becomes estab-
lished, it may proliferate and spread to cause harm to biodiversity, the national
economy and human health (DiTomaso et al. 2013). Invasion by alien species is
only surpassed by habitat destruction as the largest threat to biodiversity (IUCN
2009) and has been cited by Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA 2005) as
one of the major direct drivers of biodiversity loss and degradation of ecosystem
services. Biodiversity plays a central role in ecosystem functioning (Quijas et al.
2010) and, thus, is a source of provision of a suite of services to mankind (MEA
2005), and any threat or degradation of biodiversity puts livelihoods of humans at
risk (Pysěk et al. 2017). It is, therefore, important to understand the ecology and
2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species on Ecosystem Services… 13

impact of invasion on ecosystem services and biodiversity to prioritise prevention,

mitigation and management strategies (Katsanevakis et al. 2014), and to develop
policy for invasive species management (Cook et al. 2007).
Invasive species are now recognized as a significant cost to the economy of the
affected nations worldwide. In the United States, losses due to invasion by alien
invasive species were estimated at US$ 120 billion per annum (Pimentel et al.
2005). The annual cost to the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, South
Africa, India and Brazil amounted to US$ 336 billion (Pimentel et al. 2001) due to
a reduction in the agricultural, forestry and other production systems. Furthermore,
harm to infrastructure, reduction of tourism revenue, public health problems and
cost of eradication, containment and management also featured in this annual cost
(McCormick and Howard 2013).
In Botswana, two ecosystems can be used to illustrate the impact of invasive
plant species on ecosystem services. These are the Kgalagadi (which is a terrestrial
ecosystem) and Okavango Delta (which is an aquatic ecosystem). These two eco-
systems are used in this paper to discuss and analyse the impact of invasive plant
species on ecosystem services.
Invasive species affect ecosystem services - Ecosystem services are benefits that
human beings extract from a natural environment (Eviner et al. 2012), such as pro-
visioning services (material benefits from ecosystems e.g. water, food, fuel and
fibre), supporting services (e.g. soil formation), regulatory services (e.g. climate,
nutrient cycling, air and water purification) and cultural services (non-material ben-
efits, e.g. recreational or educational opportunities and spiritual fulfilment) (Naidoo
and Rickets 2006; Brauman et al. 2007; De Groot et al. 2010) (Table 2.1).
Biodiversity is the framework of ecosystem functioning and its ability to provide
services to man-kind (Chapin et al. 2000). Biodiversity can be a service on its own,
for instance, in nature-based tourism (van Wilgen et al. 2008). As the discussions of
our case study will illustrate, the impact on the two Botswana ecosystems has been
observed to be negative.
There is growing concern about threats to ecosystem services, and MEA (2005)
reported that ecosystem services have been reduced by 60% in the last 50 years.
One of the drivers of ecosystem decline is invasion by alien plant species as they

Table 2.1 Ecosystem services and example of their provision

Category Example service
Provisioning Products obtained from ecosystem e.g. food, fiber, timber and fuel, water storage
and provision.
Supporting Foundation for the basic life-support processes, e.g. soil formation, habitat
change, ecosystem processes, photosynthesis and food web.
Regulating Regulate ecosystem processes, e.g. climate and weather regulation, pollination,
water filtration, nutrient cycling, floods, fire, disease and pest regulation.
Cultural Enhance the quality of human life and human well-being, e.g. aesthetic values,
recreation, spiritual fulfillment, cultural heritage values and cognitive effects
(research and educational opportunities).
Source: Constructed from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
14 K. Kashe et al.

negatively impact on ecosystem processes and ecosystem functioning and conse-

quently inhibit the provisioning of ecosystem services (Sladonja et al. 2015).
Invasion by alien invasive species can significantly alter ecosystems (Ortega and
Pearson 2005) and change the type and amount of goods and services that humans
derive from ecosystems (Lodge et al. 2012). For example, in a pan-European review
study on invasion by marine invasive species, Katsanevakis et al. (2014) found that
food provisioning was most negatively affected followed by negative impacts on
ocean nourishment, recreation and tourism. Lastly, cognitive benefits, water purifi-
cation and climate regulation, were ecosystem services positively impacted. In
Ethiopia, Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (hereafter referred to as Prosopis) was found
to impact negatively on supply of provisioning and cultural ecosystem services
(Ayanu et al. 2015). In neighbouring South Africa, the impact of Prosopis on eco-
system services has been reported (Pejchar and Mooney 2009; Shacklenton et al.
2014, 2015). In the case study under discussion, it is becoming apparent that the
Okavango Delta’s aquatic ecosystem will be negatively affected while the Kgalagadi
ecosystem is destined to Prosopis woodland if enough measures are not put in place
to limit impact of invasive species in these two ecosystems.
The effect of invasion on one ecosystem service can result in a ripple effect on
other services. For instance, impact on supporting services will affect regulating and
cultural services, and similarly provisioning services can be disrupted by changes in
regulating services (Le Maitre et al. 2011). Loss of biodiversity due to invasion by
alien invasive plant species is therefore likely to undermine achievement of
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. For Botswana, the Department of
Water Affairs has introduced a weevil for biological control of Salvinia (Kurugundla
et al. 2016) for Okavango, while the Department of Forestry and Range Resources
is developing Prosopis management plan for Kgalagadi district.
Despite a growing body of knowledge about the importance of biodiversity and
ecosystem services, risk assessment is still based on species’ ecological and eco-
nomic impacts and rarely considers effects related to ecosystem services. Linkages
between invasion and ecosystem services need to be established, given that energy
spent on the prevention of invasion by alien species can be paid back by sustained
ecosystem services, resulting from preventing its harm by invasive species (Walsh
et al. 2016). Such an approach is essential for developing countries, like Botswana,
whose fragile ecosystems have been invaded by invasive species, as case studies of
Prosopis and Salvinia will illustrate later on. In addition, Botswana has yet to
develop a policy and legislation to regulate importation and cultivation of alien
plants, suggesting that invasive plant species will continue to find their way into the
country through both intentional and accidental introductions, in the process mak-
ing it difficult to reach SDG) goals.
In terms of legislation, the country is also lacking in that the only provision for
some control is in the 1916 noxious weed act (CAP 35:04), which renders a land-­
owner guilty of an offence if found growing certain listed plant species on a private
property. However, the list of species is quite old and does not include the invasive
plant species that have found their way into the two case study areas of Kgalagadi
2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species on Ecosystem Services… 15

and Okavango in Botswana which inhabited the areas after the Act was enacted
(Table 2.2).
Biodiversity and ecosystem services are essential for the achievement of SDGs)
by 2030. This article examines the impacts of terrestrial invasive plant, Prosopis and
aquatic weed, Salvinia molesta Mitchell (hereafter referred to as Salvinia) on eco-
system services in Kgalagadi district and Okavango Delta, respectively. The focus
is on these two plants because their invasion in the respective areas in Botswana has
negatively impacted ecosystem services and stakeholders call for more aggressive
management interventions. Their infestations have decreased ecosystem services in
the affected areas and have motivated Government to initiate management and con-
trol strategies. The article sets the scene by describing the study area and research
methods used in the study. Then, the impact of the terrestrial invasive plant on three
categories of ecosystem services (Provisioning, regulating and cultural) is

Table 2.2 showing invasive plant species listed under Botswana noxious weed act and international
organisations
Species listed under Botswana’s 1916 noxious weed
Act (CAP 35:04|)
Xanthium pungens (cockleburr)
Acanthospermum hispidum (starburr)
Cirsium lanceolatum (bull thistle)
Cannabis sativa (dagga)
Tagetas minuta (Mexican marigold)
Cuscutta species
Hakea sericea (needle bush)
Haka gibbosa (hairy needle bush)
Hakea suaveolens (sweet hakea)
Opuntia imbricate (imbricate cactus)
Solanum auriculatum (bugtree)
Opuntia aurantiaca (jointed cactus)
Datura ferox (large stramonium)
Datura stramonium (stramonium)
Datura tatula (purple thornapple)
Argemone Mexicana (Mexican poppy)
Acanthospermum austrate (prostrate starburr)
Salvinia molesta
Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth)
Tribulus terrestris (Devil’s thorn)
Amaranthus thunbergii (poorman’s spinach)
Alectra vogelli (yellow witchweed)
Striga asiatica (red witchweed)
Species listed by IUCN (2019) and
CABI (2019)
Abrus precatorius (rosary pea)
Bidens pilosa (blackjack)
Cardiospermum grandiflorum (balloon
vine)
Commelina benghalensis (wandering
jew)
Lagarosiphon major (African elodea)
Launaea intybacea
Leucaena leucocephala (leucaena)
Oxycaryum cubense (Cuban bulrush)
Paspalum crobiculatum
Ricinus communis (castor bean)
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (itch grass)
Senecio inaequidens (south African
ragwort)
Trapa natans (waterchestnut)
Conyza bonariensis (hairy fleabane)
Cyperus rotundus (purple nutsedge)
Cenchrus biflorus (Indian sandbur)
Melia azedarach (China berry)
Flaveria bidentis
Prosopis species (mesquite)
Verbesina encheloides (wild sunflower)
16 K. Kashe et al.

presented. It is, then, followed by a similar discussion on aquatic ecosystems. The

final section concludes the paper and suggests policy recommendations.

2.2 Study Areas and Methods

The study areas for this paper are the Kgalagadi and Ghanzi districts and the
Okavango Delta in Ngamiland district of Botswana (Fig. 2.1). The first two areas
have been invaded by Prosopis juliflora and the Okavango Delta by Salvinia
molesta.
Information for this study was collected primarily from a review of historic and
recent literature published following fieldwork in the areas. A search for research
fieldwork results published in peer reviewed journal articles was conducted using
combinations of the following key search terms: invasive plants, biological inva-
sions, biodiversity, ecosystem services, millennium ecosystem assessment,
Okavango Delta, Prosopis, Salvinia, Africa and Botswana. As a follow up to the
keyword searches, the identified publications were selected based on a review of

Fig. 2.1 Map of the study areas

2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species on Ecosystem Services… 17

their abstract. Additional information was also sourced from government reports,
statistical reports, library and internet searches.

2.3 Case Studies of Some Key Invasive Species in Botswana

The previous section discussed in general the impact of alien invasive species on
ecosystem services. This section focuses on two alien plants, namely a terrestrial
invasive, Prosopis, and an aquatic weed, Salvinia in their respective areas of the
Kgalagadi and the Okavango in Botswana. The former was intentionally introduced
with a desire to increase ecosystem services and the latter found its way accidentally
into the Okavango Delta system.

2.3.1 Kgalagadi District

Livelihood activities in Kgalagadi and Ghanzi districts are limited to livestock farm-
ing due to the semi-arid to arid climate that cripples arable farming. Their livestock
depend on communal rangelands which have been invaded by Prosopis, for grazing.

2.3.2 Okavango Delta

The riparian communities around the Okavango Delta derive their livelihood from
the aquatic system of the Delta through fish trading and tourism related activities.
However, these services are under threat due to frequent infestation of the Delta by
Salvinia.

2.3.3 Prosopis juliflora (Sw). DC. (Fabaceae)

Prosopis originates from South and Central America, is a woody leguminous spe-
cies adapted to arid and semi-arid regions and was introduced to the Kgalagadi
District of Botswana as an ecosystem engineer to stabilize sand dunes and rehabili-
tate degraded land in the arid southwest part of the country. Restoration of degraded
land is an essential step in increasing the provision of ecosystem services as well as
arresting biodiversity losses (Bullock et al. 2011). Prosopis are intentionally intro-
duced to increase ecosystem services, but they can escape intended use and decrease
supply of ecosystem services from other ecosystems. Prosopis species are classified
as invasive species in Australia, Ethiopia, India, Kenya and South Africa (Shackleton
et al. 2014). Their stands are usually comprised of different species and their hybrids
18 K. Kashe et al.

(Shackleton et al. 2016). Prosopis can positively contribute to achievement of Goal

15 (combating desertification and reversing land degradation). Conversely, it is
invasive and is a threat to attainment of Goal 2 (food security), 6 (water availability)
and 12 (sustainable consumption and production patterns).

2.3.3.1 Provisioning Services

Prosopis species provide multiple ecosystem services (Table 2.3), such as shade
provision for livestock, fodder production, fuel wood, timber for furniture produc-
tion and construction (Zimmermann et al. 2006; Boy and Witt 2013). It offers simi-
lar ecosystem services in Kgalagadi District in Botswana and is part of the livelihood
of low-income communities in the area by providing fuel wood, shade, timber and
feed for livestock. However, in South Africa, the ecosystem services from Prosopis
are said to be less valuable than originally thought and most stakeholders are now
calling for more rigorous interventions (Shackleton et al. 2015).
In Botswana, the species has escaped its intended area of introduction and spread
into adjacent Ghanzi District. The Prosopis species are now estimated to cover an
area of about 5110 ha in both Kgalagadi and Ghanzi Districts (Thobega 2015). The
species is now widespread covering grazing areas and reducing biodiversity and
resulting in ecosystem disservices to the local people in the affected districts.
Prosopis species hybridise and form dense monoculture stands with impenetrable
thorn thickets, and as Walsh et al. (2016) have observed in South Africa, the indi-
vidual plants within dense infestations fail to provide services i.e. they are too small
to provide shade or to be used for timber or fuel wood production.
The communities in the Kgalagadi ecosystem which comprise of four affected
villages of BORAVAST (Bokspits, Rapplespan, Vaalhoek and Struizendam)
reported that the invasive species have led to the following: blockage of boreholes
and depletion of groundwater due to the deep and extensive root system of Prosopis
(Muzila et al. 2011). It is estimated that Prosopis can consume 192 million m3 of
water per annum (Le Maitre et al. 2000), which translates to 1100 mm of rainfall
(Walsh et al. 2016). Given that Kgalagadi District is an arid area receiving 250 mm
of rainfall per annum, the amount of water used by the species is more than four
times the amount of rainfall. The species is adapted to low rainfall and uses its deep
tap root system of about 53 m to extract groundwater (Dzikiti et al. 2017). It lowers
the water table and the ability of the already water deficient ecosystem to provide
water. Lowering of the water table has also been found to alter the ecology of the
invaded areas. For instance, Schachtschneider and February (2013) found that in
Gannavlakte, southern Kalahari, Prosopis was responsible for an increase in mortal-
ity and dieback in Senegalia erioloba (E.Mey.) P.J.H.Hurter, a keystone species in
Kgalagadi Desert. Given that the two invaded districts in Botswana (Kgalagadi and
Ghanzi) are part of the Kgalagadi Desert, they are likely to face mortality of Acacia
species. The affected species will no longer provide the services they used to pro-
vide, e.g. shade, timber and fuel wood.
2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species on Ecosystem Services… 19

Table 2.3 Impact of Prosopis on ecosystem services of the Kgalagadi District

Ecosystem Ecosystem impact details
services Example
category service Positive impacts Negative impacts
Provisioning Food (i) Pods for fodder; and (ii) Decrease in (i) rangeland
medicinal uses; and (iii) nectar productivity and grazing
for honey production. potential.
Water Reduction in quality and
quantity of water, and
decrease in water
provisioning.
Timber Timber for furniture and Decline in timber from other
construction. tree species.
Energy Charcoal and fire wood Decline in supply of
charcoal and fire wood from
other tree species.
Regulating Nutrient Enhance nitrogen input and
cycling soil fertility via nitrogen
fixation.
Climate (i) Sink for greenhouse gas
regulation (CO2); and (ii) increase soil
carbon stores
Erosion control (i) Dense ground cover and
deep-root system reduce soil
erosion; and (ii) stands of
Prosopis trees act as windbreak
Biodiversity Low water table negatively
impacts biodiversity; some
species die while others fail
to provide services
Cultural Recreational Mature trees provide shade for Decrease in aesthetic value
activities relaxation and entertainment of recreational areas and
tourism experience
Spiritual and Impassable thickets block
religious access to places of worship
activities and spiritual activities
Cognitive Landscape tainted with
effects dense stands of Prosopis
may negate inspiration for
architectural designs.

2.3.3.2 Regulating Services

When invasive exotic species are introduced outside their native ecosystems, differ-
ences in ability to sequester carbon (C) could affect the amount of carbon released
to the atmosphere (Pejchar and Mooney 2009). Different plant species show differ-
ences in their capacity to absorb, reserve and release C (Conti and Diaz 2013). Trees
20 K. Kashe et al.

of Prosopis, as all components of vegetation, mitigate climate change through C

sequestration (Patnaik et al. 2017). Invasion into savanna ecosystems by Prosopis
can significantly impact ecosystem processes and influence biogeochemical cycles,
C sequestration and cycling (Birhane et al. 2017) (Table 2.3). In Ethiopia, Birhane
et al. (2017) recorded significantly high total C (85.8 Mg C ha−1) stocks in sites
invaded by P. juliflora than sites with no incidence of invasion (50.4 Mg C ha−1).
This observation implies that Prosopis, can provide regulating service in the form of
climate change mitigation, i.e. reduction in carbondioxide (CO2) from the
atmosphere.
Climate change is forecasted to change the amount and distribution of rainfall
and such changes are likely to be severe in arid to semi-arid environments, which
are already experiencing low and highly variable rainfall (Kenabatho et al. 2012). In
Botswana, Parida and Moalafhi (2008) projected 2-17% decrease in rainfall quan-
tiles with 10-year and 0-14% decrease in rainfall quantiles with 50-year occurrence.
The challenges of climate change in the two arid districts of Botswana are likely to
be aggravated by Prosopis invasion, especially in communal grazing areas. The dry-
land ecosystems are least resilient and are, therefore, expected to be hardest hit by
climate change. As Mainka and Howard (2010) have highlighted, climate change is
likely to worsen the impact of Prosopis on ecosystem services.

2.3.3.3 Cultural Services

Cultural services are defined as non-material benefits of ecosystems (Table 2.3).

Impacts of alien invasive species are difficult to determine because of their subjec-
tivity, i.e. assessment is based on personal and local value systems (Pejchar and
Mooney 2009). In Botswana, livestock farming is an important livelihood strategy
for farmers in the Kgalagadi and Ghanzi District as crop farming is limited by poor
sandy soils and low annual rainfall (< 250 mm). Communal grazing rangelands are,
therefore, important sources of ecosystem services in these arid areas. Prosopis has
invaded these grazing areas forming dense thorny impenetrable thickets that limit
livestock and human movement thus undermining societal benefits from their eco-
system. The dense thickets of Prosopis along the roadsides obscure driving visibil-
ity resulting road accidents involving vehicles in hitting livestock and wild animals
(BCAPR 2004). The dense stands may also limit access to recreational and spiritual
areas. In Kalagadi District of Botswana, communal grazing areas were ranked the
highest income generating land use in terms of non-marketed ecosystem services
(Favretto et al. 2016), but Prosopis can take over grazing land and reducing range-
land productivity (Shackleton et al. 2017). When livestock lose palatable fodder
species due to invasion by Prosopis, they are moved long distances away from their
area to other areas free of Prosopis (Witt 2010). However, this movement can result
in conflict as the resident communities may deny the livestock grazing for fear of
Prosopis spreading into their areas. The thorny bush of Prosopis may also interfere
with recreational and spiritual activities. Generally, human welfare will be affected
by Prosopis invasion.
2 Potential Impact of Alien Invasive Plant Species on Ecosystem Services… 21

2.3.4 Salvinia molesta Mitchell (Salviniaceae)

Okavango Delta, a Kalahari Oasis declared a ramsar site in 1997 and 1000th
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014 (Darkoh and Mbaiwa 2014) presents liveli-
hood opportunities for people. As a freshwater ecosystem, it underpins societal
well-being, providing drinking water, fisheries, water purification, recreation and
spiritual enrichment (MEA 2005). The communities living around the Delta derive
livelihood by making use of the available natural resources such as water, land and
living biological resources (Kgathi et al. 2006). Common activities in the Delta are
mostly related to tourism and include fishing, boat navigation, edible aquatic plant
harvesting and water supply (Kurugundla et al. 2016). However, invasion by alien
invasive aquatic S. molesta negatively impacts on the supplies of these ecosystem
services. It negatively impacts a wide range of ecosystem services in the Delta,
including regulation (e.g. nutrient cycling and water purification), provisioning (e.g.
water, food, fishing, fodder and grass) and cultural (recreational activities and spiri-
tual fulfillment).
The aquatic weed, Salvinia, originally from Brazil (Li et al. 2018), is now wide-
spread in aquatic systems in Africa, Asia and Australia (Forno and Harley 1979). It
entered Botswana via the Zambezi at Kazungula along the Chobe River in 1948
(Edwards and Thomas 1977). Salvinia is now widespread in Moremi Game Reserve,
Okavango Delta and Kwando-Linyanti-Chobe River Systems (Naidu et al. 2000).
Kurugundla et al. (2016) identified two factors that enhance invasion by Salvinia,
lack of natural enemies outside its native range and presence of nutrient rich (nitrate
and phosphate) aquatic systems associated with eutrophication. It is a free-floating
aquatic fern capable of doubling its biomass in less than 5 days (Mathew et al.
2015). This rapid growth rate confers invasiveness and enables it to cover an entire
water surface within a short time (Syaichurrozi 2018). Additionally, it can repro-
duce vegetatively even after severe destruction or drying for long days (Thomas and
Room 1986). Salvinia invasion is threat to water availability and sanitation (Goal 6)
and sustainable consumption and production patterns (Goal 12).
In response to the threats on ecosystem services, the Government of Botswana
through the Department of Water Affairs introduced Salvinia weevil Cyrtobagous
salviniae Calder and Sands for biological control of S. molesta and also the 1986
“Aquatic Weed (Control) Act” to regulate the movement and importation of boats
and aquatic apparatus both within and from neighbouring countries. Despite these
measures, there are cases of new infestations which are linked to fishing activities
and boat/canoe movement within the Delta.

2.3.4.1 Provision Services

Communities that live in close proximity to the Okavango Delta in Botswana derive
benefits from this aquatic system through fishing, veld product harvesting and water
for both livestock and human consumption. Common veld products harvested
22 K. Kashe et al.

Table 2.4 Impact of Salvinia on ecosystem services of the Okavango Delta

Ecosystem Ecosystem impact details
services Example
category service Positive impacts Negative impacts
Provisioning Food New source of food for Block access to the river by dugout
fish and fishing canoe or boat and limit access to
activities. fishing, veld products and grass
harvesting grounds.
Water Increase water loss through
evapotranspiration, blocks water
supply intake and limits availability
of water for humans, livestock and
wildlife.
Regulating Water Removes nitrogen, Increase sediment re-suspension and
purification phosphorus and other change state of water from clear to
nutrients from aquatic turbid.
system.
Degrades the quality and quantity of
litter inputs to aquatic food webs.
Habitat Alter aquatic ecosystem and reduce
habitat for other aquatic species such
as invertebrates and fish.
Climate Carbon sequestration
regulation through photosynthesis.
Light quality Salvinia matt on water surface reduce
light penetration and limit
photosynthesis.
Cultural Recreation Limit water-based recreational
and tourism activities e.g.
Viewing of water birds and other
aquatic wildlife; loss of recreation
and aesthetic values.
Spiritual Loss of water clarity for spiritual
enhancement activities.
Cognitive Loss of inspiration for arts motivated
effects by aquatic scenery and landscape;
loss of educational opportunities
from observation of aquatic wildlife.

include palm leaves (Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart), thatching grass spe-
cies (Eragrostis pallens Hack, Aristida stipitata Hack and Cymbopogon caesius
(Hochst.) Burtt Davy) and various wild fruits (Kgathi et al. 2005). Salvinia has the
potential to undermine provision of these ecosystem services (Table 2.4) to both
local communities and Government policy needs.
Invasion by Salvinia affect provision services in the Okavango Delta and sur-
rounding areas. Kgomotso and Swatuk (2006) found that communities within the
Okavango Delta areas depend on water for resources, such fish, building and handi-
craft materials (Kgomotso and Swatuk 2006). Salvinia biomass has been shown by
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Title: Lauluja

Author: Antti Rytkönen

Release date: October 31, 2023 [eBook #71994]

Language: Finnish

Original publication: Helsinki: Vihtori Alava, 1900

Credits: Tapio Riikonen

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LAULUJA ***

LAULUJA

Kirj.

Antti Rytkönen

Helsingissä, Jakaa Vihtori Alava, 1900.

SISÄLLYS:

Syvänteet.
Kuohuissa.
Meri ja taivas.
Takatalvessa.
Kesää odottaissa.
Hän..
Sinä ja minä.
Lehdossa.
Sorsa se Saimaan aalloissa sousi.
Valkojoutseneni.
Valkamani.
Lauluni.
Se lempi.
Eloni.
Levoton.
Kevättuulessa.
Kaipuuni.
Kuusen alla.
Talvilehto.
Valtameri.
Laulu talvelle.
Oli metsä vihreä.
Merelle lähtijä.
Luojalle.
Rauhassa.
Rannan kuusi.
Myrsky-yönä.
Merenneitojen laulu.
Meriltä palatessa.
Kevät-iltana.
Tähtöselleni.
Samponi.
Syystunnelma.
Keväinen koski.
Muistojen mailta.
Tyhjä sija.
Sairas soittaja.
Niin syvästi särki se äidin mieltä.
Turhaan.
Manan morsian.
Mari pikkunen piika.
Paimeritytön kevätlaulu.
Tuliluulialei.
Ikävissä.
Paimenpoika ja paimentyttö.
Paimenpojan laulu.
Koti lahteen soutaessa.
Mistä kyynel.
Leppäkerttu ja tuomenterttu.
Musta lintu, merikotka..
Järven jäällä.
Köyhän koti.
Heilini.
Kevätkylmissä.
Jäiden lähtö.
Kalevaisten karkelo.
Kevätmietteissä.
Ainon kaiho.
Kerran lemmin.
12-13.IV.1597.
Korven keskellä.
Kylänkarkelo.
Tarina Pekasta ja vallesmannista.
Pimeän pesä.
Voiton saatte.
Maamiehen kevätlaulu.
Tahdon ikitulta.

Syvänteet.
 Syvänteihin katseleisin, mi lie siellä elo kumma?
Salaisuudetpa ne syvät kätkee multa meri tumma.

Syvänteistä myrskyt nostaa heleöitä helmilöitä. Selittäkää

helmet mulle rahtu syvänteiden öitä!

Sen vain kertoo helmet somat: syvänteet on pohjattomat.

Kuohuissa.

Raivoisana kuohuu meri,

tumma on sen pinta.
Kuohuu mullai sydänveri,
aaltoileepi rinta.

Lyöpi aalto louhikkohon,

kivirantaan aivan —
Sydän, kivihinkö kuohut? —
Tuoko maksaa vaivan?

Meri ja taivas.

Sua lemmin niinkuin voipi vaan

meri kuohuva lempiä taivastaan.

Sä oot niin korkeella, kaukana multa

kuin on meren kuohuista taivahan kulta.
 Ja niin syvällä sentään rinnassain
kuin meren pohjassa taivas vain.

Takatalvessa.

Tuo katse armas ja kaunoinen mun mieleni vallan hurmas,

vaan kevätkylmät ja kolkot säät pian toivoni kukkaset surmas.

Vaan sydämmessäkin vaihtuva lie kevään sekä talven

valta. Siks toivon, että nousta vois kevät taas takatalven alta.

Kesää odottaissa.

Kyllä se kuluu talvikin

ja kyllä se joutuu kesä,
tulevana kesänä tällä pojalla
on jo oma pesä.

Talvella hakkaan honkia

ja hirsipuita kannan,
tulevana kesänä mökkini nousee
luona lammin rannan.

Toisella puolen lampi päilyy

ja toisella vihanta vuori,
ja mökissä on herttaisen kaunis kukka,
ja se on oma kultani nuori.
Hän.

Hän on niin puhdas, kaunoinen kuin koitto aamuruskon, tuo

onnen, rauhan sydämmeen, tuo toivon, uuden uskon.

Myös on hän tulta, hehkua kuin tähti öisen taivaan, tuo

surun, tuskan sydämmeen, tuo epätoivon aivan.

Sinä ja minä.

Sä ruusu olet armahin, päivä olet kirkkahin, tähti olet

loistavin.

Mä lapsi olen kylmän jään, mä laine olen tuulispään, mä

lintu olen myrskysään.

Lehdossa.

Lehdossa tässä kerran mä istuin immen kanssa, hän silloin

mulle kertoi hartaimmat unelmansa.

Lehdossa tässä nytkin mä istun yksin vallan. Vaan unelmat

ja toiveet — ne saaliita on hallan.
Sorsa se Saimaan aalloissa sousi.

Sorsa se Saimaan aalloissa sousi kaipasi, kaipasi

kullaistaan. Mihin lie joutunut, kuka sen ties, joko lie ampunut
metsämies?

Sorsa se Saimaan aalloissa sousi, kanteli kaihoa

sydämmessään, syys oli synkkä ja kulta ei tullut, vilu oli uida
joukossa jään.

Sorsa se Saimaan aalloissa sousi, kuikutti kurja yksinään.

Valkojoutseneni.

Pois lensi valkojoutsen,

lens ulapalle päin.

Miks veit sä valkojoutsen

myös levon syömmestäin?

Mun valkojoutseneni,
sä miksi lensit pois?

Jos löytäisin sun kerran,

oi, silloin riemu ois!

Valkamani.
 Kun meri ärjyy, aaltoo ja tummana vaahtoaa, kun pilvinen
on taivas ja rinta ei rauhaa saa,

niin satamata tyyntä mä etsin harhaillen, ja luoksesi kun

pääsen, niin siellä löydän sen.

Kun nojaan rintahasi, meri kuohuva tyyntyy tää ja katsehes

päivän kirkas maan ääriä lämmittää.

Lauluni.

On lauluni kuin kukka tuo, ja lämmöstä se voimaa juo.

Vaan koleaks kun käypi sää, suruisna kukan painuu pää.

Se lempi.

Se lempi oli polttava kuin hehkuvainen tuli, ja kyllä kylmät,

kyllä jäät sen eessä kaikki suli.

Se lempi oli kuohuva kuin virta vaahtopäinen. Se lempi oli

unelma, unelma kevähäinen.

Eloni.
 Haaksi aaltojen ajama, vene vetten vierittämä on mun
vaivaisen vaellus.

Niinkuin lastu lainehilla,

vastavirrassa venonen
on koko eloni juoksu.

Kumpi ennen kääntynevi: vene virran viertehessä vai virta

venon mukana?

Levoton.

Miksi lie mun mieleni niinkuin meren laine? Rauhatonna,

levoton na kulkee oikeaan ja harhaan, onnen tahtoisi se
parhaan. Väliin sinne, väliin tänne häilyy, horjuu, kiertää,
kaartaa, väliin hetken levon löytää, jälleen järkkyy, väliin
kallioihin töytää — pirstoiks särkyy…

Kevättuulessa.

Jo kevättuuli hengittää, vaan syys on syömmessän. Se iäks

liekö riutunut vai heränneeköhän?

Jos eloni ei elpyne, niin iäks riutukoon! Jos vielä herää,

herätköön se kevään taisteloon!
Kaipuuni.

Valoa, päivän paistetta mun mieleni kalpaa aina, jos

kirkasta en näe taivasta, niin talvi mun mieltäni painaa.

Valo ja päivän lämpö ne ovat henkeni elinehto, vaan nää

jos puuttuu, kuihdun pois kuin hallan koskema lehto.

Kuusen alla.

Alla kuusen useasti istuin iltamyöhään asti, kuusi kuiski

kumeasti: "Lapsi, lähdet maailmaan, outohon ja avaraan, tiesi
ulapoille saavat, ulapat on aavat, aavat, siellä laineet
lakkapäiset iskee purteen monet haavat Ulapoilla usva on,
usva katoamaton; armas päiv' ei usviin koita, helposti ei valo
voita." Kuusen kuiskiessa nuokkui rannan kukat rauhaisasti,
kuusen kuiskiessa huokui meren aallot raskahasti.

Talvilehto.

Tuo lehto, jossa me leikittiin, nyt tuiman on talven vanki, ja

lehdon nuortean kukkaset jää kattaa ja harmaja hanki.

Vaan vielä se kerran sulaa jää

ja nuortuu lehdot ja vuoret,
ja vielä ne kerran heräjää
ne kevään kukkaset nuoret

Ja vielä me kerran lehdossa taas leikimme, impeni, illoin, ja

vielä me nautimme lemmestä kevätaika on armas silloin.

Valtameri.

Katso, katso valtamerta!

Milloin siell' on tyyntä, rauhaa?
Eikö siellä ainiansa
aallot paasihin vain pauhaa.

Rintani on valtameri,
miksi rauhaa etsit sieltä,
miksi tyyntä, sointuisuutta
ulapan ja aallon tieltä?

Laulu talvelle.

Talvi, lunta valkeinta, valkeinta, puhtoisinta sada immen

poskuelle, hipiälle hienoiselle. Talven, taruin valtakunta laula,
laula immelleni, kerro kaunokutrilleni utuisinta lemmen unta.
Kerro kuinka alta hallan, alta kylmän jäiden vallan nousee
toivon kukkasia, utuisia, armahia… Näytä unia kesästä, kerro
 omasta pesästä pienoisesta, sievoisesta, armaasta, ani
hyvästä.

Oli metsä vihreä…

Oli metsä vihreä, tuomessa kukka,

sitä ihaillen katselit impi rukka.

Sä ihailit kaunista kevätsäätä,

et muistanut kylmää, et muistanut jäätä.

Sä ihailit suuria Luojan töitä,

et muistanut harmaita hallaöitä.

Ja kuitenkin, ja kuitenkin
ne tuli ne keväiset kylmätkin.

Merelle lähtijä.

Läksi laiva uurtamaan meren tummaa pintaa, täytti kaiho,

kaipaus monta, monta rintaa — Eessä merta, merta vaan,
eessä pilvet harmaat, kotiranta kauvas jäi, sinne jäivät
armaat. Jäivät tuomet tuoksumaan, jäivät kuuset kukkimaan,
impi rantaan itkemään. Kotiranta kauvas jäi, sinne jäivät
armaat…
Luojalle.

Luoja, noita silmiä kyynelistä säästä, Luoja, tuohon rintahan

murheit' elä päästä.

Luoja, anna hänelle päivät paistehikkaat! Luoja, anna

hänelle elon riemut rikkaat!

Rauhassa.

Kun melske, myrsky raukenee, kaikk' uinuu rauhan unta,

niin silloin mulle aukenee viel' uusi valtakunta.

Nään silloin sinut luonani, nään silmäs ani armaat, ja on

kuin siirtäneet ne ois väliltä vuoret harmaat

Rannan kuusi.

Tääll' yksin seisot sorjana sä vihreä rannan kuusi; veden

alla toinen on maailma ja taivas siellä on uusi, sen
kauneuttako katsot sie, mihin miettehes silloin vie?

Kun laskeissaan kesäaurinko taas taivahan rantoja kultaa,

niin tunnetko silloin, tunnetko sä lämpöä, lemmentulta? Näät
kaikkialla sä rauhan maat, sopusointua, rauhaa kaiketi saat?
 Vai tunnetko kaihon tuskaisan
ja muistatko myrskytuulet?
Kun aalto se löi raju rantahan,
sen kuohuja vieläkö kuulet?
Sun toivehes, aattehes myrskykö kaas,
nyt kaihoin niitäkö muistat taas?

Sä lienetkin mun kaltaisen, sä vihreä rannan kuusi; kun

katson pohjihin syvyyden, ja kun taivas siellä on uusi, niin
oloni munkin oudoks saa ja kaiho mieleni valloittaa.

Ja muistuu mieleeni myrskysää ja kohina tuiman tuulen ja

murhe mieleni yllättää ja ma kuohuja kaukaa kuulen. Ne
rintaani kaikuja kummia saa, meri helmahan yön kun
uinahtaa.

Myrsky-yönä.

käy ulkona tuuli tuima, yö on niin myrskyinen, ja hurjana

aalto huima vain kuohuvi rannallen.

Ja haaksi aaltoja halkoo,

ja kohti kuohuja käy,
ja se keinuvi niinkuin palko,
ei muuta kuin vaahtoa näy.

Vaan haahdessa suojassa yksin

minä kanssasi olla saan,
me istumme vieretyksin,
mut tuuli se ulvoo vaan.

Te käykää te vihurit tuulen,

nyt teitä mä pelkäjä en!
Vain rintasi lyönnit ma kuulen,
ja sa painut mun rinnallen.

Mua katsehes kaunis huumaa

sysimusta kuin syksyn yö,
ja mun rintani tulta on kuumaa
ja se rintaasi vasten lyö.

Ja tuuli tuima se soittaa kuin mahtavat myrskyt on poviss'

suurien valtamerten ja povessa inehmon.

***

Oi myrskyjä meren pinnan, oi valkovaahtoja sen! Oi

kuohuja ihmisrinnan, sen kaihojen, poltteiden!

Merenneitojen laulu.

Tääll' on riemut, rikkaudet, riistat, riittävät tavarat, tääll' on

Ahdin kultalinna, täällä aartehet avarat Täällä lientyy maiset
huolet, täällä suistuu surman nuolet, täällä elo ihanaa. Täällä
tyyntyy tuskat, vaivat, alla aallon uudet taivaat täällä sulle
aukeaa. Täällä merten aaltoloissa, Ahdin kultakartanoissa
rintaraukka rauhan saa. Tänne riennä inehmo, tääll' on sija
sulle jo!
Meriltä palatessa.

Saapuu laiva mereltä kohti kotirantaa; tuhat tulta merelle

sieltä valon kantaa; tuhat tulta tuikahtaa sieltä mua vastaan,
yhtä tulta kaipajan, yhtä ainoastaan: immen ikkunasta vaan
tuloset ei tuikakkaan.

Kevät-iltana.

On kevät-ilta ja kuuhut niin kummasti kumottaa, ja kaiho

outo ja kumma mun mieleni valtoaa.

Kevät-iltana kuljin ennen

kanss' armahan ystäväin
ja unia ihanoita
minä kultani kanssa näin.

Ja mieleni oli niin raitis

kuin rannan aaltonen,
kun kullat kuuhuen taivaan
utukalvossa uiskeli sen.

Kuin ilmojen utuiset pilvet

myös ulapan pohjilla ui,
niin sielusi hellä ja herkkä
mun sieluuni kuvastui.

Ja tuota kun muistan, silloin mun mieleni summeutuu, ja

mun rintani kaihon tuntee kevät-ilta ja illan kuu.