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THE WORLDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN

Europe’ s place in history is reassessed in this first comprehensive

history of the ancient world, centering on the Indian Ocean and its
role in pre-modern globalization. Philippe Beaujard presents an
ambitious and comprehensive global history of the Indian Ocean
world, from the earliest state formations to 1500 CE . Supported by
a wealth of empirical data, full-color maps, plates, and figures, he
shows how Asia and Africa dominated the economic and cultural
landscape and the flow of ideas in the pre-modern world. This led to
a transregional division of labor and an Afro-Eurasian world
economy. Beaujard questions the origins of capitalism and hints at
how this world-system may evolve in the future. The result is a
reorienting of world history, taking the Indian Ocean, rather than
Europe, as the point of departure.
Volume I provides in-depth coverage of the period from the fourth
millennium BCE to the sixth century CE .

Professor Philippe Beaujard is an Emeritus Director of Research at

the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut des
Mondes Africains, Paris.
THE WORLDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN

General Editor

Philippe Beaujard
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris
Europe’ s place in history is reassessed in this first comprehensive
history of the ancient world, centering on the Indian Ocean and its
role in pre-modern globalization. Philippe Beaujard presents an
ambitious and comprehensive global history of the Indian Ocean
world, from the earliest state formations to 1500 CE . Supported by
a wealth of empirical data, full-color maps, plates, and figures, he
shows how Asia and Africa dominated the economic and cultural
landscape and the flow of ideas in the pre-modern world. This led to
a transregional division of labor and an Afro-Eurasian world
economy. Beaujard questions the origins of capitalism and hints at
how this world-system may evolve in the future. The result is a
reorienting of world history, taking the Indian Ocean, rather than
Europe, as the point of departure.

Volume I

From the Fourth Millennium BCE to the Sixth Century CE

Philippe Beaujard
Translation edited by Tamara Loring, Frances Meadows, and
Andromeda Tait
 Volume I I

From the Seventh Century to the Fifteenth Century CE

Philippe Beaujard
Translation edited by Tamara Loring, Frances Meadows, and
Andromeda Tait
T HE WOR LD S OF T HE
I N D I A N OC EA N
A Global History
V OL U M E I
From the Fourth Millennium BCE to the Sixth Century CE

A revised and updated translation

Written and translated by

Philippe Beaujard
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris

Translation edited by
Tamara Loring, Frances Meadows, and Andromeda Tait
 University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS , United Kingdom

One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA

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Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’ s mission by disseminating knowledge in the

pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international
levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108424561

DOI : 10.1017/9781108341004

© Philippe Beaujard 2019

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the

provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any
part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University
Press.

First published 2019

Translated and updated from the original French edition

 Originally published in France as:

Les mondes de l’ océan indien.

Volume 1: De la formation de l’ Etat au premier système-monde afro-

eurasien (4e millénaire av. J.-C – 6e siècle ap. J.-C.)

Volume 2: L’ océan Indien, au cœ ur des globalisations de l’ Ancien

Monde (7e– 15e siècle)

By Philippe Beaujard

© Armand Colin, Paris, 2012

Armand Colin is a trademark of Dunod Editeur – 11, rue Paul Bert –

92240 Malakoff

Published with the help of the Institut des Mondes Africains – UMR 8171
– CNRS /Université Paris 1 / EPHE /Université de Provence

Printed in the United Kingdom by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Beaujard, Philippe, author.

Title: The worlds of the Indian Ocean : a global history / Philippe

Beaujard (Le Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris) ;
translation edited by Tamara Loring, Frances Meadows and Andromeda
Tait .

Other titles: Mondes de l’ ocean Indien. English

Description: Cambridge, United Kingdom ; New York, NY : Cambridge

University Press, 2019. | Revised and updated translation of: Les mondes
 de l’ océan Indien, Armand Colin, Paris, 2012 . | Includes bibliographical
references and indexes. Contents: Volume I. From the Fourth Century
BCE to the Sixth Century CE – Volume II. From the Seventh Century to
the Fifteenth Century CE.

Identifiers: LCCN 2018037957| ISBN 9781108424561 (v. 1) | ISBN

9781108424653 (v. 2) | ISBN 9781108341271 (set)

Subjects: LCSH: Excavations (Archaeology) – Indian Ocean Region. |

Indian Ocean Region – Antiquities. | Indian Ocean Region – Civilization. |
Indian Ocean Region – Economic conditions. | Globalization – History –
To 1500. | History, Ancient.

Classification: LCC DS 338 .B 4213 2019 | DDC 909/.09824– dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018037957

Two Volume Set ISBN 978-1-108-34127-1 Hardback

Volume I ISBN 978-1-108-42456-1 Hardback

Volume II ISBN 978-1-108-42465-3 Hardback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
This book is dedicated to my mother Odette Beaujard-Barreau, who
died on May 28, 2009, to my father Lucien Beaujard, who died on
December 14, 2010, and to my friend Ernest Hudspith, who died on
October 22, 2010.
 Cargoes

Quinquireme of Nineveh
from distant Ophir
,
Rowing home to haven in sunny Palestine
,
With a cargo of ivory,
And apes and peacocks,
Sandalwood, cedarwood, and sweet white wine.

Stately Spanish galleon coming from the Isthmus,

Dipping through the Tropics by the palm-green shores,
With a cargo of diamonds,
Emeralds, amethysts,
Topazes, and cinnamon, and gold moidores.

Dirty British coaster with a salt-caked smoke stack,

Butting through the Channel in the mad March days,
With a cargo of Tyne coal,
Road-rails, pig-lead,
Firewood, iron-ware, and cheap tin trays.
John Masefield
 Contents
List of Maps and Charts (in Color Plates)
List of Illustrations (in Color Plates)
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Acknowledgments

Prologue

Introduction: The Geography of the Indian Ocean and Its

Navigation
The Indian Ocean
Wind Patterns
The Currents
Madagascar
Navigation of the Indian Ocean

Part I The Ancient Routes of Trade and

Cultural Exchanges and the First States
(Sixth– Second Millennium B C E )

Introduction
1 The Birth of the State
The Neolithic Center of the Fertile Crescent
‘ Ubaid, a Proto-State Phase
The Urban Revolution and the Development of the
State in Mesopotamia
The First Half of the Fourth Millennium BCE

The Urukian Expansion during the Second Half of

the Fourth Millennium B C E
The State in Egypt: Formation of the First Kingdoms
The Predynastic Period
“ Dynasty 0” at Abydos
Egypt, the Interior of Africa, and the Indian Ocean
Central Asia and Southern Asia

2 Early Bronze Age I in Western Asia and Egypt (c.

3000– 2700 B C E )
Mesopotamia at the Beginning of the Third
Millennium: The Opening to the Persian Gulf
The Proto-Elamite Sphere (3100– 2800 BCE )
The Pre-Harappan Civilization of the Indus
Egypt during the Thinite Period (First and Second
Dynasties, 3100– 2700 B C E )

3 Early Bronze Age II (c. 2700– 1950 BCE )

Urban Bloom and the Emergence of Kingship in
Mesopotamia during the Early Dynastic II (2750–
2600 B C E )
Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley: The First
Globalized Area of the Indian Ocean (2500– 1950 BCE
 )
From the Sumerian City-States to the Akkadian
Empire
The Indus Valley and the Indian Subcontinent
The Persian Gulf, a Central Corridor between
Mesopotamia and the Indus Region
Turmoil along the Terrestrial Routes during the
Twenty-Third and Twenty-Second Centuries B C E
(Mesopotamia, Iran, and Central Asia)
The Third Dynasty of Ur (2112– 2004 BCE )
Egypt of the Old Kingdom (c . 2700– 2180 BCE )

4 The New Spaces of the Middle Bronze Age in Asia

and Egypt (c . 2000– 1750 B C E )
Egypt of the Middle Kingdom (c . 2040– 1730 BCE )
Western Asia: The Growth of the Private Sector in the
Exchange Networks
From Central Asia to South Asia: The Expansion of the
Bactria– Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC)
Dislocations and Regional Restructuring from the
Eighteenth Century B C E
The Old Babylonian Period (1800– 1595 BCE [M C
])
Post-Harappan India (1800– 1300 BCE )

5 The Late Bronze Age (c . 1600– 1100 B C E ), an Area

Unified around the Eastern Mediterranean
Western Asia and the Mediterranean Region
Egypt of the New Kingdom (1539– 1070 BCE )
 The Cataclysmic Collapse of the Late Bronze Age
World
Central Asia and South Asia

6 East Asia: From Villages to States (c . 5000– 1027

BCE )

The Neolithic Cultures of East Asia: Local

Developments and First Contacts with Central Asia
Transformations at the Beginning of the Second
Millennium B C E
The Early Bronze Age of China: The Erlitou Phase
(1800– 1600 B C E )
The Shang State (1600– 1027 B C E ): Wider Control
over Resources and Long-Distance Exchanges

7 The Emergence of Intermediary Spaces

Arabia, an Interface between Continents
The First “ Incense Roads”
The Movements of Cultivated Plants and
Domesticated Animals between Africa and Asia
Southern China, Southeast Asia, and the Eastern
Indian Ocean: Developments and First Contacts
Between China, India and Central Asia: Ancient “ Silk
Roads”

Conclusion: Were there World-Systems during the

Bronze Age?
The World-Systems of Western Asia, Northern Africa,
and the Eastern Mediterranean
The State Sector, Communities, and the Private
Sector
 China’ s World-Systems and Contacts with the West
The End of the Late Bronze Age: A Systemic Collapse

Part I I The Birth of the Afro-Eurasian

World-System (First Millennium B C E – Sixth
Century C E )

Introduction
The Iron Age: From Three World-Systems to a Single
World-System
The Western and Eastern World-Systems: The First
Connections (1000– 750 B C E )
The Development of Three Interconnected World-
Systems (750– 350/300 B C E )
The Western World-System from the Eighth to
the Sixth Century B C E
The Formation of an Indian World-System during
the Seventh Century B C E
The Eastern World-System during the “ Spring
and Autumn” Period
The Restructuring of the Western World-System
during the Second Half of the Seventh Century
BCE

The Key Period of the Sixth and Fifth Centuries

BCE

The Western World-System (Sixth and Fifth

Centuries B C E )
An Indian World-System Connected to the West
 The Eastern World-System during the Fifth and
Fourth Centuries B C E
The Recession of the Late Fifth and Early Fourth
Centuries B C E
Growing Interactions among the Three World-
Systems (c. 350– 1 B C E )
Toward the Unification of the Western World-
System with the Indian World-System
The Western World-System in Crisis during the
Second Century B C E
The Ascent of an Eastern World-System Centered
on China
Conclusion
The Birth of the Afro-Eurasian World-System
The First Phase of Integration of the World-System
The World-System Recedes (Third– Sixth Century)

8 The Beginnings of the Iron Age

The Assyrian Hegemony
The Neo-Babylonian Empire
Achaemenid Persia: The First “ Universal Empire”
Egypt, between Political Fragmentation and Foreign
Dominance: An Independence under Threat

9 The Roads to the Orient

The Europeans in Asia and in Egypt
The Greeks in the Footsteps of Alexander the Great
Rome and Indian Ocean Trade: The Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea
Spices and Aromatics
 Parthians and Sassanids: The Occident of the Silk
Roads

10 India: The Birth of a New Core

The Emergence of Empires: Buddhist Networks and
the Rise of Trade
Relations between India and Southeast Asia
People from Southeast Asia on the Coasts of India?
Indian Trade in Southeast Asia

11 Southeast Asia, an Interface between Two Oceans

The Emergence of Complex Societies during the First
Millennium B C E
The Integration of Southeast Asia into the Afro-
Eurasian World-System
Funan
The States of the Thai– Malay Peninsula
Champa and Jiaozhi
Insular Southeast Asia: State Development during
the Fifth and Sixth Centuries
Changes during the Sixth and Seventh Centuries

12 China: From Kingdoms to Unification

From the Zhou Dynasty to the Warring Kingdoms
(1027– 221 B C E )
The Unification of China under the Qin (221– 207 BCE
), the Western Han (206 B C E – 23 C E ), and the
Eastern Han (25– 220 C E )
 13 Arabia: Maritime Cultures and the Rise of the
Caravan Trade
Eastern Arabia
Western Arabia and the Horn of Africa

14 East Africa: The Emergence of a Pre-Swahili Culture

on the Azanian Coast

15 The Austronesian Expansion and the First Malagasy

Cultures
Austronesians in the Western Indian Ocean
Archaeological and Genetic Data
The Ancient Texts
What Does Anthropology Teach Us?
Madagascar: A Periphery of the World-System Takes
Shape
Age and Diversity of the First Austronesian Arrivals:
A Linguistic Approach
The Place of Malagasy among Austronesian
Languages
Dating the First Arrivals: How Linguists See It
The Archaeological Data
Comparative Anthropology
The Ternary System: Cosmic and Social Dualism
Agriculture
A Phantasmic “ Bantu Substrate”

Bibliography
Index of Geographical Names
Name Index
Subject Index
Maps and Charts (in color plates)
Plate Section 1: between pages 40 and 41
In.1 Wind systems in the Indian Ocean, January and July

In.2 Surface currents in the Indian Ocean, February– March

and August– September

I .1 Western Asia and Egypt 4000– 3500 BCE

I .2 Western Asia and Egypt 3500– 3000 BCE

I .3 Western Eurasia and Africa during the third millennium

BCE

I.4 Artifacts showing contacts between Egypt and

Mesopotamia during the fourth millennium B C E

I .5 Egypt during the third and second millennia BCE

I.6 Western Eurasia and Africa during the second

millennium B C E

Plate Section 4: between pages 264 and 265

I.7 Eastern Asia during the third millennium and at the
beginning of the second millennium B C E

I .8 Eastern Asia from 1600 to 1000 BCE

I .9 Spread of cultivated plants from Asia into Africa during

the third and second millennia B C E
I.10 Spread of cultivated plants from Africa into Asia
during the third and second millennia B C E

I .11 Western Asia and Egypt 3600– 3100 BCE

I .12 The Eurasian and African world-systems 3100– 2700

BCE

I .13 The Eurasian and African world-systems 2700– 2200

BCE

I .14 The Eurasian and African world-systems 2100– 1950

BCE

I .15 The Afro-Eurasian world-system 1950– 1700 BCE

I .16 The Afro-Eurasian world-system 1600– 1200 BCE

I .17 Eurasia and Africa at the end of the third and during
the first third of the second millennium B C E

I .18 Eurasia and Africa 1600– 1200 BCE

I.C on.1 Bronze Age: climate changes, technological,

institutional, and ideological innovations, and political
changes

II .1 Eurasia and Africa during the sixth and fifth centuries

BCE

II .2 Eurasia and Africa during the third and second

centuries B C E

II.3 Iron Age: climate changes, technological, institutional,

and ideological innovations, and political changes

Plate Section 5: between pages 424 and 425

II .4 Afro-Eurasian world-systems between 750 and 350
BCE

II .5 Afro-Eurasian world-systems between 350 BCE and

the end of the first millennium B C E

II .6 The Afro-Eurasian world-system from the first to the

third century C E

II .7 Madagascar: climatic areas and isohyets

II .8 Western Eurasia and Africa during the sixth and fifth

centuries B C E

II .9 Western Eurasia and Africa during the third and

second centuries B C E

II .10 Western Eurasia and Africa from the first to the sixth
century C E

II .11 Main archaeological discoveries bearing witness to

exchanges between India and Southeast Asia and within
Southeast Asia (late first millennium B C E – sixth century C E
)

II .12 Main archaeological discoveries showing exchanges

between China and Southeast Asia (late first millennium B C E
– sixth century C E )

II .13 Routes crossing the Thai– Malay peninsula during

the first millennium C E

II .14 China and Southeast Asia at the beginning of the

first millennium B C E

II .15 East Asia from the sixth to the fourth century BCE
 II .16 East Asia during the third and second centuries BCE

II .17 East Asia from the first to the sixth century CE

II .18 East Africa and Madagascar (first– sixth century CE

)

II .19 Madagascar: first cultural contributions

The information used for the maps was extracted from the ESRI
spatial database, world base DWC 1993, and ESRI Data and Maps
2002.
 Illustrations (in color plates)
Plate Section 2: between pages 72 and 73
I The beginnings of writing

II The influence of Mesopotamian themes and techniques

in Predynastic Egypt (1)

III The influence of Mesopotamian themes and techniques

in Predynastic Egypt (2)

IV Statebuilding and long-distance exchanges

V Images of power

VI Long-distance exchanges in the Mesopotamia– Indus

world-system

VII Intercultural theme of horned animals feeding from the

tree of life

VIII Intercultural style and hybrid seals

IX Mutual influences between Mesopotamia and the Indus

X Objects from Bactria– Margiana showing foreign

borrowings

XI Cultural interactions and expansion of the Bactria–

Margiana complex (late third – early second millennium)

XII Possible emergence of the individual during the Middle

Bronze Age
XIII Interactions in the world-system of the Middle Bronze
Age

XIV War, diplomacy, and long-distance trade in the Late

Bronze Age

XV Products from Punt and Egypt

XVI Egyptian expeditions toward Punt

Plate Section 3: between pages 200 and 201

XVII Knowledge, techniques, and trade during the Middle
and Late Bronze Age

XVIII Trade and international art during the Late Bronze

Age (1)

XIX Trade and international art during the Late Bronze Age
(2)

XX Statebuilding and long-distance trade in eastern Asia

XXI Eastern Asia, Shang period

XXII Sichuan and trade routes between northern and

southern Asia

XXIII Statebuilding and long-distance trade (first

millennium B C E )

XXIV Interactions among Persia, Central Asia, and South

Asia (1)

XXV Interactions among Persia, Central Asia, and South

Asia (2)

XXVI Southeast Asia and long-distance trade

XXVII China: states, currencies, and long-distance trade

XXVIII Western influences in China

XXIX How jade traveled

XXX Tabula Peutingeriana , thirteenth century, the copy of a

Roman map going back to the fourth century (perhaps based
on an earlier map)

XXXI Map of the world published by Leinhart Holle at Ulm

in 1482, based on Ptolemy (second century C E )

XXXII Central Asia, a crossroads linking India, western

Asia, and the Roman Empire

Plate Section 6: between pages 520 and 521

XXXIII India and Central Asia: the state, religion, and
long-distance trade (first– sixth century)

XXXIV The Funan state (Cambodia) and Indian Ocean

trade

XXXV Insular Southeast Asia: an interface between two

oceans (1)

XXXVI Insular Southeast Asia: an interface between two

oceans (2)

XXXVII Insular Southeast Asia: the spread of bronze

metallurgy

XXXVIII Arabia: the incense roads

XXXIX China: maritime and terrestrial exchanges

XL The Sogdians and the Silk Roads

 Figures
I .In.1 Use of the kamal and the Jacob’ s staff

3.1 (a) Amulet from Mohenjo-daro featuring a reed boat;

(b) Dilmun seal depicting a sailing vessel

3.2 Dilmun seal from Saar

3.3 Ship from the Old Kingdom of Egypt

5.1 Arrival of Syrian merchants in an Egyptian port

5.2 Rafts from Punt arriving in Egypt

9.1 Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Greek king Menander

(160– 145 B C E )

10.1 Silver tetradrachm of the Indo-Scythian king Vonones

(75– 65 B C E )

10.2 Coin of the Kushan king Kanishka I

11.1 Tympanum of the Dong Son bronze drum from Nhu

Trac

11.2 Horse and elephant on the Sangeang bronze drum

11.3 Coins found at Oc Eo (Vietnam)

12.1 Royal mausoleums, Pingshan, state of Zhongshan,

fourth century B C E

12.2 A square-pallet treadle-operated chain pump (China)

 12.3 Blowing-engine in a foundry, powered by a
waterwheel (China)

12.4 Terracotta guinea fowl, Former Han period, China

12.5 Pagoda, temple of Yongning, Luoyang, built in 516

12.6 Drawing of the central design of a silver plate found at

Jingyuan (Gansu), sixth century

12.7 Drawing of the design on a gilt bronze goblet,

Northern Wei, fifth/sixth century

13.1 Graffiti on an exterior wall of the city of Sumhuram

15.1 Madagascar: symbolic systems inherited from

Kalimantan

Map and Chart (in Text)

I .Con.1 Bronze Age: climate changes, technological,
institutional, and ideological innovations, and political
changes*

II .20 Madagascar: ancient sites (first– ninth century CE

)

*Repeated in Color Plate Section 4 .

 Tables
I. In.1 The number of cities with more than 25,000
inhabitants, 2250– 1000 B C E

I. In.2 Comparative chronologies (sixth– third millennium

B C E ): western Asia, Persian Gulf, and eastern
Mediterranean; Egypt and Red Sea, western Arabia; India
and Central Asia

I. In.3 Comparative chronologies (third– second millennium

B C E ): western Asia, and eastern Mediterranean; Egypt and
Red Sea, western Arabia; India and Central Asia

I .In.4 Comparative chronologies (third– second millennium

B C E ): Inner Asia; China; Southeast Asia

I. In. 5 Chronology of regions and sites of western Asia

I. Con.1 Cycles put forward by Frank and Thompson

I. Con.2 Successive cycles in Mesopotamia

I. Con.3 Successive cycles in Egypt

I. Con.4 Two regions of Mesopotamia

I. Con.5 Dominant cultures or states in East Asia

II .In.1 The number of cities with more than 25,000

inhabitants, 1000– 650 B C E

II.In.2 Growth and recession in various regions of Africa

and Eurasia
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