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Developments in Mathematics

Chao Wang
Ravi P. Agarwal
Donal O’ Regan
Rathinasamy Sakthivel

Theory of
Translation
Closedness for
Time Scales
With Applications in Translation
Functions and Dynamic Equations
Developments in Mathematics

Volume 62

Series Editors
Krishnaswami Alladi, Department of Mathematics, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL, USA
Pham Huu Tiep, Department of Mathematics, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ,
USA
Loring W. Tu, Department of Mathematics, Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
The Developments in Mathematics (DEVM) book series is devoted to publishing
well-written monographs within the broad spectrum of pure and applied
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Chao Wang • Ravi P. Agarwal • Donal O’Regan
Rathinasamy Sakthivel

Theory of Translation
Closedness for Time Scales
With Applications in Translation Functions
and Dynamic Equations
Chao Wang Ravi P. Agarwal
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Yunnan University Texas A&M University–Kingsville
Kunming, Yunnan, China Kingsville, TX, USA

Donal O’Regan Rathinasamy Sakthivel

School of Mathematics Department of Applied Mathematics
Statistics and Applied Mathematics Bharathiar University
National University of Ireland Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Galway, Ireland

ISSN 1389-2177 ISSN 2197-795X (electronic)

Developments in Mathematics
ISBN 978-3-030-38643-6 ISBN 978-3-030-38644-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38644-3

Mathematics Subject Classification (2020): 34N05, 43A60, 42A75, 93A30

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
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We dedicate this book to our family members:

Chao Wang dedicates the book to his son

Xingbo Wang and wishes him to grow up
healthily and happily;
Ravi P. Agarwal dedicates the book to his
wife Sadhna Agarwal;

Donal O’Regan dedicates the book to his

wife Alice and his children Aoife, Lorna,
Daniel, and Niamh;

Sakthivel Rathinasamy dedicates the book to

his parents Rathinasamy and Lakshmi, his
wife Priyadharshini, and his son Pranav.
Preface

The theory of time scales was initiated by S. Hilger in his PhD thesis [141] in
1988 in order to unify continuous and discrete analysis. This new and exciting
type of mathematics is more general and versatile than the traditional theories of
differential and difference equations as it can, under one framework, mathematically
describe continuous-discrete hybrid processes and hence is the optimal way forward
for accurate mathematical modeling in physics, chemical technology, population
dynamics, biotechnology and economics, neural networks, and social sciences. In
fact, the progressive field of dynamic equations on time scales contains links and
extends the classical theory of differential and difference equations. For instance,
if T = Z, we have a result for difference equations, if T = R, we obtain a result
for differential equations. This theory represents a powerful tool for applications
to economics, population models, quantum physics among others. Not only does
the new theory of the so-called dynamic equations unify the theories of differential
equations and difference equations but also extends these classical cases to cases
“in between,” e.g., to the so-called q-difference equations when T = q N0 :=
{q t : t ∈ N0 for q > 1} ∪ {0} or T = q Z := q Z ∪ {0} (which has important
applications in quantum theory) and can be applied on different types of time
scales like T = hN, T = N2 , and T = Tn the space of the harmonic numbers.
Therefore, dealing with problems of differential equations on time scales becomes
very important and meaningful in the research field of dynamic systems.
Since a time scale is an arbitrary nonempty closed subset of real numbers, its
irregular distribution on the real line leads to many difficulties in studying functions
on time scales, especially in investigating functions defined by the translations
of arguments such as periodic functions, almost periodic functions, and almost
automorphic functions, etc. The classes of functions defined by the translations of
arguments are referred to as Translation Functions. The concept of almost periodic
functions was first proposed by H. Bohr, and such a type of real-valued functions
is approximately periodic and can be to within any desired level of precision if we
endow the function with suitably long, well-distributed “almost-periods” [59]. This
concept was generalized by V. Stepanov, H. Weyl, and A.S. Besicovitch, among

vii
viii Preface

others [57]. Moreover, J.V. Neumann also introduced and studied the notion of
almost periodic functions on locally compact abelian groups [60, 189]. Almost
periodicity is a property of dynamical systems that seems to be repeated in their
paths through phase space, but not precisely. For example, consider a planetary
system, with planets in orbits moving with periods that are not commensurable (i.e.,
with a period vector that is disproportional to a vector of integers). A theorem of
Kronecker from Diophantine approximation can be applied to demonstrate that any
particular configuration that occurs once will recur to within any specified accuracy:
if we wait long enough we can observe the planets all return to within a second
of arc to the positions they once were in. In 1955–1962, S. Bochner observed in
various contexts that a certain property enjoyed by the almost periodic functions
on the group G can be applied in obtaining more concise and logical proofs of
certain theorems in terms of these functions; S. Bochner called his property “almost
automorphy” since it first arouse in work on differential geometry (see [61–63]).
Based on well-known almost periodic and almost automorphic functions proposed
by Bohr and Bochner, many new generalized concepts were introduced and studied
by several researchers on the real line. However, these theories do not work on
time scales since the classical concepts of almost periodic and almost automorphic
functions purely depend on the translation of functions. For example, the classical
definition of almost periodic functions on the real line is given as follows:
For any bounded complex function f and ε > 0, we define T (f, ε) = {τ :
|f (t + τ ) − f (t)| < ε for all t}, T (f, ε) is called the ε-translation set of f . We say
f is Bohr almost periodic if for any ε > 0, T (f, ε) is relatively dense.
However, the above definition will not be true on time scales. In fact, for an
arbitrary time scale T, there may be no fixed τ ∈ R such that t + τ ∈ T for all
t ∈ T. This problem is so complex that it will change the classical concept of
relatively dense set on the real line, the convergence of function sequences, the
completeness of function spaces, and an almost periodicity of the variable limit
integrals, etc. Therefore, it is extremely insufficient just to assume t +τ := τ (t) ∈ T
for all t ∈ T when we consider almost periodic problems. In fact, this general
assumption also has some other serious deficiencies, for instance, (1) it is to the
disadvantage of the analysis of numerical computation including the simulation of
almost periodic functions since the construction of the subset of R where τ is from
is unknown; (2) the relatively dense property in the sense of time scales cannot be
considered under this general and abstract assumption; (3) there is no translation
closedness for the vast majority of time scales, much less the translation invariance,
that is, there is no τ ∈ R (i.e., there is no subset of R where τ is from) such that
t + τ ∈ T for all t ∈ T, which leads to the assumption τ (t) ∈ T meaningless (we
have provided several representative examples in Chap. 2). For the same reasons,
the study of almost automorphic problems on time scales is also a difficult task.
To overcome these difficulties, it is important to study the classification of time
scales under translations and the translation closedness of time scales. Depending
on the reference system of the real line, we find that an arbitrary time scale with a
bounded graininess function μ may possess a well local complete closedness which
is more general than translation invariance, it provides an essential condition to
Preface ix

consider almost periodic problems, almost automorphic problems, and other related
generalized problems on arbitrary time scales. For our accurate discussion in the
book, we say a time scale is a translation time scale if a mathematical problem
arising and solving must be based on a translation of the time scale.
In this monograph, we establish a theory of classification and translation closed-
ness of time scales and based on this we develop a theory of translation functions
on time scales which contains (piecewise) almost periodic functions, (piecewise)
almost automorphic functions, and their related generalized functions (e.g., pseudo
almost periodic functions, weighted pseudo almost automorphic functions, etc.).
Under the background of dynamic equations, these function theories on time scales
are applied to study the dynamical behavior of solutions for various types of
dynamic equations on hybrid domains including evolution equations, discontinuous
equations, impulsive integro-differential equations. Also, the book provides several
applications of dynamic equations on mathematical models which cover neural
networks, Nicholson’s blowflies model, Lasota–Wazewska model, Keynesian Cross
model, those realistic dynamical models with more complex hybrid domain are
considered under different types of translation time scales.
This monograph is organized in 9 chapters:
In Chap. 1, we present the preliminaries and basic concepts of calculus and
measure theory on time scales.
In Chap. 2, we classify time scales by translation and develop a theory of
translation closedness for time scales. We introduce the concepts of complete-closed
translation time scales (CCTS for short), almost-complete closed translation time
scales (ACCTS for short), and changing-periodic time scales. As the particular
cases, the properties of the translation and almost translation invariance of periodic
and almost periodic time scales are investigated. Moreover, the concept of time scale
spaces is introduced and the embedding theorems of time scales are established.
Based on it, almost automorphic time scales are introduced and studied. For
changing-periodic time scales, some basic theorems such as the Decomposition
Theorem of Time Scales and the Periodic Coverage Theorem of Time Scales
are proposed and proved. In addition, we initiate the methods of delay classification
analysis of delay dynamic equations on translation time scales.
In Chap. 3, a theory of almost periodic functions and their generalizations such as
pseudo almost periodic functions and weighted pseudo almost periodic functions is
established on CCTS and changing-periodic time scales. Also, the Bohr-Transform
and Mean-Value of almost periodic functions, Π -semigroup and moving-operators
are proposed and discussed, which are the effective tools of investigating almost
periodic and almost automorphic solutions of dynamic equations on CCTS and
changing-periodic time scales.
In Chap. 4, a notion of piecewise almost periodic functions and the corresponding
generalizations are introduced and studied on different types of time scales.
Moreover, the concepts of double-almost periodic functions and weighted piecewise
pseudo double-almost periodic functions are introduced and discussed on ACCTS.
In Chap. 5, we develop a theory of generalized almost automorphic functions
on translation time scales. The Bochner and Bohr almost automorphic functions
x Preface

on semigroups induced by CCTS are proposed and studied. As their generaliza-

tions, the weighted (piecewise) pseudo almost periodic functions on CCTS are
investigated. Moreover, a notion of local pseudo almost periodic functions on
changing-periodic time scales is introduced and some basic properties are obtained.
In Chap. 6, we mainly discuss nonlinear dynamic equations on translation time
scales. The almost periodic generalized solutions for dynamic equations on CCTS
are investigated. Under Π -semigroups on time scales, the weighted pseudo almost
periodic solutions for nonlinear abstract dynamic equations are studied. In addition,
based on the Clh space on changing-periodic time scales, the existence of local
periodic solutions for functional dynamic equations with infinite delay is established
through Krasnosel’skiı̆’s Fixed Point Theorem.
In Chap. 7, we discuss some related problems of impulsive dynamic equations
on translation time scales. The Cauchy matrix and Liouville’s formula on time
scales for impulsive dynamic equations are derived and their almost periodicity is
analyzed. Based on it, the almost periodic solutions of impulsive delay dynamic
equations are investigated and several applications are provided. In addition, ε-
equivalent impulsive functional dynamic equations are proposed and studied.
Moreover, the existence and exponential stability of weighted piecewise pseudo
double-almost periodic mild solutions of impulsive evolution equations are dis-
cussed on ACCTS.
In Chap. 8, on different types of translation time scales, the almost automorphic
problems of different types of dynamic equations on time scales including several
representative classes of Δ and ∇-dynamic equations are discussed. We mainly dis-
cuss the related problems on CCTS, changing-periodic time scales, and semigroups
induced by CCTS.
In Chap. 9, we focus on analyzing dynamical system models on translation
time scales. The exponential dichotomies of some representative types of dynamic
equations on time scales are discussed and some new mean-value criteria for
exponential dichotomy are given and proved and applied to analyze the almost
periodic problems of several real dynamic systems models. Moreover, the matrix
measure on time scales is introduced to analyze a class of impulsive Lasota–
Wazewska model on ACCTS and the existence and exponential stability of almost
periodic solutions of the model are obtained. Finally, a class of double-almost
periodic high-order Hopfield neural networks is proposed and some sufficient
conditions for the existence and ψ-exponential stability of double-almost periodic
solutions with slight vibration in time variables are established.
This is a monograph devoted to developing a theory of translation time scales and
applications to translation functions and dynamic equations. The study of translation
closedness of time scales will not only contribute to studying translation functions
such as periodic functions, almost periodic functions, and almost automorphic
functions and their generalizations but also will contribute to analyzing the delays in
delay dynamic equations on arbitrary time scales. These related topics on dynamic
equations have become a major research field in pure and applied mathematics.
In particular, this book will cover related results in the discrete and continuous
cases. Moreover, some new notions of time scales are introduced and discussed in
Preface xi

detail including complete-closed translation time scales (CCTS), almost-complete

closed time scales (ACCTS), and changing-periodic time scales which are efficient
and original in solving related problems of dynamic equations and dynamic system
models with properties of translation functions.
The book is written at a graduate level, and is intended for university libraries,
graduate students, and researchers working in the field of general dynamic equations
on time scales and it will stimulate further research into time scale theory.
We acknowledge with gratitude the support of National Natural Science Foun-
dation of China (11961077,11601470), IRTSTYN and Joint Key Project of Yun-
nan Provincial Science and Technology Department of Yunnan University (No.
2018FY001(-014)).

Kunming, China Chao Wang

Kingsville, TX, USA Ravi P. Agarwal
Galway, Ireland Donal O’Regan
Coimbatore, India Rathinasamy Sakthivel
Contents

1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 One-Sided Δ-Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Δ-Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Lebesgue Δ-Measure and Δ-Measurable Function . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.4 Riemann Δ-Integral, Lebesgue Δ-Integral, and Some
Important Convergence Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.1.5 Henstock–Kurzweil Δ-Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2 Some Basic Results of ∇-Calculus on Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.1 One-Sided ∇-Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.2.2 ∇-Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.3 Lebesgue ∇-Measure and ∇-Measurable Function . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.2.4 Riemann ∇-Integral, Lebesgue ∇-Integral, and Some
Important Convergence Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.5 Henstock–Kurzweil ∇-Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2 A Classification of Closedness of Time Scales Under Translations . . . . . 51
2.1 Periodic Time Scales and Translations Invariance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2 EA-Computation Method of Hausdorff Distance Between
Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Time Scale Spaces and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
2.3.1 Almost Periodic Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.3.2 Embedding of Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.3.3 Approximation Time Scale Spaces Induced by Functions . . . . 86
2.3.4 The Properties of Almost Periodic Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.4 Complete-Closed Translations Time Scales (CCTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.5 Almost Complete-Closed Time Scales Under Translations
(ACCTS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.6 Changing-Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.7 Some Compactness Criteria on Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

xiii
xiv Contents

2.8 Analysis of General Delays on Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

2.8.1 Delay Systems on Time Scales with a Monotone
Interval Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.8.2 Delay Systems on Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.8.3 Delay Systems on Almost Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3 Almost Periodic Functions and Generalizations
on Complete-Closed Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.1 Almost Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.2 Bohr-Transform and Mean-Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.3 Generalized Pseudo Almost Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.4 Π -Semigroup and Moving-Operators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.5 The Equivalence of Two Concepts of Relatively Dense Sets . . . . . . . . . 222
3.6 Abstract Weighted Pseudo Almost Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.7 Almost Periodic Functions on Changing-Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . 234
4 Piecewise Almost Periodic Functions and Generalizations
on Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.1 Piecewise Almost Periodic Functions on CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.2 Weighted Piecewise Pseudo Almost Periodic Functions on CCTS . . . 252
4.3 Weighted Piecewise Pseudo Double-Almost Periodic
Functions on ACCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
5 Almost Automorphic Functions and Generalizations
on Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.1 Almost Automorphic Functions on CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.2 Almost Automorphic Functions on Semigroups Induced
by CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
5.2.1 Bochner Almost Automorphic Functions on Semigroups . . . . 290
5.2.2 Bohr Almost Automorphic Functions on Semigroups . . . . . . . . 298
5.3 Equivalence of Bochner and Bohr Almost Automorphy on
Semigroup Related to Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
5.4 Weighted Pseudo Almost Automorphic Functions on CCTS . . . . . . . . . 304
5.5 Weighted Piecewise Pseudo Almost Automorphic Functions . . . . . . . . 310
5.6 Local Almost Automorphic Functions on Changing-Periodic
Time Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.6.1 Local Semigroup on Changing-Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . 324
5.6.2 Local Almost Automorphic Functions on Translation
Invariant Sub-Timescales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
5.6.3 Local Pseudo Almost Automorphic Functions
on Sub-CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6 Nonlinear Dynamic Equations on Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.1 Almost Periodic Generalized Solutions for Dynamic
Equations on CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.1.1 Almost Periodic Solutions for Delay Dynamic Equations . . . . 345
Contents xv

6.1.2
Pseudo Almost Periodic Solutions for Dynamic
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.2 Weighted Pseudo Almost Periodic Solutions Under
Π -Semigroup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
6.3 Local-Periodic Solutions on Changing-Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . 363
6.3.1 The Clh Space on Changing-Periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . 364
6.3.2 Preliminary Results of Krasnosel’skiı̆’s Fixed Point
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
6.3.3 Positive Local-Periodic Solutions for FDEID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7 Impulsive Dynamic Equations on Translation Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
7.1 The Cauchy Matrix and Liouville’s Formula on Time Scales . . . . . . . . 389
7.2 Piecewise Almost Periodic Solutions on CCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
7.3 Weighted Piecewise Pseudo Almost Periodic Solutions on CCTS . . . 412
7.4 ε-Equivalent Impulsive Functional Dynamic Equations
on ACCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
7.4.1 Double-Almost Periodic ε-Equivalent Impulsive FDE . . . . . . . 440
7.4.2 Weighted Piecewise Pseudo Double-Almost Periodic
Mild Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
8 Almost Automorphic Dynamic Equations on Translation Time
Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
8.1 Weighted Pseudo Almost Automorphic Solutions on CCTS . . . . . . . . . 477
8.2 Abstract Almost Automorphic Impulsive ∇-Dynamic Equations . . . . 481
8.3 Semilinear Automorphic Dynamic Equations on
Changing-periodic Time Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
8.4 Almost Automorphic Solution on Semigroups Induced by CCTS . . . 500
9 Analysis of Dynamical System Models on Translation Time Scales . . . . 505
9.1 Exponential Dichotomies of Impulsive Dynamic Systems with
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
9.1.1 Exponential Type of Bounds of Solutions for Impulsive
Dynamic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
9.1.2 Some New Mean-Value Criteria for Exponential
Dichotomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
9.1.3 Applications of Exponential Dichotomy on Almost
Periodic Impulsive Dynamic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
9.2 Almost Periodic Analysis of Impulsive Lasota-Wazewska
Model on ACCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
9.2.1 Matrix Measure on Time Scales and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 531
9.2.2 Existence and Exponential Stability of Almost Periodic
Solutions of the Model on ACCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
xvi Contents

9.3 Double-Almost Periodic Analysis of High-Order Hopfield

Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
9.3.1 Existence of Double-Almost Periodic Solutions
with Slight Vibration in Time Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.3.2 ψ-Exponential Stability of Double-Almost Periodic
Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Chapter 1
Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge
on Time Scales

1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales

The discrete and continuous dynamical analysis are very important for studying the
dynamical behavior in the real world, many mathematicians focused on these two
topics and established many classical results in this field (see Agarwal [1], Agarwal
et al. [7, 12], Agarwal and O’Regan [10], Adamec [33], Aulbach [19], Aulbach
and Hilger [20], Ahlbrandt et al. [24], Ahlbrandt and Peterson [23], Ahlbrandt
[27, 28], Akın et al. [40], DaCunha and Davis [92], Lakshmikantham and Leela
[176]). Moreover, the hybrid differential equations were also investigated and the
theoretical results were established (see Dhage and Lakshmikantham [94]). Due to
the complex dynamical behavior of the discrete dynamic equations and its extensive
use, the study of difference equations always is a hot topic (see Ferguson and
Lim [133], Kelley and Peterson [164], Kratz [165], Lakshmikantham and Trigiante
[172]). In 1988, Hilger initiated the time scale calculus to unify both discrete and
continuous situations (see [141–144]), since then many researchers focused their
attention on this topic and many results to unify discrete and continuous analysis
were published (see Agarwal and Bohner [2], Agarwal et al. [3–6, 13, 14], Agarwal
and O’Regan [8, 9, 11], Aulbach and Hilger [21], Aulbach and PÖtzsche [22],
Ahlbrandt et al. [25, 26], Ahlbrandt and Morian [29], Ahlbrandt and Ridenhour
[30]), Akın [39], Akın et al. [41], Jackson [151], Mozyrska et al. [186], Poulsen and
Wintz [198], Saker [202], Seiffertt [203], Sun and Li [204], Fran̆ková [253]).
In this section, we introduce some necessary knowledge of time scales to make
the book self-contained. For the notions used below we refer the reader to the books
[64, 65] which summarize and organize much of time scale calculus. Throughout
this section, we denote the time scale by the symbol T.
A time scale T is a closed subset of R. It follows that the jump operators σ,  :
T → T are defined by σ (t) = inf{s ∈ T : s > t} and (t) = sup{s ∈ T : s < t}
with a stipulation that inf ∅ = sup T (i.e., σ (t) = t if T has a maximum t) and
sup ∅ = inf T (i.e., ρ(t) = t if T has a minimum t), where ∅ denotes the empty set.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

C. Wang et al., Theory of Translation Closedness for Time Scales,
Developments in Mathematics 62, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-38644-3_1
2 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

If σ (t) > t, we say t is right scattered, while if ρ(t) < t we say t is left-scattered.
Points that are right-scattered and left-scattered at the same time are called isolated.
Also, if t < sup T and σ (t) = t, then t is called right-dense, and t > inf T and
ρ(t) = t, then t is called left-dense. Points that are right dense and left-dense at the
same time are called dense. The mapping ν : T → [0, ∞) such that ν(t) = t − ρ(t)
is called the backward graininess function, the mapping μ : T → [0, ∞) such that
μ(t) = σ (t) − t is called the forward graininess function. Note that both σ (t) and
ρ(t) are in T when t ∈ T, this is because T is a closed subset of R. Define
   
T\ ρ(sup(T)), sup T ∩ T if sup T < ∞,
T =
κ
T if sup T = ∞.
  
Likewise, Tκ is defined as the set Tκ = T\ inf T, σ (inf T) ∩ T if | inf T| < ∞
and Tκ = T if inf T = −∞. If f : T → R is a function, then the function 
f σ , f ρ : T → R is defined by f σ (t) = f σ (t) and f ρ (t) = f ρ(t) for all
t ∈ T, respectively, i.e., f σ = f ◦ σ and f ρ = f ◦ ρ.
Throughout the book, for the intervals on time scales, we make the assumption
that a and b are the points in T. For a ≤ b, we will denote the time scale interval

[a, b]T = {t ∈ T : a ≤ t ≤ b}.

Open intervals and half-open intervals etc. are defined accordingly. Note that
[a, b]κT = [a, b]T if b is left-dense and [a, b]κT = [a, b)T = [a, ρ(b)]T if b is
left-scattered. Similarly, ([a, b]T )κ = [a, b]T if a is right-dense and ([a, b]T )κ =
(a, b]T = [σ (a), b]T if a is right-scattered.

1.1.1 One-Sided Δ-Derivative

In this subsection, we introduce the concept of one-sided Δ-derivative and some

basic results.
Definition 1.1 For y : T → R and t ∈ T, we define the right-side Δ-derivative of
Δ (t), to be the number (if it exists) with the property that for a given ε > 0,
y(t), y+
there exists a right-side neighborhood U of t (i.e., U = [t, t + δ)T for some δ > 0)
such that

[y(σ (t)) − y(s)] − y+

Δ
(t)[σ (t) − s] < ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U. That is, the limit

 
f σ (t) − f (s)
Δ
y+ (t) = lim (1.1)
s→t + σ (t) − s

exists.
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 3

Definition 1.2 For y : T → R and t ∈ T, we define the left-side Δ-derivative of

Δ (t), to be the number (if it exists) with the property that for a given ε > 0,
y(t), y−
there exists a left-side neighborhood U of t (i.e., U = (t − δ, t]T for some δ > 0)
such that

[y(σ (t)) − y(s)] − y−

Δ
(t)[σ (t) − s] < ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U. That is, the limit

 
f σ (t) − f (s)
Δ
y− (t) = lim
s→t − σ (t) − s

exists.
 
Remark 1.1 In Definition 1.1, if | inf T| < ∞ and t ∈ inf T, σ (inf T) T , then y
has the right-side Δ-derivative
 at t. Similarly, in Definition 1.2, if sup T < ∞ and
t ∈ ρ(sup T), sup T T , then y has the left-side Δ-derivative at t.
Definition 1.3 For y : T → R and t ∈ Tκ , we define the Δ-derivative of
y(t), y Δ (t), to be the number (if it exists) with the property that for a given ε > 0,
there exists a neighborhood U of t (i.e., U = (t − δ, t + δ)T for some δ > 0) such
that

[y(σ (t)) − y(s)] − y Δ (t)[σ (t) − s] < ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U. That is, the limit

 
f σ (t) − f (s)
y (t) = lim
Δ
s→t σ (t) − s

exists.
From Definitions 1.1 and 1.2, one will easily obtain the following theorems.
Theorem 1.1 Let y : T → R and t ∈ Tκ . Then y is Δ-differentiable if and only if
Δ = yΔ.
y+ −

Remark 1.2 From Theorem 1.1, one will observe that let f : T → R and t ∈ T
be an arbitrary right scattered point, then f is right continuous at t because f is
right-side differentiable at t with (1.1).
Theorem 1.2 Assume that f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ T. Then we have
the following:
(i) If f is right-side differentiable at t, then f is right-side continuous at t.
(ii) If t is right scattered, then f is right-side differentiable at t with
4 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

 
f σ (t) − f (t)
f+Δ (t) = .
σ (t) − t

(iii) If t is right dense, then f is right-side differentiable at t if and only if the limit

f (t) − f (s)
lim
s→t + t −s

exists as a finite number. In this case,

f (t) − f (s)
f+Δ (t) = lim .
s→t + t −s

(iv) If f is right-side differentiable at t, then

 
f σ (t) = f (t) + μ(t)f+Δ (t).

Proof

(i) Suppose f is right-side differentiable at t. Let ε ∈ (0, 1) and ε∗ = ε 1 +
−1
|f+Δ (t)| + 2μ(t) . Then ε∗ ∈ (0, 1). By Definition 1.1, there exists a right
side neighborhood U of t such that

[f (σ (t)) − f (s)] − f+Δ (t)[σ (t) − s] < ε|σ (t) − s| for all s ∈ U.

Therefore, for all s ∈ [t, t + ε∗ ) ∩ U , we obtain

 
|f (t) − f (s)| = f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f+Δ (t)[σ (t) − s]
 
− f (σ (t)) − f (t) − μ(t)f+Δ (t) + (t − s)f+Δ (t)
≤ ε∗ |σ (t) − s| + ε∗ μ(t) + |t − s||f+Δ (t)|
 
≤ ε∗ μ(t) + |t − s| + μ(t) + |f+Δ (t)|
 
< ε∗ 1 + |f+Δ (t)| + 2μ(t) = ε.

Hence we have f is right-side continuous at t.

(ii) If t is a right-scattered point, then f is right-side continuous at t, so

f (σ (t)) − f (s) f (σ (t)) − f (t) f (σ (t)) − f (t)

lim = =
s→t + σ (t) − s σ (t) − t μ(t)

exists. Hence for given ε > 0, there is a right-side neighborhood U of t such

that
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 5

f (σ (t)) − f (s) f (σ (t)) − f (t)

− < ε for all s ∈ U.
σ (t) − s μ(t)

It follows that

f (σ (t)) − f (t)
[f (σ (t)) − f (s)] − [σ (t) − s] < ε|σ (t) − s| for all s ∈ U.
μ(t)

Hence, we obtain
 
f σ (t) − f (t)
f+Δ (t) = .
σ (t) − t

(iii) Assume f is right-side differentiable at t and t is right dense. Let ε >

0 be given. Since f is right-side differentiable at t, there is a right-side
neighborhood U of t such that

[f (σ (t)) − f (s)] − f+Δ (t)[σ (t) − s] ≤ ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U . Since σ (t) = t we obtain that

[f (t) − f (s)] − f+Δ (t)[t − s] ≤ ε|t − s|

for all s ∈ U . It follows that

f (t) − f (s)
− f+Δ (t) ≤ ε
t −s

for all s ∈ U, s = t. Therefore we get

f (t) − f (s)
f+Δ (t) = lim .
s→t + t −s

On the contrary, if the limit

f (t) − f (s)
lim := f+Δ (t)
s→t + t −s

exists as a finite number, then for any ε > 0, there exists a right-side
neighborhood U of t such that

f (t) − f (s)
− f+Δ (t) ≤ ε
t −s

for all s ∈ U, s = t. Since t is right-dense, we have σ (t) = t, that is,

6 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

f (σ (t)) − f (s)
− f+Δ (t) ≤ ε,
σ (t) − s

so we obtain

[f (σ (t)) − f (s)] − f+Δ (t)[σ (t) − s] ≤ ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U .
(iv) If σ (t) = t, then μ(t) = 0 and we have that

f (σ (t)) = f (t) = f (t) + μ(t)f+Δ (t).

On the other hand, if σ (t) > t, then by (ii)

f (σ (t)) − f (t)
f (σ (t)) = f (t) + μ(t) = f (t) + μ(t)f+Δ (t).
μ(t)

This completes the proof.


According to Theorem 1.2, the following theorem is immediate.
Theorem 1.3 Assume that f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ T. Then we have
the following:
(i) If f is left-side differentiable at t, then f is left-side continuous at t.
(ii) If t is right scattered and f is left-side continuous at t, then f is left-side
differentiable at t with
 
f σ (t) − f (t)
f−Δ (t) = .
σ (t) − t

(iii) If t is right dense, then f is left-side differentiable at t if and only if the limit

f (t) − f (s)
lim
s→t − t −s

exists as a finite number. In this case,

f (t) − f (s)
f−Δ (t) = lim .
s→t − t −s

(iv) If f is left-side differentiable at t, then

 
f σ (t) = f (t) + μ(t)f−Δ (t).

According to (ii) from Theorems 1.2 and 1.3, it immediately follows that
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 7

Theorem 1.4 Let f : T → R and t be an isolated point in T. Then f has two

one-sided Δ-derivatives and f−Δ (t) = f+Δ (t) on T , i.e., f is Δ-differentiable at t.
From Theorem 1.4, we can also obtain
Corollary 1.1 Let f : T → R and t be an isolated point in T. Then f is continuous
at t.
Remark 1.3 Note that if t is just a right-scattered point in T and f : T → R, then
f may be not Δ-differentiable at t.
Example 1.1 Let T = [1, 2] ∪ [3, 4] and
⎧
⎪
⎨t + 1, t ∈ [1, 2),
⎪ 2

f (t) = 3, t = 2,
⎪
⎪
⎩t, t ∈ [3, 4].

Then we have
f (σ (2)) − f (s) f (σ (2)) − f (2)
f+Δ (2) = lim = = 0,
s→2+ σ (2) − s σ (2) − 2

f (σ (2)) − f (s) f (σ (2)) − 5

f−Δ (2) = lim = = −2,
s→2− σ (2) − s σ (2) − 2

so we have f+Δ (2) = f−Δ (2), i.e., f is not Δ-differentiable at t. 

Theorem 1.5 Assume that f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ Tκ . Then we have
the following:
(i) If f is differentiable at t, then f is continuous at t.
(ii) If f is continuous at t and t is right scattered, then f is differentiable at t with
 
f σ (t) − f (t)
f (t) =
Δ
.
σ (t) − t

(iii) If t is right dense, then f is differentiable at t if and only if the limit

f (t) − f (s)
lim
s→t t −s

exists as a finite number. In this case,

f (t) − f (s)
f Δ (t) = lim .
s→t t −s
8 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

(iv) If f is differentiable at t, then

 
f σ (t) = f (t) + μ(t)f Δ (t).

Remark 1.4 Notice that for T = [a, b], Definition 1.10 from the literature [64]
will include the one-sided derivatives of f at a and b, where [a, b]κ = [a, b], i.e,
 
f Δ (a) = f+ (a) and f Δ (b) = f− (b). By Theorem 1.16 (i) of the literature [64],
one will obtain that f is continuous at a and b since they are Δ-differentiable.
However, f is right continuous at a and left-continuous at b, respectively. In fact,
 
from Sect. 1.1.1, we know that f+ (a) and f− (b) belong to one-sided Δ-derivative
 
of f , i.e., f+ (a) = f+Δ (a) and f− (b) = f−Δ (b), which implies that f is right
continuous at a and left-continuous at b.

1.1.2 Δ-Calculus

In this subsection, we will introduce some basic knowledge of Δ-calculus and

measure on time scales.
Definition 1.4 ([64, 65]) A function f : T → R is called regulated provided its
right-sided limits exist (finite) at all right-dense points in T and its left-sided limits
exist (finite) at all left-dense points in T.
Definition 1.5 ([64, 65]) The function f : T → R is called rd-continuous provided
that it is continuous at each right-dense point and has a left-sided limit at left dense
points. The set of rd-continuous functions f : T → R will be denoted in this book
by Crd (T) = Crd (T, R). The set of functions f : T → R that are Δ-differentiable
and whose derivative is rd-continuous is denoted by Crd 1 (T) = C 1 (T, R).
rd
Definition 1.6 ([64, 65]) Assume f : T → R is a function and let t ∈ Tκ . Then
we define f Δ (t) to be the number (provided it exists) with the property that given
any ε > 0, there exists a neighborhood U of t (i.e., U = (t − δ, t + δ) ∩ T for some
δ > 0) such that

|f (σ (t)) − f (s) − f Δ (t)[σ (t) − s]| ≤ ε|σ (t) − s|

for all s ∈ U , we call f Δ (t) the delta (or Hilger) derivative of f at t. A function
F : T → R is called an antiderivative of f : T → R provided

F Δ (t) = f (t) holds for all t ∈ Tκ ,

and we define the Cauchy delta integral of f by

 t
f (s)Δs = F (t) − F (a) for all t, a ∈ T.
a
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 9

Theorem 1.6 ([64, 65]) Assume f, g : T → R are differentiable at t ∈ Tκ .

Then:
(i) The sum f + g : T → R are differentiable at t with

(f + g)Δ (t) = f Δ (t) + g Δ (t).

(ii) For any constant α, αf : T → R is differentiable at t with

(αf )Δ = αf Δ (t).

(iii) The product fg : T → R is differentiable at t with

   
(fg)Δ (t) = f Δ (t)g(t) + f σ (t) g Δ (t) = f (t)g Δ (t) + f Δ (t)g σ (t) .
 
(iv) If f (t)f σ (t) = 0, then 1
f is differentiable at t with

 Δ
1 f Δ (t)
(t) = −  .
f f (t)f σ (t)
  f
(v) If g(t)g σ (t) = 0, then g is differentiable at t and

 Δ
f f Δ (t)g(t) − f (t)g Δ (t)
(t) =   .
g g(t)g σ (t)

Theorem 1.7 ([64, 65]) If a, b, c ∈ T, α, β ∈ R, and f, g ∈ Crd , then

b  b b
(i) a αf (t) + βg(t) Δt = α a f (t)Δt + β a g(t)Δt;
b a
(ii) a f (t)Δt = − b f (t)Δt;
c b c
(iii) a f (t)Δt = a f (t)Δt + b f (t)Δt;
b b
(iv) a f (t)Δt ≤ a |f (t)|Δt.
Definition 1.7 ([64, 65]) For h > 0 we define the Hilger complex numbers, the
Hilger real axis, the Hilger alternating axis, and the Hilger imaginary circle as
 
1
Ch := z ∈ C : z = − ,
h
 
1
Rh := z ∈ Ch : z ∈ R and z > − ,
h
 
1
Ah := z ∈ Ch : z ∈ R and z < − ,
h
10 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

 
1 1
Ih := z ∈ Ch : z + = ,
h h

respectively. For h = 0, let C0 := C, R0 := R, I0 = iR, and A0 := ∅.

Definition 1.8 ([64, 65]) Let h > 0 and z ∈ Ch . We define the Hilger real part of z
by

|zh + 1| − 1
Reh (z) :=
h
and the Hilger imaginary part of z by

Arg(zh + 1)
I mh (z) := ,
h

where Arg(z) denotes the principle argument of z (i.e., −π < Arg(z) ≤ π ). Note
that Reh (z) and I mh (z) satisfy

1 π π
− < Reh (z) < ∞ and − < I mh (z) ≤ ,
h h h

respectively. In particular, Reh (z) ∈ Rh .

Definition 1.9 ([64, 65]) Let − πh < ω ≤ π
h . We define the Hilger purely imaginary
numberι̊ω by

eiωh − 1
ι̊ω = .
h

For z ∈ Ch ,ι̊I mh (z) ∈ Ih .

Theorem 1.8 ([64, 65]) If the “circle plus” addition ⊕ is defined by z ⊕ ω :=
z + ω + zωh, then (Ch , ⊕) is an Abelian group. For z ∈ Ch , we have z = Reh (z) ⊕
ι̊I mh (z).
Definition 1.10 ([64, 65]) The “circle minus” substraction  on Ch is defined by
−ω
z  ω := z ⊕ (ω), where ω := 1+ωh .
For h > 0, let Zh be the strip
 
π π
Zh := z ∈ C : − < I m(z) ≤ ,
h h

and for h = 0, let Z0 := C.

Definition 1.11 ([64, 65]) For h > 0, the cylinder transformation ξh : Ch → Zh
by
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 11

1
ξh (z) = Log(1 + zh),
h

where Log is the principal logarithm function. For h = 0, we define ξ0 (z) = z for
all z ∈ C.
We define addition on Zh by
 
2π i
z + ω := z + ω mod for z, ω ∈ Zh . (1.2)
h

Theorem 1.9 ([64, 65]) The inverse transformation of the cylinder transformation
ξh when h > 0 is given by

1 zh
ξh−1 (z) = (e − 1)
h

for z ∈ Zh . For h = 0, ξ0−1 (z) = z.

Theorem 1.10 ([64, 65]) The cylinder transformation ξh is a group homomorphism
from (Ch , ⊕) onto (Zh , +), where the addition + on Zh is defined by (1.2).
Definition 1.12 ([64, 65]) A function p : T → R is called μ-regressive provided
1+μ(t)p(t) = 0 for all t ∈ Tκ . The set of all regressive and rd-continuous functions
p : T → R will be denoted by R = R(T) = R(T, R). We define the set R + =
R + (T, R) = {p ∈ R : 1 + μ(t)p(t) > 0, ∀ t ∈ T}. The set of all regressive
functions on a time scale T forms an Abelian group under the addition ⊕ defined by
p ⊕ q := p + q + μpq.
Definition 1.13 ([64, 65]) If r is a μ-regressive function, then the generalized
exponential function er is defined by
 t 
er (t, s) = exp ξμ(τ ) (r(τ ))Δτ
s

for all s, t ∈ T, where the μ-cylinder transformation is as in

1
ξh (z) := Log(1 + zh).
h

Theorem 1.11 ([64, 65]) Assume that p, q : T → R are two μ-regressive

functions. Then
(i) e0 (t, s) ≡ 1 and ep (t, t) ≡ 1;
(ii) ep (σ (t), s) = (1 + μ(t)p(t))ep (t, s);
(iii) ep (t, s) = ep (s,t)
1
= ep (s, t);
(iv) ep (t, s)ep (s, r) = ep (t, r);
(v) (ep (t, s))Δ = (p)(t)ep (t, s);
12 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

The following two theorems are obvious. For more inequalities on time scales,
one may consult [13, 14].
Theorem 1.12 For ϕ ≥ 0 with −ϕ ∈ R + , the following inequalities hold
  t   t
exp − ϕ(u)Δu ≤ e−ϕ (t, s) ≤ 1 + ϕ(u)Δu for all t ≥ s.
s s

If ϕ is rd-continuous and nonnegative, then

 t  t 
1− ϕ(u)Δu ≤ eϕ (t, s) ≤ exp ϕ(u)Δu for all t ≥ s.
s s

Theorem 1.13 If λ ∈ R + and λ(r) < 0 for all r ∈ [s, t)T , then 0 < eλ (t, s) < 1.
Theorem 1.14 ([64, 65]) If p ∈ R and a, b, c ∈ T, then
 Δ  σ
ep (c, ·) = −p ep (c, ·)

and
 b  
p(t)ep c, σ (t) Δt = ep (c, a) − ep (c, b).
a

Lemma 1.1 ([64, 65]) If z ∈ C is regressive and t0 ∈ T, then

ez (t, t0 ) (z)(t)

σ
ez (t, t0 ) = =− ez (t, t0 ),
1 + μ(t)z z
σ (t, t ) = e (σ (t), t ).
where ez 0 z 0

Theorem 1.15 ([64, 65]) Suppose A and B are differentiable n × n-matrix-valued

functions. Then
(i) (A + B)Δ = AΔ + B Δ ;
(ii) (αA)Δ = αAΔ if α is constant;
(iii) (AB)Δ = AΔ B σ + AB Δ = Aσ B Δ + AΔ B;
(iv) (A−1 )Δ = −(Aσ )−1 AΔ A−1 = −A−1 AΔ (Aσ )−1 if AAσ is invertible;
(v) (AB −1 )Δ = (AΔ − AB −1 B Δ )(B σ )−1 = (AΔ − (AB −1 )σ B Δ )B −1 if BB σ is
invertible.
Definition 1.14 ([64, 65]) An n × n-matrix-valued function A on a time scale T is
called regressive (with respect to T) provided

I + μ(t)A(t) is invertible for all t ∈ Tκ ,

and the class of all such regressive and rd-continuous functions is denoted by
1.1 Some Basic Results of Δ-Calculus on Time Scales 13

R = R(T) = R(T, Rn×n ).

Definition 1.15 ([64, 65]) Assume A and B are regressive n × n-matrix-valued

functions on T. Then we define A ⊕ B by

(A ⊕ B)(t) = A(t) + B(t) + μ(t)A(t)B(t) for all t ∈ Tκ ,

and we define A by

(A)(t) = −[I + μ(t)A(t)]−1 A(t) for all t ∈ Tκ .

Theorem 1.16 ([64, 65]) If A is regressive on T, then

(A)(t) = −A(t)[I + μ(t)A(t)]−1 for all t ∈ Tκ .

Theorem 1.17 ([64, 65], Putzer Algorithm) Let A ∈ R be a constant n × n-

matrix. Suppose t0 ∈ T. If λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn are the eigenvalues of A, then


n−1
eA = ri+1 (t)Pi ,
i=1

where r(t) := (r1 (t), r2 (t), . . . , rn (t))T is the solution of the IVP
⎛ ⎞
λ1 0 0 . . . 0 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ 1
.. ⎟
⎜ 1 λ2 0 . . . .⎟ ⎜0⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟ r, r(t ) = ⎜0⎟ ,
rΔ = ⎜ 0 1 λ3 . . . .⎟⎟ 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎜.⎟
⎜. . . . ⎟ ⎝ .. ⎠
⎝ .. . . . . . .0⎠
0
0 . . . 0 1 λn

and the P-matrices P0 , P1 , . . . , Pn are recursively defined by P0 = I and

Pk+1 = (A − λk+1 I )Pk , for 0 ≤ k ≤ n − 1.

Definition 1.16 ([64, 65]) Let A be an m × n-matrix-valued function on T. We say

that A is rd-continuous on T if each entry of A is rd-continuous on T, and the class
of all such rd-continuous m × n-matrix-valued functions on T is denoted by

Crd = Crd (T) = Crd (T, Rm×n ).

We say that A is differentiable on T provided each entry of A is differentiable on T,

and in this case we put
14 1 Preliminaries and Basic Knowledge on Time Scales

AΔ = (aijΔ )1≤i≤m,1≤j ≤n , where A = (aij )1≤i≤m,1≤j ≤n .

Theorem 1.18 ([64, 65]) If A is differentiable at t ∈ Tκ , then Aσ (t) = A(t) +

μ(t)AΔ (t).
Definition 1.17 ([64, 65]) If the matrix-valued functions A and B are regressive on
T, then we define A  B by

(A  B)(t) = (A ⊕ (B))(t) for all t ∈ Tκ .

If A is a matrix, then we let A∗ denote its conjugate transpose.

Theorem 1.19 ([64, 65]) If A, B ∈ R are matrix-valued functions on T, then
(i) e0 (t, s) ≡ I and eA (t, t) ≡ I ;
(ii) eA (σ (t), s) = (I + μ(t)A(t))eA (t, s);
−1 ∗
(iii) eA (t, s) = eA ∗ (t, s);
−1 ∗
(iv) eA (t, s) = eA (s, t) = eA ∗ (s, t);
(v) eA (t, s)eA (s, r) = eA (t, r);
(vi) eA (t, s)eB (t, s) = eA⊕B (t, s) if eA (t, s) and B(t) commute.
Consider the nonhomogeneous equation

y Δ = A(t)y + f (t),

where f : T → Rn is a vector-valued function.

Theorem 1.20 ([64, 65]) Let A ∈ R be an n × n-matrix-valued function on T and
suppose that f : T → Rn is rd-continuous. Let t0 ∈ T and y0 ∈ Rn . Then the initial
value problem

y Δ = A(t)y + f (t), y(t0 ) = y0

has a unique solution y : T → Rn . Moreover, this solution is given by

 t
y(t) = eA (t, t0 )y0 + eA (t, σ (τ ))f (τ )Δτ.
t0

Theorem 1.21 ([64, 65]) Let A ∈ R be an n × n-matrix-valued function on T and

suppose that f : T → Rn is rd-continuous. Let t0 ∈ T and x0 ∈ Rn . Then the initial
value problem

x Δ = −A∗ (t)x σ + f (t), x(t0 ) = x0

has a unique solution x : T → Rn . Moreover, this solution is given by

Another random document with
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 cirrus, 265;
gill, 268;
jaws, 270;
habitat, 286;
as bait, 297
Nereidae, 258, 315;
palps, 260;
colour, 292
Nereidiformia, 258, 303;
vascular system, 252;
anal cirri, 259;
prostomium, 259, 260;
tentacles, 262;
peristomial cirri, 263;
parapodium, 264 f.;
cirri, 265;
chaetae, 266;
jaws, 269;
eyes, 272;
ciliated organ, 273;
regeneration in, 283;
food, 296;
fossil, 301 f.
Nereilepas, 317
Nereis, 246, 299, 301, 316 f.;
anatomy, 245 f., 247 f.;
transverse section, 247;
parapodium, 246, 247, 265, 317;
chaetae, 246;
head, 246, 248, 316;
alimentary canal, 249 f., 251;
jaws, 248, 250, 270, 316;
nervous system, 254, 255;
eye, 255;
vascular system, 247, 251;
dorsal ciliated organ, 247, 254, 256;
nephridium, 253;
 reproduction, 256;
sexually mature, 276, 276 f.;
sexual dimorphism and Heteroneid phase, 276 f.;
epitokous (= epigamous) and atokous phase, 277 n.;
from fresh water, 284;
burrow, 286;
pigment, 292;
as bait, 297;
commensalism, 298;
as host, 299;
British species, 316 f.
Nereites, 302
Nerine, 299, 322;
habitat, 286;
N. vulgaris, head, 322
Nerve plexus of Nemertinea, 103, 105
Nervous system, of Leptoplana, 13, 14;
of Polyclads, 26, 30;
of Planaria lactea, 39;
reduced in parasitic Rhabdocoels, 45;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Polystomatidae, 56;
of Cestodes, 75, 86;
of Nemertinea, 105, 106;
of Nematoda, 127;
of Gordiidae, 166;
of Acanthocephala, 177;
of Chaetognatha, 187;
of Rotifera, etc., 215, 234, 237;
of Archiannelida, 243, 244;
of Polychaeta, 254;
visceral, of Polychaeta, 255;
of Oligochaeta, 353, 374;
of Gephyrea, 416, 431, 437, 440, 445;
of Phoronis, 456;
of Polyzoa, 471
Neumann, on parasites, 164
Neuropodium, 246, 247, 264, 266, 268
Newton, on zoo-geographical regions, 372
Nicolea, 328;
gill, 329
Nicomache, 332;
tail, 332;
tube, 287;
N. lumbricalis, colour, 292;
distribution, 299
Nitsche, on Polyzoa, 475 n., 478, 500
Nitzschia, 56, 73
Norman, on Polyzoa, 475
Norodonia, 492
Notamia, 518, 526
Noteus, 225
Notholca, 225, 226
Notocotyle, 73
Notomastus, 331;
chaetae, 268
Notommata, 217, 224, 226
Notommatidae, 200, 205, 207, 215, 223, 224
Notophyllum, colour, 293
Notopodium, 246, 247, 264, 265, 268
Notops, 200, 224
Notopygos, 259
Nuchal cirri of Eunicidae, 318;
Nuchal organ—see Ciliated pits

Ocnerodrilus, 383
Octobothrium, 56, 73
Octochaetus, 358, 384
Octocotylinae, 73
Octotrocha, 221
Odontosyllis, reproduction of, 278;
as host, 297.
Oecistes, 205, 206, 221
Oenonites, 302
Oesophageal glands, 271, 358
Ogmogaster, 73
Oka, on Hirudinea, 399 f.;
on Polyzoa, 500
Olfactory pits, in Polyclads, 26;
in Triclads, 36
Oligocelis, 42
Oligochaeta, 241, 347 f.;
external characters, 348;
body-wall, 349;
chaetae, 350, 351;
branchiae, 352;
nervous system, 353;
sense-organs, 354;
coelom and vascular system, 355;
excretory organs, 356;
alimentary canal, 358;
reproductive organs, 360;
habitat, 365;
phosphorescence, 368;
distribution, 369;
classification, 373;
Rotifers parasitic on, 227
Oligocladus, 19, 22
Oligognathus, 297
Ollulanus, 142;
O. tricuspis, 144, 161
Omalostoma, 49
Onchnesoma, 422, 423, 426, 430, 447
Onchocotyle, 73
Oncholaimus, 157
Onchosphaera-larva of Cestodes, 87, 88
Onuphin, 290
Onuphis, 290, 318, 319;
O. conchylega, tube, 287
Onychochaeta, 388;
chaeta, 351
Onyx, 131
Ootype, in Polystomum, 59.
Operculum, of Serpulidae, 261, 276, 339;
of Spirorbis, as brood-pouch, 261, 276;
of Cheilostomata, 466, 477, 481, 482, 522, 524
Opesia, 524
Ophelia, 299, 332;
eggs, 275;
coelomic corpuscles, 252
Opheliidae, 258, 331;
gill, 265;
ciliated pits, 272
Ophiodromus, 308;
O. flexuosus, parasitic, 297
Ophryotrocha, 310, 320;
pelagic, 291;
genital organs, 274
Opisthotrema, 73
Opistoma, 50
Orbigny, D', on Polyzoa, 519, 520
Orifice, of zooecium, 466, 469, 470, 524;
secondary, 522, 524
Örley, on classification of Nematodes, 137
Orthonectidae, 13, 92, 94 f.
Otocyst (and Otolith), of Turbellaria, 26;
of Nemertinea, 106, 110;
of Polychaeta, 273
Otomesostoma, 46, 49
Otoplana, 50
Oudemans, on Nemertinea, 108
Ovary (and Oviduct), of Leptoplana, 11, 14, 16;
of Polyclads, 27;
of Planaria, 38, 39;
of Rhabdocoelida, 47;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Polystomatidae, 57;
of Diplozoon, 60;
 of Gyrodactylus, 61;
of Distomum macrostomum, 65;
of Calliobothrium, 75;
of Archigetes, 76;
of Schistocephalus, 86;
of Rhopalura, 95;
of Myzostoma, 343—see also Reproductive organs
Ovicell, in Cheilostomata, 466, 466, 468, 481, 482, 484, 522 f.,
525;
in Cyclostomata, 479, 480, 521, 525
Oviduct—see Ovary
Owenia, 325
Ox, parasites of, 79, 83, 125, 139, 140, 143
Oxysoma, 139, 142
Oxyuris, 129, 131, 135, 139, 141, 160;
O. ambigua, 141;
O. curvula, 141, 163;
O. diesingi, 141, 142;
O. vermicularis, 141, 163;
O. blattae, O. blatticola, O. hydrophili, O. megatyphlon,
O. spirotheca, 142

Paddle worm, 313

Paedogenesis, 151
Pagenstecher, on Nemertinea, 99
Palaemonetes, host of Nectonema, 174
Palaeonemertea, 109, 112;
characters, 111;
development, 113
Palaeozoic, Serpulidae, 301;
Eunicidae, 302;
Polyzoa, 520
Paleae, of Sabellaria, 267
Palmicellaria, 527, 528
Palolo viridis, as food, 297
Palps, of Nereis, 248, 255;
nerves to, 254;
 of Polychaeta, 260 f.;
development of, in Sabelliformia, 275;
of Hermelliformia, 306;
of Syllidae, 307
Paludicella, 492, 494, 501, 502, 505, 518
Paludicola, 30, 42
Panthalis, 313
Paragnaths, 248, 250, 316
Parapodium, of Nereis, 246, 247;
of Polychaeta, 264 f.;
of Heteronereid, 276, 277;
muscles of, 247;
glands of, 249, 314;
of Myzostoma, 342
Paraseison, 212, 225, 226
Parasitic, Turbellaria, 51;
Polyclads, 22;
Triclads, 32;
Rhabdocoela, 45, 51;
Nemertinea, 101, 119;
Rotifers, 204, 227;
Polychaeta, 297;
Leeches, 406
Parasitism, effect on the parasite, 161, 177;
effects on the host, 162
Parenchyma, in Leptoplana, 11, 12;
of Müller's larva, 29;
in Triclads, 41;
in Acoela, 42;
in Cestodes, 85, 86
Parovaria, of Phagocata, 38 n.
Parthenogenesis, amongst Rotifers, 200
Pectinaria, 330;
body, 259;
tube, 285, 287;
P. auricoma, tube, 288;
P. belgica, 330
Pectinatella, 496, 497, 505, 512, 518;
statoblast, 502
Pedalion, 200, 201, 206, 211, 216, 223, 224, 225, 228, 230
Pedalionidae, 223
Pedetes, 224
Pedicellina, 487, 488, 490, 506, 507, 518;
larva, 510, 513;
budding, 514;
on Polychaeta, 299
Pelagic, Nemertinea, 101, 114;
Chaetognatha, 189; Rotifera, 226;
Polychaeta, 291, 294, 314;
larvae of Polychaeta, 300, of Polyzoa, 520
Pelagobia, 314
Pelagonemertes, 101, 114
Pelodera, 129, 131, 133
Pelodrilus, 369, 377
Pelodytes, 134
Penis, of Leptoplana, 14, 15;
of Polyclads, 27;
of Planaria, 38, 39;
of Rhabdocoelida, 47;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Calliobothrium, 75;
of Schistocephalus (cirrus-sac), 86
Pennant, on Hirudinea, 406 n.
Pereyaslawzewa, on Acoela, 44 n.
Pergens, on Polyzoa, 500
Perichaeta, 351, 357, 358, 372, 381, 381 f., 388, 394, 403
Perichaetidae, 357, 362, 380
Perienteric, blood-sinus, 252
Perionyx, 381
Perissogaster, 383
Peristome, 481, 482, 522, 524
Peristomial (tentacular) cirri, of Nereis, 248;
of Polychaeta, 263;
nerves to, 254
Peristomium, of Nereis, 248;
of Polychaeta, 263;
of Sabellidae, 336
Perrier, on Oligochaeta, 367, 385
Petalostoma, 422, 426, 430, 447
Petromyzon, host of Gordius, 173
Petta, intestine of, 271
Phagocata, 31, 32
Phalacrophorus, 314
Phanerocephala, 258, 303
Pharynx, 4;
of Leptoplana, 8, 9, 12, 14;
of Polyclads, 17, 24;
of Discocelis, 23;
development of, in Polyclads, 29, 30;
of Triclads, 31, 37, 39;
of Temnocephala, 53, 54;
of Polystomatidae, 56;
of Digenea, 62, 64;
of Nereis, 249, 250, 251;
of Polychaeta, 269
Phascolion, 423, 425, 428
Phascolosoma, 416, 420, 423, 425, 428, 447;
as host of Loxosoma, 489
Philippi, on Hirudinea, 406
Philodina, 208, 222, 227
Philodinidae, 222
Phoronis, 450 f., 451, 452, 453, 455;
habits, 451;
anatomy, 453 f., 457;
development, 458, 458;
species, 460;
affinities, 461, 512
Phosphorescence (and light-producing organs), in Rotifers, 226;
in Polychaeta, 272, 295, 296;
in Oligochaeta, 368;
in Polyzoa, 478
Photodrilus, 368, 383
Photogen (light-producing organ), of Polyophthalmus, 272;
of Tomopteris, 296, 315
Phreodrilus, 369, 379
Phreoryctes, 367, 377
Phreoryctidae, 376
Phylactella, 528, 530
Phylactolaemata, 476, 493 f., 518;
lophophore, 476, 495;
occurrence, 493;
movements, 494, 496 f.;
reproduction, 501, 506, 507;
larva, 511, 512;
distribution, 493, 504;
affinities, 512
Phyllacanthinae, 91
Phyllobothrinae, 91
Phyllobothrium, 76 n., 91
Phyllocotyle, 73
Phyllodoce, 313, 314;
head, 262, 263:
eggs, 275, 314 n.;
colours, 291, 292;
parapodium, 264;
chaeta, 267
Phyllodocidae, 258, 313;
parapodial cirri, 266;
as food, 297;
eggs, 314;
colours, 292, 293
Phyllodocites, 302
Phyllonella, 73
Phymosoma, 413, 420, 421, 423 f., 425, 426
Physaloptera, 163
Pig, parasites of, 68, 79, 139, 147, 184
Pigments, of Polychaeta, 291 f.;
of Gephyrea, 435
Pike, Trematode of, 62;
Cestode of, 81, 84
Pilidium larva, 113, 113, 229, 230
Pionosyllis, 308
Piscicola, 393, 406
Pista, 328;
gill of, 329
Pits, ciliated, of Polychaeta, 272, 273
Placostegus, colour, 292;
from deep sea, 300
Placunella, 73
Plagiochaeta, 358, 381, 384
Plagiostoma, 46;
British species, 50
Plagiostomatidae, 50
Planaria, 30, 31 f., 39;
British species, 42
Planarians, 3, 7;
Dinophilus, compared with, 242, 243
Planariidae, 42
Planctoplana, 19
Plankton, Rotifers in, 225
Planocera, 18, 19, 20
Planoceridae, 19, 23
Planorbis, host of Gordius, 173
Plants, parasites on, 154, 155, 157, 160
Plasmodium, nature of, in Orthonectids, 94
Plate, on Rotifers, 198, 225 n.
Platyaspis, 73
Platycotyle, 73
Platyhelminthes, 3 f.;
Nemertinea classed with, 119
Plectanocotyle, 73
Plectus, 160
Pleionogaster, 381
Plerocercoid larva, 84
Plessis, du, on Tetrastemma lacustre, 101 n., 118
Pleurocotyle, 73
Pleurotrocha, 224, 226
Ploesoma, 212, 225
Ploima, 202, 203, 212, 213, 216, 220, 223, 226, 227
Plumatella, 493, 494, 499, 503-505, 518, 519;
protrusion of polypides, 499;
statoblasts, 499, 502, 503;
larva, 512
Podal membrane, of Spionidae, 322
Podaxonia, 461
Polyarthra, 201, 224, 226
Polybostrichus, 280
Polycelis, 30, 31, 40, 42
Polychaeta, 241, 245 f.;
classification, 257, 258, 303 f,;
head, 248, 259 f.;
parapodium, 246, 264 f.;
chaetae, 246, 266 f.;
coelomic fluid, 252;
nervous system, 254;
sense-organs, 255, 272;
ciliated pits, 272;
alimentary canal, with pharynx, 249, 250, 251, 269, 270, 271;
oesophageal glands, 271 f.;
nephridium, 253, 254, 269, 274;
genital duct, 254, 269;
genital cells, 256, 273 f.;
hermaphrodite, 273;
regeneration, 278, 282;
habits, 285;
carnivorous, 304;
distribution, 299;
from fresh water, 284;
from deep sea, 300;
pelagic, 291, 314;
boring, 287;
tubes, 287;
pigments, 291;
colours, 291 f.;
warning colours, 294;
protective devices and mimicry, 293;
phosphorescent, 295;
food of, 296, 299;
as bait, 296, 297;
as food for man, 297;
commensalism, 297 f.;
 parasitic, 297 f.;
as hosts, 299;
extinct, 301, 302;
larva, 274, 276, 300;
provisional chaetae, 274
Polychoerus, 49;
development of, 44 n.
Polycirrus, 330;
habits of, 285;
P. aurantiacus, warning colours, 294;
phosphorescence, 295;
P. haematodes, coelomic corpuscles, 253
Polycladida (Polyclads), 4 f., 7;
classification, 16 f.;
development, 28 f.;
British species, 19, 20, 22
Polycladus, 42
Polycotyle, 73
Polydora (= Leucodore), 323;
frontal ridge, 260;
head, 261;
special chaetae, 267;
with Heliopora, 298;
P. ciliata, borings, 287
Polydoridae, 258, 323
Polygordius, 242, 244;
development, 245
Polymnia, 328
Polymorphism, of Nereis, 277
Polymyarii, 137, 142
Polynoe 310;
segments 258;
parapodium, 265;
jaws, 270;
anus, 259;
nephridium, 254;
habits, 286;
 as ectoparasites or commensals, 294, 298, 325;
distribution, 299, 300;
British species, 299, 310 f.;
P. squamata, 309;
elytron, 310;
P. clava, elytron, 310;
P. imbricata, elytron, 311
Polynoina (= Polynoids), 309;
head, 262;
chaetae, 266, 267;
jaw, 270;
intestine, 271; eggs, 275;
sexual dimorphism, 276 n.;
tubes, 285;
colours, 291, 292;
protective resemblance, 294;
phosphorescence, 295, 296;
food, 296;
parasitic and commensal, 297, 325;
elytra, 275, 294, 295, 299, 309 f.
Polyodontes, 313 n.
Polyophthalmus, 332;
segmental eyes, 272, 296;
otocyst, 273
Polype à pannache, 496
Polypide, 468, 469, 474, 488, 523;
retraction and protrusion, 498 f.
Polypide-bud, 468, 472, 487, 496, 499, 501, 510;
connected with reproduction, 507
Polypostia, 19;
penes, 27
Polystomatidae, 53, 55, 73
Polystomatinae, 73
Polystomum, 55, 57;
life-history, 58, 59
Polyzoa, 465 f., 475;
external characters, 465 f., 479 f.;
 anatomy, 468 f., 469;
brown bodies, 471 f., 472;
history, 474 f.;
classification, 475 f., 515, 517 f.;
occurrence, 477 f.;
avicularia and vibracula, 482;
enemies, 486;
Entoprocta, 487;
fresh water, 492 f.;
reproduction, 501, 506;
development, 509;
affinities, 461, 509, 510;
metamorphosis, 512;
budding, 514;
distribution, 493, 504, 519;
palaeontology, 520;
terminology, 523;
determination of British genera, 505, 521, 525
Pomatoceros, habitat, 300, 340
Pompholyx, 201, 203, 225
Pontobdella, 393, 401, 404, 406
Pontodora, 314
Pontodrilus, 366, 370, 383
Pontoscolex, 350, 366, 387 f.;
chaeta, 351
Pore, in Polyzoa, 471, 482, 522, 524;
median, 484, 524;
dorsal, 348
Porella, 516, 518, 522, 527, 529
Porina, 518, 527, 529
Potamilla, 338
Praeoral lobe (= Prostomium), 245, 439
Predaceous worms, 304
Priapuloidea, 412, 446;
anatomy, 430;
classification, 432;
habits, 433
Priapulus, 430, 431, 432;
anatomy, 430 f.
Pristina, 377
Proales, 204, 224, 226, 227
Proboscidae, 49;
occurrence, 44
Proboscis, of Nemertinea, 100, 101 f., 103 f.;
of Hoplonemertea, 104, 110;
opening by mouth, 117, 119;
severance of, 116;
of Acanthocephala, 174 f.;
of Rotifers, 203;
of Kinorhyncha, 237;
of Echiuroidea, 434
Proboscis-pore of Nemertinea, 102, 103
Proboscis-sheath of Nemertinea, 103, 103 f.
Procerodes, 42
Procerodidae, 42
Procerus, host of Gordius, 172
Procotylea, 36, 42
Proglottis, 5, 74, 75, 79, 85
Promesostoma, occurrence, 44;
British species, 49
Proporidae, 49
Proporus venenosus, 49
Prorhynchidae, 49
Prorhynchus sphyrocephalus, terrestrial habit, 44;
P. stagnalis, 49
Prosorhochmus claparedii, 110, 114, 117
Prostate-gland, of Leptoplana, 16;
of Polyclads, 30;
of Planaria, 39;
of Rhabdocoela, 47;
of Oligochaeta, 361
Prostheceraeus, 19, 22;
spermatophores, 27
Prosthiostomatidae, 19
Prosthiostomum, 17, 18, 19, 24
Prostomial tentacles, 248, 262
Prostomium, 241;
of Dinophilus, 243;
of Polygordius, 244;
of Trochosphere, 245;
of Nereis, 248;
of Polychaeta, 259;
of Glyceridae, 320;
of Terebellidae, 327;
of Oligochaeta, 348
Protodrilus, 242, 244
Protonemertini, 112
Protula, 341;
genital organs, 273, 274;
eggs, 275
Prouho, on Polyzoa, 489, 507 f.
Provisional chaetae, 274
Provortex, British species, 50
Proxenetes, 44;
British species, 49
Pruvot, on Polychaeta, 261
Psamathe, 300, 308
Psammolyce, 313;
elytra, 294, 313
Pseudalius, 135, 142, 163
Pseudaxine, 73
Pseudoceridae, 19, 20
Pseudoceros, 19, 20
Pseudocotyle, 73
Pseudorhynchus bifidus, 49
Psygmobranchus, 341
Pterobranchia, 461
Pterodina, 200, 201, 203, 206, 211, 215, 216, 225, 226, 230
Pterodinidae, 201, 225
Pteroessa, 224
Pteronella, 73
Pterostichus niger, infested by Gordius, 170, 170, 172
Pterosyllis, ciliated lappets, 273 n.
Pyriform organ, 509, 511

Quatrefages, on Gephyrea, 411, 445

Rabbit, parasites of, 141, 145

Ragworm, 322
Railliet, on Cestodes, 91
Rami, in Rotifers, 210
Rasping plate, of Eunicidae, 270
Rattulidae, 210, 225
Rattulus, 212, 225, 226
Ratzel, on Earthworms, 350
Red Cat, 316
Regeneration of lost parts, in Polyclads, 26;
in Triclads, 40;
in Cestodes, 77;
in Nemertinea, 115;
in Polychaeta, 278, 282;
in Oligochaeta, 348, 379;
in Polyzoa, 471, 488
Repetition of parts, 249
Replacement of species, 300
Reproduction (and Reproductive organs), of Leptoplana, 14 f.;
of Polyclads, 26, 30;
of Triclads, 31, 38, 39;
of Rhabdocoelida, 45, 47 f.;
of Temnocephala, 54;
of Polystomatidae, 57 f.;
of Diplozoon, 60;
of Digenea, 65;
of Calliobothrium, 75;
of Schistocephalus, 86;
of Mesozoa, 93 f.;
of Nemertinea, 102, 103, 104, 109;
of Nematoda, 134;
 of Nematomorpha, 166, 169;
of Acanthocephala, 178;
of Chaetognatha, 188;
of Rotifera, etc., 216, 234, 238;
of Archiannelida, 243 f.;
of Polychaeta, 253, 254, 256, 269, 273;
of Myzostoma, 343;
of Oligochaeta, 360;
of Leeches, 401;
of Gephyrea, 418, 431, 437;
of Phoronis, 457;
of Polyzoa, 471, 490, 501, 506—see also Ovary and Asexual
reproduction
Reptiles, parasites of, 163
Respiration, in Nereis, 252;
in Chaetopoda, 272;
in Gephyrea, 416
Retepora, 479, 515, 518, 527
Rhabdites (rods), of Leptoplana, 11, 12;
in Polyclads, 29;
in Triclads, 37;
absent in parasitic Rhabdocoela, 45;
in Temnocephala, 53, 54
Rhabditiformae, 137
Rhabditis, 154, 160;
R. nigrovenosa, 140, 155
Rhabdocoelida, 4, 7, 36, 42 f.;
occurrence and habits, 43;
parasitic forms, 44;
reproduction, 47;
classification, 49;
British species, 43, 44, 49
Rhabdogaster, 158
Rhabdonema nigrovenosum, 134, 136, 140, 151, 160, 161
Rhabdopleura, 461 f.
Rhinodrilus, 348
Rhinopidae, 220 n., 224