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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN EDUC ATION

Christine Grima-Farrell
Tony Loughland
Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen

Theory to Practice
in Teacher
Education
The Critical
Challenge of
Translation
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Christine Grima-Farrell Tony Loughland
• •

Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen

Theory to Practice in Teacher

Education
The Critical Challenge of Translation

123
Christine Grima-Farrell Tony Loughland
Catholic Schools Office, Broken Bay School of Education
School of Education UNSW Sydney
UNSW Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
Sydney, NSW, Australia

Hoa Thi Mai Nguyen

School of Education
UNSW Sydney
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Contents

1 Eclectic Perspectives and Experiences of Teacher Education

Unite: Diverse Research to Practice Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Where Are We Now? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Where Have We Come from? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Changing Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Regulatory Realities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Consistency in Translation that Champions Contextual Realities
and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 5
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 7
2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways to Reduce
the Research-Practice in Teacher Education: Implementation
Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Research Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Participating Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Consistency in the Connections Among RTP Implementation
Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 18
Limitations of the Study and Recommendations for Future
Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 24
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 25
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 25
3 Modes of Translation in Initial Teacher Education:
From Normal Schools to Hub Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
In the Beginning: Teacher Seminaries and Normal Schools . . . . . . . . . . 27
Demonstration Schools: Two Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

v
vi Contents

Case #1: Fielden, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 30

Case #2: North Sydney Demonstration School, Sydney,
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 31
Case Study Synthesis: What Modes of Translation Are and Were
Used in These Demonstration Schools? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 33
Professional Development Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 34
Academy Schools and Teach for Your Country: The Current State
of Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 36
Implications for Future Modes of Translation in Initial Teacher
Education: The New Normal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 42
4 The Relationship of the Developmental Discourse of the Graduate
Teacher Standards to Theory and Practice Translation
via Implementation Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Literature Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
The Developmental Use of the Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Regulatory Use of the Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Teacher Education Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Supervising Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
University Mentors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Developmental Deployment of the Standards for Teacher
Education Students on Professional Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
The Developmental Discourse in the Accreditation of Initial
Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 58
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 59
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60
5 Translation to Practice: Insights from the Stakeholders’
Experiences in a Collaborative Model of Professional
Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 63
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 63
A Community of Practice Approach to Professional Experience
to Enhance Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 64
Changing Roles of the Stakeholders in the Professional
Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 66
Research Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 66
Contents vii

Context of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 67

Data Collection and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 67
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 68
University Mentors as Supporters, Liaison Representatives,
and Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
School Mentors as Role Models, Supporters, and Learners . . . . . . . . 70
Pre-service Teachers as Peer Mentors and Learners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6 Collaborative School and University Partnerships in Preparing
Teachers for Inclusive Education: Researcher and Teacher
Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Partners and Key Collaborators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Project Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Aims and Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Significance to Quality Practices in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Theoretical Framework of the Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Methods of Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Key Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
The Responsiveness and Versatility of Teacher Education
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 88
Collaboration, Support and Communication Amongst Peers,
School and University Partnership Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Responsibility and Positive Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Discussion and Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Vignette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7 The Teacher Performance Assessment: A Benchmark
for Translation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
The Genesis of the Teacher Performance Assessment in Australia . . . . . 98
The TPA Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
The TPA Implementation: A Measure of Assessment-Centric
Graduates? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Pre-structural Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Unistructural Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Multistructural Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
viii Contents

Relational Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Extended Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Can the TPA Be a Threshold Test of Knowledge Translation
for Teacher Education Programs? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Appendix 1: TPA rubric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Appendix 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8 Reframing the Problematic: From Translation to the Interaction
of Theory to Practice in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
The Importance of Implementation Science to the Translation
of Theory to Practice in Initial Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
The Importance of a Developmental Growth Model in ITE . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Primacy of Practice in the Translation of Theory to Practice . . . . . . 122
Future Directions for Research in ITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Chapter 1
Eclectic Perspectives and Experiences
of Teacher Education Unite: Diverse
Research to Practice Perspectives

Abstract This book showcases a range of school-based and university-based

research that is eclectic in its theoretical approach, design and implementation. It
draws on plausible theoretical resources as they fit the authors positions, just as
school-based colleagues pragmatically apply theory where it is required. The
knowledge presented emerges from and is informed by the work of both researchers
and practitioners who continue to work with a diverse range of current and future
educators in the field of teacher education. Collectively, Grima-Farrell, Loughland
and Nguyen’s work advocate for the high quality teacher education experiences that
link research, theory and practice to build graduate teacher capacity for
evidence-based practice. Their work shares differing insights, expertise and expe-
riences whilst acknowledging that the empirical research that supports the trans-
lation of practices from teacher preparation courses into real world settings
continues to evolve and can be further developed.

Introduction

Educational directives and approaches are consistently evolving. Teachers may be

influenced by educational trends that align with changes across domains in the lives
of their students. Interpreting what is current may be aligned with statistics, pub-
lications and media interactions. This can be a philosophical concern for educa-
tional researchers as popular approaches are not always embedded in empirical
evidence or are the most effective.
The field of education is increasingly advocating for the translation and imple-
mentation of evidence-based practices. However, with the changes in policy,
accreditation and directives, reform fatigue can become a reality for many teachers.
Well marketed approaches that are labelled “new and innovative” in education can
take schools by storm and teacher educators strive to work with undergraduate and
post graduate teachers to raise awareness of ways to identify and implement
evidence-based approaches. Whilst as a profession, we are still working at

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1
C. Grima-Farrell et al., Theory to Practice in Teacher Education,
SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9910-8_1
2 1 Eclectic Perspectives and Experiences of Teacher …

sustaining the implementation of research-based practices rather than moving from

one well publicised approach to another (Grima-Farrell 2017).
This book strives to raise awareness of the usual suspects that contribute to the
research to practice gap in teacher education. It moves beyond research to practice
lip service to raising awareness of the development of teacher education, highlights
a theoretical approach that is eclectic and showcases a range of theories and
research that has successfully implemented empirical practices to respond to the
diverse needs of student and teacher populations. Research on Teaching Standards
that reflect accreditation requirements and a study that investigates ways to make
the assessment valid, reliable, moderated and feasible within supervisory context
arrangements for final year teacher education students is also featured.

Where Are We Now?

Researchers and tertiary educators have long attempted to deliver comprehensive

teacher education programs that positively influence the confidence, capacity and
academic performance and accreditation requirements of undergraduate and post
graduate teachers. Yet the gap between what is highlighted as research-based
approaches and actual classroom practice is well articulated. A critical component
that links research and practice domains is implementation. The emerging field of
implementation science appreciates that effective research-based interventions will
only result in the desired outcomes if they are employed.
Chapter 2 reflects on current educational landscapes, with increased transparency
and accreditation accountability, and highlights that there is an increasing demand
for teacher educators to be responsive to the needs of individual students through
the use of evidence-based practices. It strongly states that the call for the translation
of effective practice based skills and knowledge for teachers continues to be
advocated through the research recommendations, teacher publications and direc-
tives and the media. The field of implementation science responds to these calls as it
strives to investigate the challenges that impede effective implementation of
research in practice and aims to strengthen the application of research-based
interventions to enhance sustained student growth.
Implementation science knowledge builds on Cook, Cook and Landrum’s
(2013) work that draws on Heath and Heath’s (2008) characteristics of messages
that are likely to stick on a broad scale. They advocate that it is time to move
beyond making information available for interpretation, and state that it is now time
for collaborative action. This book is an example of that collaborative action that is
informed by the work of three diverse researchers and experienced teachers in an
effort to showcase research that is beneficial to practical teacher education appli-
cations. Both researcher and practitioner perspectives need to be comprehended for
educational theory and research to be disseminated and implemented in practice,
conversely teacher education practice needs to be informed by research.
Where Are We Now? 3

The chapters in this book align with the direction of the field of implementation
science as it strives to articulate the challenges that impede the effective imple-
mentation of research into practice from both teacher and researcher perspectives in
an effort to enhance the sustained growth and impact of future teacher education
initiatives.

Where Have We Come from?

The historical evolution of teacher education has emerged significantly over recent
decades. Chapter 3 presents a chronological history of the development of teacher
education since 1839. It highlights the four foundational domains of the early
school curriculum as being subject knowledge, the art of teaching, governance of
the school and the observation and practice of good teaching methods (Ogren2005).
The core of this chapter is on the review of pre-service teacher education with a
focus on school-university partnerships in initial teacher education. It highlights key
lessons from the modes of translation employed in the historical models and
compares them to current school and university partnership contexts.
The complexity of the work of a teacher is acknowledged and mentoring and
reflective practice are promoted as being beneficial to building teacher confidence
and capacity. The dynamic nature and demands of the density of teacher respon-
sibilities has prompted research into teacher adaptability that measures response to
change, novelty and uncertainty in their work. However, there seems to be more
interaction than translation taking place and theory remains positioned as discon-
nected from practice in many educational domains.

Changing Directions

This period in teacher education, may perhaps be a time of greatest gain and most
significant challenge. Significant advancement has been experienced in educational
research and practice has evolved from the development of successful program
model and school and university partnerships. Politicians, educators, activists and
parents, nationally and globally, have a strong commitment to the improvement of
teaching practices. Yet there are significant challenges in the articulation of what
works in theory to its sustained implementation within our complex and unique
schools and classrooms. Multiple elements within our environment can conspire to
undermine research to practice efforts in teacher education.
Mentoring in teacher education is increasingly being regarded as being beneficial
in reducing these challenges and strengthening proposed school-based teacher
training initiatives (Grima-Farrell 2015; Nguyen 2017). It purports that increased
4 1 Eclectic Perspectives and Experiences of Teacher …

university partnerships with greater opportunities for practice in schools, alongside

well trained mentors, will lead to more effective graduates and enhance teaching
and learning opportunities for a diverse range of students.
Chapter 3 showcases a rigorous body of research that supports the establishment
of robust school and university partnerships. It highlights that such partnerships
create and sustain collaborative communities of practice that support teacher pro-
fessional learning for interns as well as veteran teachers. The demonstration school
movement is described in Chap. 3 and is aligned with key elements of the
Professional Development Schools initiative (a US university drive offering teacher
education courses in schools in the mid-1980s for both pre-service and in-service
teachers). This knowledge is informative for teacher educator reformers who aim to
establish, strengthen or sustain school and university partnerships.
Descriptions and examples of the collaborative requirements of school and
university partnerships are expanded on in Chaps. 5 and 6. Explicit collaborative
efforts that link school sectors and universities have been encouraged to strengthen
links between teacher preparation programs and classroom realities. Chapter 6
reports on a collaborative school system and university partnership case study that
embedded inclusive education policies and frameworks with prior knowledge of
factors that contribute to the successful translation of research to practice across our
schools. This work represents an avenue that unites multiple research and practice
sources of influence to provide an extended undergraduate teacher education
opportunity that gives final year teaching students the opportunity to link research
and practice in authentic classrooms for a full year during their teacher training.

Regulatory Realities

Considerations that can not be ignored in school and university partnerships and
teacher education in general are regulatory mandates.
The Australian Professional Standards for Teachers (the Standards) are grouped
into three domains of teaching; Professional Knowledge, Professional Practice and
Professional Engagement. Teacher accreditation is mandatory in Australia and
accreditation is based on these Australian Professional Standards for Teachers.
They were initially released in 2011 by the Australian Institute for Teaching and
School Leadership (AITSL), a national body that strives to guide high quality
professional development for teachers and school leaders across Australian states.
Teacher education initiatives acknowledge that in practice, teaching draws on
aspects of all three domains.
Chapter 4 highlights that the standards can be employed in a developmental or
regulatory manner and that the developmental discourse fits well with the tenets of
implementation science. It showcases how the Standards can be employed devel-
opmentally on professional experience as part of a GROWTH mentoring model,
Regulatory Realities 5

through interim school-based practicum experience reports and through critical

dialogue about the role of the standards at university.
In reality the developmental implementation of the standards has a better chance
of achieving the translation from theory to practice in initial teacher education if
opportunities for critical dialogue about the standards were intentionally embedded
in initial teacher education courses. Furthermore, when these accreditation regu-
lations are presented as healthy dialogue opportunity for growth and development
rather than an imposition, their implementation may provide another link between
research and practice domains.
Chapter 5 acknowledges the gap between theory and practice from another
dimension. It provides insights from research conducted on preservice teachers’
experience in a collaborative model of professional experience, that does consider
the AITSL Teaching Standards. The research presented in Chap. 5 highlights that
both theory and research ideologies should ultimately coexist in educational fields
to generate professional teacher thinking about how individuals can transfer related
conceptual frameworks to their own praxis. Data collected from classroom obser-
vations, reflective interviews in conjunction with related teaching artefacts (lesson
plans, teachers’ reflections) presents the need to reshape the interaction between
universities and schools to provide greater confluence between theory and practice.
For such convergence to occur successfully, assessments that are purposeful in
preparing graduates who are able to meet our national teaching regulations and are
classroom ready are a must.
The design and implementation of a Teacher Performance Assessment posi-
tioned within the final professional experience for teacher education students at an
Australian university is examined in Chap. 7. It focusses on Program Standard 1.2
for initial teacher education across Australia which requires that all graduates from
accredited programs have demonstrated that they meet the Graduate Teacher
Standards in a classroom setting (Australian Institute for Teaching and School
Leadership 2016). AITSL (2016) require that this assessment be valid, reliable and
moderated. There is also an underlying policy intention to make graduates class-
room and assessment capable.

Consistency in Translation that Champions Contextual

Realities and Regulations

The schema presented in Fig. 1.1 serves to showcase and link the key domains that
are critical in uniting the complexities and consistencies derived from the eclectic
knowledge, research and theories that are unpacked in this book. Figure 1.1
highlights that successful translation happens in contexts that benefit from proactive
school and university partnerships which feature student growth and development
at the core. Shared dialogue that is consistent in uniting the insights gained through
theory, research and practice in authentic education contexts can advance the
6 1 Eclectic Perspectives and Experiences of Teacher …

Fig. 1.1 Complexities and

consistencies from eclectic Teacher educaƟon
perspectives
Theory Contextual translaƟon through
and dialogue and shared implementaƟon
research

University ProacƟve partnerships to

maximise student growth
PracƟce School and development

translation and implementation of foundational skills and knowledge critical to

building teacher capacity and confidence.
Each chapter showcases unique perspectives and factors that collectively com-
bine through to add strength to the need for proactive school and university part-
nerships. These partnerships should ideally coexist to generate a comprehensive
approach to teacher education.

Conclusion

This chapter presents an overview of the eclectic insights to a range of enablers and
constraints pertinent to the sustained implementation and development of effective
teacher education programs. The critical challenge of translation: From theory to
practice in Teacher Education reflects and builds on national and international
teacher education programs and initiatives fabricated on the underlying preface that
a teacher’s effectiveness has a powerful impact on learning and future effective
practice of their students. It celebrates collective efficacy and positive reciprocal
partnerships and acknowledges that teacher education programs have changed in
their approach to preparing teachers for contemporary learning environments. This
book is not about critical policy research but is about highlighting the key con-
sistencies in the successful implementation and traction of teacher education in an
ever evolving education landscape. A range of diverse insights are explored as
collectively they strongly advocate for the benefits of sustained and collaborative
efforts that link theory and practice through school and university partnerships to
enhance the effective translation of skill, knowledge and resources essential to
maximizing gains in the field of teacher education.
References 7

References

Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership. (2016). Guidance for the accreditation of
initial teacher education in Australia. Melbourne: AITSL.
Cook, B. G., Cook, L., & Landrum, T. J. (2013). Moving research into practice: Can we make
dissemination stick? Exceptional Children, 79(2), 163–180.
Grima-Farrell, C. (2015). Mentored pathways to enhancing the personal and professional
development of pre-service teachers. The International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in
Education, 4(4).
Grima-Farrell, C. (2017). What matters in a research to practice cycle? Teachers as researchers
(1st ed.). Singapore: Springer.
Heath, C., & Heath, D. (2008). Made to stick: Why some ideas survive and others die. New York,
NY: Random House.
Nguyen, H. T. M. (2017). Models of mentoring in language teacher education. Cham,
Switzerland: Springer International publishing.
Ogren, C. A. (2005). The American state normal school: An instrument of great good. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan US.
Chapter 2
Researcher and Teacher Perspectives
of Ways to Reduce
the Research-Practice in Teacher
Education: Implementation Science

Abstract The gap between research and practice in education is well articulated.
A critical component that links these two key domains is implementation.
Implementation science is an emerging field which appreciates that effective
interventions will only result in the desired outcomes if they are employed. The
implementation of research into practice is at the core of this chapter. It presents an
ex post facto causal-comparative case study that builds on prior
Research-To-Practice (RTP) knowledge and promotes a greater comprehension of
the factors that both enabled and interfered with the successful implementation of
Research-Based Programs (RBP) in school settings.

Introduction

An increasing demand for educators to be responsive to the needs of individual

students through the use of evidence-based practice to bridge the
research-to-practice gap exists (Department of Education Training and Youth
Affairs (DETYA), 2000; Foreman 2011; Grima-Farrell 2017; Innes 2007; Loreman
et al. 2011; Singal 2008). This chapter responds to the call for more effective
practice based knowledge on the translation of research-to-practice by investigating
projects that were the capstone experience of a graduate level teacher education
program.
The emerging field of implementation science is beneficial to investigating the
effective articulation and integration of research outcomes and verifications into
practice (Aarons et al. 2017). It seeks to comprehend the actions of staff and other
stakeholders as a vital variable in the adoption and sustained application of
evidence-based interventions in practice. Implementation science strives to inves-
tigate the challenges that impede effective implementation of research in practice
and aims to strengthen the application of research-based interventions to enhance
sustained student growth.
Given that implementation science is the study of ways to enhance the articu-
lation and integration of research outcomes and verifications into practice, a focus

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 9
C. Grima-Farrell et al., Theory to Practice in Teacher Education,
SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9910-8_2
10 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

on implementation will be used to comprehend the actions and perceptions of

teachers, school leaders, teacher and other personal. This body of knowledge
provides an insight into the implementation and sustained application of
evidence-based interventions in diverse classroom contexts (practice).
Previous work by Grima-Farrell, Bain and McDonagh (2011) presented a
number of factors identified in the RTP literature as factors that had an impact on
the implementation of successful research-based projects in practice. This study
builds on this work by directly examining literature-based RTP knowledge through
the use of teachers as researchers as they implemented research-based programs in
classroom-based applications. It reviews the research to practice literature with a
specific focus on Teacher Education (TE). It substantiates the need for research that
responds to calls to sustain the use of research in school settings. Key RTP areas,
themes and factors within and across the field of TE are synthesised as they are
pivotal to moving forward in implementing inclusive education directives and
sustaining the use of research to address the diverse needs of students in school
settings.

Review of the Literature

Much has been written about the challenge of implementing research into
school-based settings to narrow the gap between ‘theory’ or research and practice
over the last two decades (Grima-Farrell et al. 2011; Grima-Farrell 2017). This gap
between research and practice has had an adverse effect on the progress of inclusion
in schools and the ability of individual teachers to respond to the needs of all
students. International efforts to improve the use of research to address the diverse
needs of classrooms and schools has generated extensive literature on inclusion,
best practice, professional development and school reform. This challenge of
implementing and sustaining the application of research-based projects in class-
rooms and schools remains largely unresolved for many educators and researchers.
Few studies have generated objective evidence about the specific factors that
affect the implementation and sustainability of these practices in classroom and
school applications. Much of the literature in the area is based upon opinion and
commentary derived from the reflections and insights of researchers about their
work.
In order to build a more complete understanding of the factors that contribute to
research becoming practice, a need exists to investigate claims through the exam-
ination of RTP efforts. Areas posited in the RTP literature that are claimed to impact
upon RTP efforts included; the integrity with which research is implemented, the
responsiveness of research to the needs of classrooms and schools, the extent to
which feedback about RTP is embedded in those efforts, and the completeness or
comprehensiveness of RTP designs. Implementation science strives to investigate
factors that impede the effective implementation of research into practice to enhance
the application of interventions to sustain positive growth and desired impact on
Review of the Literature 11

student engagement and learning. Collectively this work provides an overarching

framework of investigation to enhance a deeper understanding of the factors that
could inform teacher preparation programs and strengthen the use of
Research-Based Practices (RBP) to address the needs of all students.

The Research Approach

An iterative ex post facto causal-comparative research design was used to explore,

explain and expand upon the understanding of the factors that contributed to the
status of six research-based projects being implemented in school based settings.
This investigation consisted of three developmental yet distinct phases; an explo-
ration, explanation and expansion phase. The initial exploration phase consisted of
one to one semi-structured interviews that focused heavily on the participant’s
accounts of the RTP factors that influenced the implementation and sustainment of
their project. The RTP literature was used to frame the data collection tools and
processes within the study to collect RTP feedback from participants.
The second phase, the explanation phase, employed the findings of phase 1 to
further examine the RTP influences and their impact upon the implementation and
status of each of the six the cases through one to one open-ended interviews and a
RTP survey. The final, expansion phase, employed a focus group approach to
identify the consistencies, differences and the recognition of additional factors that
resulted from the individual RTP experiences of participants.
Data was examined within and across cases. Replication logic and cross-case
comparison were employed to add dependability through consistency of approach
and triangulation. Through the exploration, explanation and expansion phases a
chain of evidence was developed to provide a response to the study’s central
research question: What are the factors and relationships between them that con-
tributed to the status of research-based projects in inclusive education settings?

Participating Teachers

Six teachers from a special education division of a school system participated in this
study. These teachers were special education teachers, ranging from Kinder to
Secondary School and were all enrolled in the pilot version of the Master of
Education (Inclusive Education) program at a regional, multi campus university. All
teacher participants shared the same graduate teacher experience and were expected
to devise and implement a research-based project specific to the needs of their
setting. All ten graduates from the Masters cohort were invited to participate in this
study. Six of the ten graduates chose to participate with data collection commencing
one year after graduation from the Masters of Inclusive Education program.
12 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

All participants were female aged 40–54. They were experienced teachers and
had taught at an average of four schools and held the role of Special Education
Teacher at the setting where their project was implemented. All six had completed
two university degrees prior to participating in this project.
Five of the six projects were conducted in primary schools with student enrol-
ments ranging from 350 to 600. One project took place in a secondary school where
approximately 1200 female students were enrolled. Data was collected on project
implementation status each year for three consecutive years. At the time of com-
pletion of the data collection, three of the six participants were still working at the
school where their project was implemented. The other three had moved to other
school settings. The distance between schools span a 70-kilometre radius, and their
enrolment included students from diverse socio-economic populations and family
structures. Implementation sites comprised of students from both single-parent and
dual parent families with a wide range of incomes and living conditions.
By the end of third year, two elementary school based projects that were suc-
cessfully implemented became extinct and four projects (three elementary and one
secondary) had been scaled beyond the original school implementation setting. Of
the four projects that were scaled beyond their implementation setting, two par-
ticipants remained at the school and two did not. Of the two projects that became
extinct, one participant remained at the school while the other didn’t. Table 2.1
presents a summary of the status of the projects within their setting at the end of
each academic year of the study.
The data collected through the; the exploration, explanation and the expansion
phases of this study presented key RTP implementation factors and an under-
standing of how they had an impact on the status of the direct implementation of 6
projects in unique classroom and school settings. A comparison of participant
responses prior to exposure to the literature in the initial exploration phase, revealed
a strong relationship between these responses and the factors identified in the RTP
literature. In the second (explanation) phase of the study participants identified
relationships between the RTP implementation factors. They were analysed and all
participants consistently presented six key areas of significance. These areas
included: teacher education, collaboration, leadership, time, feedback, scalability
with a complete approach. During the focus group, conducted in the final phase of
the study, the total participant cohort further described, prioritised and confirmed
the importance of RTP relationships over the need for a list of isolated RTP factors.
These results were examined further and the key relationships that contributed
most significantly to the scaling or extinction of individual RTP cases were sum-
marised and represented visually in the following figures. The two cases that
became extinct exhibited many positive factors, yet the breakdown in the con-
nection of these RTP factors yielded negative results. The use of the arrows
working against each other and the misalignment of the cogs in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2
represent the factors not supporting each other and gradually contributing to greater
RTP concerns. In the two cases that became extinct the implementation factors did
work against each other progressively over a one-year period prior to the projects
becoming extinct. The four cases that were scaled within and beyond school
The Research Approach 13

Table 2.1 Project status overview

Project Final year First year of Second year of Third year of
of the implementation implementation implementation
masters
course
C1 Chris/Primary Established Scaled within Partially Extinct
Pilot Program for and setting sustained
tracking reading sustained
fluency of year 2
students
C2 Mary/Primary Not yet Established Scaled within Scaled beyond
CBM Identifying started and sustained setting setting
students who are
‘at risk’ with
literacy at the
beginning of
Kindergarten
C3 Diane/ Established Established Scaled within Scaled beyond
Secondary and and sustained setting setting
Reading tutor sustained
program years 7–
10
C4 Wilma/Primary Not yet Established Scaled within Scaled beyond
Oral reading started and sustained setting setting
fluency:
Using CBM for
assessment and
Instruction for year
6
C5 Sam/Primary Not yet Established Scaled within Scaled beyond
Explicit teaching: started and sustained setting setting
Improving
foundational
reading skills in
year 1
C6 Meg/Primary Established Sustained Partially Extinct
Peer assisted and sustained
learning and its use sustained
as an Intervention
strategy in the
improvement of
spelling skills for
year 3
14 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

settings provided examples of how the cyclic interconnection among RTP factors
contributed to enhancing the use of research-based projects to address identified
student needs. The use of the arrows and the well-aligned cogs in Figs. 2.3, 2.4, 2.5
and 2.6 represent the factors that worked together to strengthen the implementation,
sustainment and status of each case. In brief, the cog figures were created to express
the factors and the relationships among them that were described as most prominent
by each of the participants as a result of their experience.

Relationship of Implementation Factors that Contributed

to the Extinction of Two Individual RTP Cases

See Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.

Relationship of Implementation Factors that Contributed

to the Expansion of Four Individual RTP Cases

See Figs. 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6.

Inconsistencies Identified by Teachers

All participants agreed on the importance of all RTP factors and their connections
except for the comments made about the National Assessment Program - Literacy
and Numeracy (NAPLAN) assessments. These assessments commenced in
Australian schools in 2008. Every year, all students in Years 3, 5, 7 and 9 are
assessed on the same days using national tests in Reading, Writing, Language
Conventions (Spelling, Grammar and Punctuation) and Numeracy. Diane’s com-
ments during the discussion identified a relationship among support, leadership,
collaboration and the NAPLAN results of students at her school. She stated:
That in today’s society established need can also be displayed through NAPLAN results.
These results display an expectation of where our students need to be. They are another
measure of accountability. There is a clear mandate in schools stating that we must improve
the blue line (average results for the school) (Diane as cited in Focus group).

Diane reported that at her school staff spent many meetings in collaborative
discussion about the blue line and ways to support students in improving their
results. She identified that her school leaders wanted to show points of growth to
address the declining numbers in many schools across the system. Diane went on to
state that her leadership team wanted to show that they are a good school and the
NAPLAN statistics are very clear and were used in the school to increase
accountability and status.
The Research Approach 15

Fig. 2.1 Meg (Grima-Farrell 2017)

Fig. 2.2 Chris (Grima-Farrell 2017)

16 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

Fig. 2.3 Mary (Grima-Farrell 2017)

Fig. 2.4 Wilma (Grima-Farrell 2017)

The Research Approach 17

Fig. 2.5 Diane (Grima-Farrell 2017)

Fig. 2.6 Sam (Grima-Farrell 2017)

18 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

During the focus groups (final data collection), these comments promoted a
debate about teaching to the test and the usability and trustworthiness of NAPLAN
data. All participants indicated that data generated from research-based projects
were more effective than NAPLAN results and could be used to show they were
doing something to improve results and that they also offered solutions to address
the identified needs. Diane concluded by stating that principals and leaders want
NAPLAN results. She went further to state that our projects have identified ways to
improve the results of students but Diane explained that she believed the NAPLAN
results are still beneficial to compare student data across schools. The discussion
about the NAPLAN assessment was the only time that inconsistency in viewpoints
across participants was identified.
The responses from the two cases that became extinct described many positive
factors, yet the breakdown in the connections between RTP factors contributed to
different negative experiences, leading to gradual extinction in both cases. In both
cases that became extinct, the participants explained that the decisions of the school
leaders contributed to a breakdown in the positive relationship between RTP fac-
tors. Meg described that the decision by the executive team to scale the project was
not made collaboratively with the staff. This contributed to lack of ownership and
support from the stakeholders who were to implement it. Chris explained that her
new principal and deputy did not order the extinction of the project yet their lack of
verbal support, interest and resources contributed to a reduced status, lack of time
and the increase of competing demands on stakeholders.

Consistency in the Connections Among RTP Implementation

Factors

Analysis and comparison of the data collected through multiple cases provided
specific details of how connections among the RTP factors strengthened and
destabilized the status of projects in elementary and secondary schools. Practical
accounts that were reported by participants were cited within each phase of the
study. Through the explanation and expansion phases the connections among RTP
factors were further described. The following analysis portrays how the figures and
knowledge derived from each of the cases could guide and enhance practical
applications of research-based projects and reduce the RTP gap.
A number of claims on ways to promote the application of research-based
projects in school and classroom contexts were reported by all participants. They
capture the connections that emerged from the research and comprise three areas
including; people and their capacity, the context that unites schools and universities
in preparing teachers and the projects and their content. All participants continu-
ously identified links across all areas as being essential if the RTP gap is to be
reduced to enhance the sustained implementation of Research-based projects in
practice. These reports were based on the recognition that change (being the
The Research Approach 19

reduction in the RTP gap) is about the interaction among the many individual
factors that are required to create reinforcing and responsive RTP cycles. The
following section presents 13 suggestions that were asserted by the total research
participant cohort as ways to enhance the implementation and sustainment of
RBP. They are presented in the three core areas, however are not strictly bound by
them. The three core areas include; people and their capacity, preparation and the
research-based projects.

Engaging People and Enabling Them to Work to Their Capacity

As identified in the literature review, the transference of knowledge and skills

essential to the effective sustainment of research-based programs, has been, and
continues to be a significant challenge. Through the progression of this study and
the analysis of responses from participants, it became increasingly evident that the
binary, which separates researchers and educators, is not productive. The data
gathered confirmed that if the efforts of researchers and educators were joined
through a collaborative partnership, they are more likely to have an impact on
reducing the well-documented RTP gap. In the present study that partnership
assumed the form of a graduate teacher preparation program which served as a
vehicle for enhancing a collaborative approach among teachers and researchers in
the promotion of research-based project skills and knowledge. The analyses of these
results expanded on recommendations from commentary and intervention research
studies to highlight five suggestions that could enhance the capacity of stakeholders
to effectively implement and sustain research-based projects in school settings.
Firstly, addressing students’ needs must be a central and mutual goal of a
cooperative team of researchers and educators. The characteristics, skills and
experiences of individuals implementing and sustaining projects can have an effect
on the status of evidence- based projects within school environments. Personal
agendas and biases are less likely to have a negative impact on the status of projects
if stakeholders ensure students remain the central focus. If stakeholders unite
through effective collaboration and communication, their strengths and expertise
can more effectively merge to promote student gains. Sam highlighted this
requirement when she described the sentiment of all participants being that col-
laboration was not always harmonious when boundaries were being stretched. All
participants concurred with Sam and Wilma when they added if students were at the
centre of the project, unity amongst stakeholders in achieving common goals was
easier to achieve.
Secondly, the interrelated nature of the dissemination of commitment, enthusi-
asm, engagement and passion for the project is easier when projects have been
promoted and proven to be valuable, accessible and useable. As described by Meg,
Mary, Wilma, Diane, Sam and Chris, committed and enthusiastic people can drive
evidence-based projects and the dissemination of these qualities are enhanced when
people in leadership positions support them. The complexity of the interrelationship
of factors relating to the support from school leaders was evident in both scaled and
20 2 Researcher and Teacher Perspectives of Ways …

extinct cases. As identified in the results chapters, the four, scaled cases presented
the positive cyclic sequence of events that resulted from the relationship of enabling
factors that flowed from the support of their principal. These enabling factors
included time, resources and increased status. These factors were not proven to be
effective in isolation and stakeholders continued to link multiple factors in the
survey, interview and focus group responses. The data generated from the two
extinct cases also confirmed the importance of the cyclic sequence of factors that
flowed from decisions made at a school leadership level. For example, Meg’s
executive decided to rapidly expand the project due to its success, without col-
laboratively consulting with other staff members. Chris’ new principal did not
request the completion of her project, but did introduce other demands without
increasing time or resources. This increased the negative impact of the destructive
cycle that resulted from the breakdown in the relationships among RTP factors in
both extinct cases. When comparing scaled and extinct cases, the importance of
leadership decisions on the relationship of RTP factors was highlighted.
Similar RTP factors were connected and became either enablers or inhibitors
depending on the sequence of events that resulted from leadership decisions.
Thirdly, research-based projects were more effective when they directly
responded to the unique contextual realities in which teachers and students with, or
without, disabilities function. Meg’s use of the Gannt charts, Diane’s students
monitoring and recording their own results, and the use of technology were all
examples of ways that stakeholders employed strategies that best served the needs
of their unique settings. Projects were more successfully sustained and scaled when
researchers and educators worked as a collaborative team with students in school
settings. Increased stakeholder support and involvement in project decisions and
inclusion of the projects in whole school policies and programs also contributed to
the increased status and the likelihood of project sustainment and scaling. Mary and
Sam shared the examples of ways they increased involvement in their projects. Sam
described how she presented the features of her project in a scaffolded way to her
staff. Her comments described that she shared the new knowledge gained from the
university-based course through constant modelling and feedback. Increased con-
fidence led to increased involvement. Mary, along with all other participants sup-
ported, this relationship and increased ownership seemed a natural progression as
projects progressed.
Fourthly, educators in schools and universities were described by participants as
significant change agents and were referred to by all participants as being critical in
transferring and matching research-based projects to the characteristics and
uniqueness of students and their settings. The dissemination of research is
strengthened when researchers work collaboratively with educators to empower
them with the skills and knowledge to further disseminate and demonstrate research
projects to colleagues, students and parents in school and community settings.
Diane added that the students themselves were also advocates for effective research
and proved to be able to self-monitor and motivate other students, teachers and
school leaders. All participants agreed that the increased number of stakeholders
with research-based knowledge, skills and capacity contributed to a stronger
The Research Approach 21

intellectual knowledge base. This was combined with the relevant practical skills in
four of the scaled cases to demonstrate how this relationship enhanced the scala-
bility potential and sustainment of evidence-based projects within schools.
Finally, increasing stakeholder knowledge and their willingness and ability to
share this new knowledge across schools and systems was presented as a way of
earning respect from their peers and increasing status. Sam described increased
respect and status amongst peers as having a positive impact on the sustainment and
scaling of research-based projects in school applications. Meg added that her
principal was key to supporting strong relationships that contributed to increasing
the status of the project.

Ways to Engage Schools and Universities in Effectively Preparing

Teachers

Teacher education was presented as a critical link in the implementation and sus-
tainment of research-based projects in school applications across all scaled and
extinct case studies. It represented an avenue that combined researcher and educator
knowledge and experience to enhance the use of research-based projects to promote
inclusive environments that cater for the needs of a diverse spectrum of students.
Positive partnerships among people at universities and schools contributed to
shared goals and directions. Each of the participants worked with university staff
toward the shared goal of implementing a research-based project in their individual
schools to address student needs. The analyses of the results of all cases identified
four suggestions generated within the non-exclusive area of teacher preparation.
Firstly, the teacher education opportunity was presented by all participants as an
avenue, that provided multiple levels of engagement, ongoing communication and
shared goals among the researchers and educators. As a result of the shared teacher
education experience, the benefits of explicit links between research and practice
were identified and attributed to the successful implementation of research-based
projects. Participants all reported that the teacher education experience successfully
assisted in aligning previously regarded differing norms, expectations and roles of
researchers and practitioners. Sam, Wilma and Chris reflected the sentiment of the
others as they explained that this was accomplished effectively by merging the
course content into a theoretical framework where university staff worked with
school-based staff to collaboratively decide on which project would best address the
needs of their diverse settings. Sam expressed the sentiment of others when she
stated that she hadn’t realized the positive impact of the teacher education expe-
rience on her knowledge and skill base until after she had completed her com-
prehensive teacher education course.
Secondly, the structure of the teacher education course that comprised of
comprehensive features, not only instilled new knowledge and skills into course
participants but also gave us confidence and ability to replicate this merger of
relevant content and process at our settings. Mary described that the projects
themselves were a support as the consistency across the design of all subjects within
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CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, sub-inclusis; corollis costatis, quadratis, sub-

pollicaribus, luteo-aurantiis; quatuor quinqueve pedalis; foliis senis,
maximis, rigidis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis laxus, erectus, scaber, quatuor vel quinque pedalis; rami laxi,
simplices, longi.
Folia sena, rigida, obtusa, subtus sulcata, linearia, crassa, petiolis
adpressis.
Flores in ramulis mediis verticillati, spicam formantes, pedunculis
brevibus, bracteis tribus ad basin calycis instructis.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, concavis, longitudine
pedunculi.
Corolla sub-pollicaris, quadrata, costata, luteo-aurantia, laciniis
dentatis, reflexis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, receptaculo inserta; antheræ muticæ,
subinclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen cylindricum, sulcatum; stylus filiformis, exsertus;
stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Augusti in Januarium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
 3. Stamina et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta; anthera una lente aucta.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucti.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, within the blossoms, which are ribbed, four-
sided, not quite an inch long, and of a yellowish-orange colour; grows four
or five feet high; the leaves grow by sixes, are large, and stiff.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem supple, upright and rough, four or five feet high; the branches are
loose, simple and long.
Leaves grow by sixes, are harsh, blunt, furrowed underneath, linear, and
thick, having the foot-stalks pressed to the stem.
Flowers grow in whorls, about the middle of the smaller branches,
forming a spike, with short foot-stalks, with three floral leaves close to the
cup.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, which are awl-shaped, concave, and the
length of the foot-stalk.
Blossom near an inch long, four-sided, ribbed, of a yellowish-orange
colour; the segments of the mouth are notched, and bent backward.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, fixed into the receptacle; the tips
beardless, and just within the. blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel cylindrical, and furrowed; shaft thread-shaped, and
without the blossom; summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August till January.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal, one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA lutea.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; corollis ovato-acuminatis, luteis; foliis

oppositis, triquetris, adpressis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis laxus, filiformis, gracilis, ad basin ramosus; ramuli conferti.

Folia opposita, linearia, adpressa, triquetra, supra concava, subtus
carinata, sulcata, nitida; petiolis brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores plures, conglomerati, subterminales; pedunculi capillares, lutei;
bracteis binis.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis ovatis, acuminatis, luteis,
glabris.
Corolla lutea, ovato-acuminata, ore arctata; limbo quadrilobo,
subreflexo.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, corolla dimidio breviora, apice
recurvata, receptaculo inserta. Antheræ muticæ, inclusæ, parvæ.
Pistillum. Germen cylindricum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, purpureus,
filamentis duplo longior. Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Septembre, in Maium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx, lente auctus.
3. Stamina, et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta; anthera una lente aucta.
 5. Stylus, et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, within the blossoms; which are of a pointed oval
shape, and yellow, the leaves grow opposite in pairs, are three-sided, and
pressed to the stem.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem flexible, thread-shaped, and slender, branching to the bottom; the

branches crowded together.
The Leaves grow opposite in pairs, are linear, pressed to the stem, three-
sided, concave on the upper, and keel-shaped on the under surface, furrowed,
and shining; having very short leaf-stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers are numerous, close together, and nearly terminating the
branches; the foot-stalks are hair-like, and yellow, having two floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, leaflets oval, pointed, yellow, and smooth.
The Blossom yellow, of a pointed oval shape, compressed at the mouth;
having a slightly reflexed, four-lobed border.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, half the length of the blossom, bent back
at the point, and fixed into the receptacle. Tips beardless, within the
blossom, and small.
Pointal. Seed-vessel cylindrical, and furrowed. Shaft thread-shaped,
purple, and twice as long as the chives. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from September, till May.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement, and Blossom.

2. The Empalement, magnified.
3. The Chives, and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft, and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA mammosa.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, inclusis; stylo subincluso; floribus verticillatis,

pendulis, ventricoso-cylindricis, supra basin constrictis, profunde violaceo-
purpureis; foliis quaternis, linearibus, glabris.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis simplex, fruticosus, erectus, sesquipedalis; rami verticillati, raro

ramulosi, erecti.
Folia quaterna, linearia, glabra, recta; seniora patentia, juniora erecta,
subtus sulcata; petiolis brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores sub-pollicares, in summitate ramorum verticillati, penduli;
pedunculi longissimi, bracteis tribus, minutis, remotis, instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis lato-ovatis., acutis, marginibus
membranaceis, apicibus coloratis, adpressis.
Corolla ventricoso-cylindrica, apice attenuata, ad basin constricta,
profunde purpurea; laciniis minutis, erectis, obtusis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria. Antheræ aristatæ;, inclusæ,
Pistillum. Germen turbinatum. Stylus filiformis, sub-inclusus. Stigma
tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Julii in Novembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx lente auctus.

2. Calyx et Corolla.
3. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
 4. Germen, Stylus, et Stigma, stigmate aucto.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with bearded tips, within the blossom; shaft just within the blossom;
flowers grow in whorls, hanging down, of a swelled cylinder shape, pinched
in at the base, and of a deep blue purple; leaves grow by fours, are linear,
and smooth.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem simple, shrubby, upright, a foot and a half high; branches grow in
whorls, seldom making smaller branches, and upright.
Leaves grow by fours, linear, smooth, and straight; the older ones spread
out, the younger grow upright, and are furrowed beneath; having very short
foot-stalks, which are pressed to the stem.
Flowers are near an inch long, grow in whorls at the top of the branches,
hanging down; foot-stalks very long, having three small floral leaves at a
distance from the cup.
Empalement. Cup of four leaves, which are of a broad egg-shape,
pointed, having the margins skinny, the ends coloured, and are pressed to the
blossom.
Blossom of a swelled cylinder-shape, tapered at the end, and pinched in
at the base, of a deep purple; the segments of the border are very small,
upright, and blunt.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads. Tips bearded, and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud turban-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, and just within
the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from July till November.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement magnified.

2. The Empalement and Blossom.
3. The Chives detached from the Pointal, one tip magnified.
4. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit, the summit magnified.
 ERICA marifolia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, sub-inclusis, corollis urceoli-formibus, albidis;

foliis ternis, lato-ovatis, pubescentibus, subtus albidis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, fruticosus, pedalis, ramosissimus; ramuli frequentissimi,

verticillati.
Folia terna, patentia, lato-ovata, margine revoluta, subtus albida, petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores terminales, umbellati, cernui; pedunculi longi, bracteis tribus
instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum; foliolis spathulatis, seu basi attenuatis,
apicibus ovatis, concavis, ciliatis.
Corolla albida, urceoli-formis, oris laciniis sub-reflexis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria; antheræ aristatæ, sub-inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen cylindricum, sulcatum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Aprili in Julium,

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.
 SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with bearded tips, just within the blossoms, which are pitcher-
shaped, and white; the leaves grow by threes, of a broad egg-shape, downy,
and white underneath.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, shrubby, grows a foot high, and very branching; the smaller
branches are numerous, and grow in whorls.
Leaves grow by threes, spreading outward, of a broad egg-shape, rolled
back at the edges., and white beneath, having short foot-stalks pressed to the
branches.
Flowers terminate the branches in bunches which hang downward; the
foot-stalks are long, having three floral leaves.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, which are spathula-shaped, or tapering to
the base, the tops egg-shaped, concave, and lashed.
Blossom white, pitcher-shaped, having the segments of the mouth
slightly bent back.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads; tips bearded, just within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel cylinder-shaped, and furrowed. Shaft thread-
shaped. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from April till July.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal, one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.