The Rise of Hybrid Political Islam in

Turkey: Origins and Consolidation of

the JDP Sevinç Bermek
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-rise-of-hybrid-political-islam-in-turkey-origins-and-
consolidation-of-the-jdp-sevinc-bermek/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

From the Abode of Islam to the Turkish Vatan The Making

of a National Homeland in Turkey Behlul Ozkan

https://textbookfull.com/product/from-the-abode-of-islam-to-the-
turkish-vatan-the-making-of-a-national-homeland-in-turkey-behlul-
ozkan/

Political Islam in Tunisia : the history of Ennahda 1st

Edition Wolf

https://textbookfull.com/product/political-islam-in-tunisia-the-
history-of-ennahda-1st-edition-wolf/

Diversity in Decline?: The Rise of the Political Right

and the Fate of Multiculturalism Arjun Tremblay

https://textbookfull.com/product/diversity-in-decline-the-rise-
of-the-political-right-and-the-fate-of-multiculturalism-arjun-
tremblay/

The Rise of Empires: The Political Economy of

Innovation Sangaralingam Ramesh

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-rise-of-empires-the-
political-economy-of-innovation-sangaralingam-ramesh/
Political Islamists in Turkey and the Gülen Movement
Recep Dogan

https://textbookfull.com/product/political-islamists-in-turkey-
and-the-gulen-movement-recep-dogan/

Islam and Muslim Resistance to Modernity in Turkey

Gokhan Bacik

https://textbookfull.com/product/islam-and-muslim-resistance-to-
modernity-in-turkey-gokhan-bacik/

The Intellectual Origins of the Belgian Revolution:

Political Thought and Disunity in the Kingdom of the
Netherlands, 1815-1830 Stefaan Marteel

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-intellectual-origins-of-the-
belgian-revolution-political-thought-and-disunity-in-the-kingdom-
of-the-netherlands-1815-1830-stefaan-marteel/

Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East From

the Rise of Islam to the Present Day Michael A. Cook
(Editor)

https://textbookfull.com/product/studies-in-the-economic-history-
of-the-middle-east-from-the-rise-of-islam-to-the-present-day-
michael-a-cook-editor/

People Without a State: The Kurds from the Rise of

Islam to the Dawn of Nationalism Michael Eppel

https://textbookfull.com/product/people-without-a-state-the-
kurds-from-the-rise-of-islam-to-the-dawn-of-nationalism-michael-
eppel/
The Rise of
Hybrid Political
Islam in Turkey
ORIGINS AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE JDP

Sevinç Bermek
The Rise of Hybrid Political Islam in Turkey
 Sevinç Bermek

The Rise of Hybrid

Political Islam in
Turkey
Origins and Consolidation of the JDP
Sevinç Bermek
Department of Middle Eastern Studies
King’s College London
London, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-14202-5    ISBN 978-3-030-14203-2 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14203-2

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Didem Orhuner Cavaş

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my father Prof. Engin Bermek on his 80th birthday
 Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the guidance and the
help of several individuals who in one way or another contributed and
extended their valuable assistance in the preparation and completion of
this book. I am especially indebted to Prof. Leila Simona Talani,
Department of European & International Studies (King’s College
London), for her guidance throughout the publication stage of this work,
that was based on my doctoral dissertation. I also thank the manuscript
reviewers for their detailed feedback at different stages of publication. I
would also like to extend my gratitude to Dr. Ambra Finotello, the senior
commissioning editor, for believing in my project and for her support and
guidance from the book proposal stage to the publication one.
I would like to thank Prof. Danièle Joly, Dr. Khursheed Wadia, and Dr.
Saniye Dedeoğlu during the whole process of conducting my research and
writing up my manuscript. I am also grateful to my Dissertation Committee
Prof. Nicola Pratt and Prof. Alpaslan Özerdem for encouraging me to
publish my thesis as a book.
I am grateful to all my friends and colleagues who have been supportive
of my career goals and who helped me proactively to publish my manu-
script. Among them, I am especially indebted to Elsa Tülin Şen, Çağrı
Yalkın, and Patrícia Calca for their guidance. I owe special thanks to Aslı
Ünan for helping me design the illustrations and figures in the book. I also
thank Kate Epstein for her meticulous proofreading and my friends
Theologia Iliadou, Ehsan Mir, Dimitrios Minos, and Ceren Neşe Tosun
for their support and believing in me during the writing stage of the book.

vii
viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

On a separate account, I am particularly thankful to both my parents

Ayşe Gülen Bermek and Engin Bermek for their continuous support all
these years. I owe a special thanks to my father Prof. Engin Bermek for his
meticulous comments on my book proposal, his guidance during the field-
work, and most importantly his orientation and advice on how to progress
in academic life.
I would also like to thank my siblings, Esen and Oya, for their support
and encouragement.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my husband Konstantinos
Matakos for always seeing the potential in me, for giving me his continu-
ous support and endorsement, and most importantly for his patience and
understanding, for sharing his views on my work with me, and for numer-
ous stimulating discussions.

London, UK
January 2019
 Contents

1 Introduction  1

2 Turkish Party System Through Volatile Social and Political

Cleavages 15

3 Game Changer: Socioeconomic Transformation and

Emergence of the JDP in 2002  71

4 Meeting the Demands of Ordinary People: Electoral

Consolidation Via Catering to Its Core Constituencies119

5 Hybrid Ideology: Anchor for Electoral Consolidation and

Further Entrenchment in Turkish Society and Politics181

6 JDP and Dominant Party System in Light of the Turkish-­

Ottoman/Republican-­Imperial Cleavage231

7 Conclusion245

ix
x Contents

Appendix251

Glossary255

Index259
 Abbreviations

̇
AGIAD Anadolu Genç İş Adamları Derneği (Anatolian Young
Businessmen Association)
̇
AIHM Avrupa İnsan Hakları Mahkemesi (European Court of
Human Rights)
̇
AKIM AK İletişim Merkezi (AK Communication Centre)
AM Anayasa Mahkemesi (Constitutional Court)
ANAP Anavatan Partisi (Motherland Party)
AP Adalet Partisi (Justice Party) (Est. 14.10.1973—Closure
16.10.1981)
Bağ-Kur Esnaf ve Sanatkarlar ile Diğer Bağımsız Çalışanlar Sosyal
Sigortalar Kurumu (Social Security Organisation of
Craftsmen, Tradesmen, and Self-Employed)
BDP Barış ve Demokrasi Partisi (Peace and Democracy Party)
(Est. 3.05.2008—11.07.2014)
BP/TBP Birlik Partisi/Türkiye Birlik Partisi (Unity Party/Unity Party
of Turkey) (Est. 17.10.1966—Closure 16.10.1981)
BQ Bloc Québécois (Quebec Bloc)
BTP Büyük Türkiye Partisi (Great Turkey Party) (Est.
20.05.1983—Closure 30.05.1983)
CDA Christen Democratisch Appèl (Christian Democratic Appeal)
CDU Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands (Christian
Democratic Union of Germany)
CGP Cumhuriyetçi Güven Partisi (Republican Reliance Party)
(Est. 29.01.1971—Closure 16.10.1981)

xi
xii ABBREVIATIONS

CHP Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party) (Est.

09.09.1923—Closure 16.10.1981; Est. 09.09.1992—to the
present)
CKMP Cumhuriyetçi Köylü Millet Partisi (Republican Peasants’
Nation Party) (Est. 16.10.1958—Closure 09.02.1969)
CMP Cumhuriyetçi Millet Partisi (Republican Nationalist Party)
(Est. 10.02.1954—Closure 16.10.1958)
CU Christen Unie (Christian Union)
DBP Demokratik Bölgeler Partisi (Democratic Regions Party)
DC Democrazia Cristiana (Christian Democracy)
DDKD Devrimci Demokratik Kültür Derneği (Revolutionary
Democratic Cultural Associations)
DEHAP Demokratik Halk Partisi (Democratic People’s Party) (Est.
24.10.1997—Closure March 2003)
Demokratik Parti Democratic Party (Est.18.12.1970—Closure.04.05.1980)
DEP Demokrasi Partisi (Democracy Party) (Est. 21.06.1991—
Closure 16.06.1994)
DIḂ Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı (Presidency of Religious Affairs)
DISK ̇ Türkiye Devrimci İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu
(Confederation of Progressive Trade Unions of Turkey)
DP Demokrat Parti (Democrat Party) (Est. 07.01.1946—
Closure 29.09.1960)
DPT Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (State Planning Organization)
DSP Demokratik Sol Parti (Democratic Left Party)
DTH Demokratik Toplum Hareketi (Democratic Society
Movement)
DTP Demokratik Toplum Partisi (Democratic Society Party) (Est.
09.11.2005—Closure 11.12.2009)
DYP Doğru Yol Partisi (True Path Party) (Est. 23.06.1983—
Closure 28.05.2007)
EC European Community
ECHR European Court of Human Rights
EDP Eşitlik ve Demokrasi Partisi (Equality and Democracy Party)
(Est. 14.03.2010—Closure 2012)
EMEP Emeğin Partisi (Labour Party)
ES Emekli Sandığı (Government Employees Retirement Fund)
EU European Union
FP Fazilet Partisi (Virtue Party) (Est. 07.12.1997—Closure
22.06.2001)
GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GP Genç Parti (Young Party)
 ABBREVIATIONS xiii

GP/CGP Güven Partisi/Cumhuriyetçi Güven Partisi (Republican

Reliance Party) (Est. 12.05.1967—Closure 29.01.1971)
GYV Gazeteciler ve Yazarlar Derneği (Journalists and Writers’s
Foundation)
HADEP Halkın Demokrasi Partisi (People’s Democracy Party) (Est.
11.05.1994—Closure 13.03.2003)
HAK-IŞ̇ Hak İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu (Confederation of
Turkish Real Trade Unions)
HDP Halkların Demokratik Partisi (People’s Democratic Party)
HEP Halkın Emek Partisi (People’s Labour Party) (Est.
07.06.1990—14.07.1993)
HP Halkçı Parti (Populist Party) (Est. 20.05.1983—Closure
17.08.1985)
HP Hürriyet Partisi (Freedom Party) (Est. 20.12.1955—Closure
24.11.1958)
HSYK Hakim ve Savcılar Yüksek Kurulu (High Council of Judges
and Prosecutors)
ICT Information and Communication Technologies
ILO International Labour Organization
IMF International Monetary Fund
IŞ̇ HAD İş Hayatı ve Dayanışma Derneği (Association for Solidarity in
Business Life)
ISI Import Substitution Industrialisation
ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
̇
ISKI ̇ İstanbul Su ve Kanalizasyon İdaresi (Istanbul Water and
Sewerage Administration)
̇
ITO İstanbul Ticaret Odası (Istanbul Chamber of Commerce)
JDP Justice and Development Party (Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi)
KCK Koma Civakên Kurdistan (Kürdistan Topluluklar Birliği,
Democratic Confederation of Kurdistan)
KDV Katma Değer Vergisi (Value-Added Tax)
̇
KIT Kamu İktisadi Teşebbüsü (State Economic Enterprises)
KPSS Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Sovetskogo Soyuza (Communist
Party of the Soviet Union)
KUK Kürdistan Ulusal Kurtuluşçuları (National Liberators of
Kurdistan)
KYK Kredi ve Yurtlar Kurumu (Credit and Dormitories
Foundation)
LDP Liberal Democrat Party (in Japan)
LGBTI Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Intersex
MAI Multilateral Agreement on Investment
MBK Milli Birlik Komitesi (National Unity Committee) (Est.
27.05.1960—Closure 25.10.1961)
xiv Abbreviations

MC Milliyetçi Cephe (Nationalist Front)

MÇP Milliyetçi Çalışma Partisi (Nationalist Task Party) (Est.
30.10.1985—Closure 24.01.1993)
MDP Milliyetçi Demokrasi Partisi (Nationalist Democracy Party)
(Est. 16.05.1983—Closure 04.05.1986)
MGK Milli Güvenlik Kurulu (National Security Council)
MHP Milliyetçi Hareket Partisi (Nationalist Movement Party)
MİT Milli İstihbarat Teşkilatı (National Intelligence Organization)
MKYK Merkez Karar ve Yönetim Kurulu (Central Decision and
Executive Committee)
MNP Milli Nizam Partisi (National Order Party) (Est.
26.01.1970—Closure 20.05.1971)
MP Member of Parliament
MP Millet Partisi (Nation Party) (Est. July 1948—Closure
27.02.1954)
MSP Milli Selamet Partisi (National Salvation Party) (Est.
11.10.1972—Closure 16.10.1981)
MÜSİAD Müstakil Sanayici ve İş Adamları Derneği (Independent
Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association)
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
NP Nasionale Party (National Party) (in South Africa)
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OHAL Olağanüstü Hal (State of Emergency)
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
PKK Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (Kürdistan İşçi Partisi,
Kurdistan Workers’ Party)
PNV Partido Nacionalista Vasco (Basque Nationalist Party) (in
Spain)
PR Proportional Representation
RP Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) (Est. 19.07.1983—Closure
16.01.1998)
RTÜK Radyo ve Televizyon Üst Kurulu (Radio Television Supreme
Council)
SCF Serbest Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Liberal Republican Party) (Est.
12.08.1930—Closure 17.11.1930)
SDP Sosyalist Demokrasi Partisi (Socialist Democracy Party)
SEEs State Economic Enterprises (Kamu İktisadi Teşebbüsler)
SETA Siyaset Ekonomi ve Toplum Araştırmaları Vakfı (Foundation
for Political, Economic and Social Research)
SGK Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu (Social Security Institution)
 Abbreviations  xv

SHP Sosyaldemokrat Halkçı Parti (Social Democratic Populist

Party) (Est. 03.11.1985—Closure 18.02.1995)
SMEs Small Medium Enterprises
SNP Scottish National Party
SODEP Sosyal Demokrasi Partisi (Social Democracy Party) (Est.
06.06.1983—Closure 03.11.1984)
SODEV Sosyal Demokrasi Vakfı (Social Democracy Foundation)
SP Saadet Partisi (Felicity Party)
SPK Sermaye Piyasası Kurulu (Capital Markets Board of Turkey)
SSK Sosyal Sigortalar Kurumu (Social Insurance Institution)
SUT Sağlık Uygulama Tebliği (Medical Enforcement Declaration)
SYDTF Sosyal Yardımlaşma ve Dayanışmayı Teşvik Fonu (Social
Solidarity Fund)
SYDV Sosyal Yardımlaşma ve Dayanışma Vakfı (Social Assistance
and Solidarity Foundation)
SYGM Sosyal Yardımlaşma ve Dayanışma Genel Müdürlüğü (General
Directorate of Social Assistance and Solidarity)
TBMM Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (Grand National Assembly of
Turkey)
TCF Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Progressive Republican
Party) (Est. 17.11.1924—Closure 03.06.1925)
TEB Türk Ekonomi Bankası (Turkish Economy Bank)
TEPAV Türkiye Ekonomi Politikaları Araştırma Vakfı (Economic
Policy Research Foundation of Turkey)
TESEV Türkiye Ekonomik ve Sosyal Etüdler Vakfı (Turkish Economic
and Social Studies Foundation)
TİP Türkiye İşçi Partisi (Turkey’s Workers’ Party) (Est.
13.02.1961—Closure 21.07.1971; Second
Establishment.1975—Closure 16.10.1981)
TKDP Türkiye Kürdistan Demokrat Partisi (Turkey Kurdistan
Democratic Party) (Est. 28.04.2014)
TKSP Türkiye Kürdistan Sosyalist Parti (Turkey Kurdistan Socialist
Party)
TL Turkish Lira
TMSF Tasarruaf ve Mevduat Sigorta Fonu (Deposit and Insurance
Fund)
TOBB Türkiye Odalar ve Borsalar Birliği (Union of Chambers and
Commodity Exchanges of Turkey)
TRT Türkiye Radyo ve Televizyon Kurumu (Turkish Radio and
Television Corporation)
TTB Türk Tabipleri Birliği (Turkish Medical Association)
TÜİK/TUIK Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (Turkish Statistical Institute)
xvi Abbreviations

TÜRK-İŞ Türkiye İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu (Confederation of

Turkish Trade Unions)
TÜSİAD Türk Sanayicileri ve İş İnsanları Derneği (Turkish Industry
and Business Association)
TUSKON Türkiye İş Adamları ve Sanayiciler Konfederasyonu (Turkish
Confederation of Businessmen and Industrialists)
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
VP Vatan Partisi (Patriotic Party)
WB World Bank
WTO World Trade Organization
YDP Yeniden Doğuş Partisi (Rebirth Party) (Est. 23rd November
1992—Closure 2002)
YÖK Yükseköğretim Kurulu (Council of Higher Education)
YTP Yeni Türkiye Partisi (New Turkey Party) (Est. 1961—
Closure 1974) (Est. 2002—Closure 2004)
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 Illustration of the overarching cleavage in the context of the JDP 56
Fig. 3.1 Share of each sector within the total employment, 1923–1950.
(Source: TUIK Statistics 2010) 74
Fig. 3.2 Each sector’s share of total employment, 1950–1960. (Source:
TUIK Statistics 2010) 78
Map 3.1 ISI and (Group I) industrial plants in the cities of Turkey, 1950–
1980. (Source: Maps made via MapChart) 82
Map 3.2 ISI and (Group II) industrial plants in the cities of Turkey, 1950–
1980. The map illustrates the industrial cities close to the first
group (Group I) of industrialised cities. (Source: Maps made via
MapChart)83
Fig. 3.3 Each sector’s share of total employment, 1960–1980. (Source:
TUIK Statistics, 2010) 83
Map 3.3 Export-led growth and industrial plants in the cities of Turkey
after 1980. The map illustrates the main industrial cities
established after 1980 due to export-led growth. (Source: Maps
made via MapChart) 88
Fig. 3.4 Inflation, 1980–2017. (Source: IMF) 90
Fig. 3.5 Evolution of sectoral employment (share of total in per cent) in the
period 1980–2008. (Source: ILO Labour Statistics Bureau 2012) 92
Fig. 3.6 Each sector’s share of total employment, 1980–2017. (Source:
TUIK Statistics 2017b) 93
Fig. 3.7 Urban migration 1975–2015 to metropolitan cities. (Source:
TUIK)94
Fig. 3.8 Export-oriented provinces and support for the JDP in the 2002
legislative elections. (Source: TUIK 2018 and YSK 2011) 109

xvii
 List of Tables

Table 2.1 Incorporating cleavage structure by Lipset and Rokkan (1967)

into Turkish context (theoretical framework underpinning the
research methodology) 17
Table 2.2 Evolution of Turkish party system via societal cleavages:
Turkish taxonomy 21
Table 2.3 Illustration of the overarching cleavage Turkish-Ottoman/
Republican-Imperial in Lipset and Rokkan’s divides 42
Table 4.1 Discrepancy between party discourse and deliverables 121
Table A.1 Profile of key informants interviewed 251

xix
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

I was 11 years old in March 1994 when the Refah Partisi (Welfare Party,
RP) gained 19 per cent of the total vote in Turkey’s nationwide local elec-
tions held and won the metropolitan municipality of Istanbul where my
family was living. My parents generally voted for more liberal parties, as I
knew, and I discussed the victory with many members of the working class
I knew—housecleaners, doormen, and marginal sector workers. Most of
them generally supported right-leaning parties including the RP after their
deception with left-wing parties in the 1980s. Ever since I have been curi-
ous about the split between working-class and middle-class Turks like my
parents, which led me years later to the topic of this book, the emergence
and consolidation of the Islamic-leaning Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi
(Justice and Development Party, JDP), which rested significantly on
working-­class support and lower segments of the society.
Beyond my personal motives, this research on consolidation and under-
pinnings of the JDP reflects an understanding that Turkey’s case has
unique features with significant implications for the field of comparative
politics. While Turkey is integrated into the core architecture of the
Western international stage through its membership in the North Atlantic
Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Council, and Custom
Unions, it has experienced the rise of political Islam via openly contested
elections and a gradual yet persistent drift towards authoritarianism. Some
scholars and pundits believed, following the Gezi Park protests of June
2013 and the corruption accusations of December 2013 against the leader

© The Author(s) 2019 1

S. Bermek, The Rise of Hybrid Political Islam in Turkey,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14203-2_1
2 S. BERMEK

of the JDP and members of his cabinet, that it would soon cease to exist.
However, the legislative elections of November 2015 revealed the resil-
ience and tactical skills of the JDP in spite of the corroding effects of 14
years in power. These events reveal that the analysis of the party as a politi-
cal phenomenon is still current and that this drift to authoritarianism and
its sustainability needs to be explored in depth. In order to address these
questions, it is essential to understand how the JDP’s rise to and consoli-
dation of power occurred.
A further reason to explore the JDP is that Turkey’s shift to authoritari-
anism is not unique, but a rather prevalent trend of our time. Indeed, even
countries fully integrated to Western and liberal order have lately shown a
tendency to drift away from their core institutions and gravitate towards
authoritarianism. Hungary’s national-conservative and right-wing popu-
list party Fidesz’s supermajority success in the form of three consecutive
electoral victories (in 2010, 2014, and 2018) and Poland’s right-wing
populist, national-conservative Christian Democratic Law and Justice
Party’s obtaining outright majority in 2015 illustrate this trend of which
the JDP is a part.
The research questions that drive this book reflect both my interest in
Turkey and its relationship to a broader international trend. These relate
to how the JDP has become a game changer in both Turkish party system
and society and on how the party has consolidated its power and become
remarkably resilient over the years of its power. The book attempts to
answer these core questions by following the course of this shift to author-
itarianism in the Turkish politics and society.
This book goes beyond the debate on secularism and Islam. As the
research aimed to investigate the JDP as a model of game changer in both
society and party system, it necessitated a theoretical framework scrutinis-
ing party system according to sociological factors. To that end, I chose
Lipset-Rokkan’s cleavage structure (1967)1 to guide the research. The
qualitative methodology was based on in-depth interviews and archival
research, which included review of electoral campaign material, grey litera-
ture, and statistics related to socioeconomic data. Lipset and Rokkan iden-
tify four main cleavages (state-church, centre-periphery, capital
owner-worker, and land-industry); for the Turkish context, I adapted it
as secularist-Islamist; Turkish-Kurdish, Sunni-Alevi; left-right, centre ver-
sus periphery at the centre; big urban conglomerate-peripheral Small
Medium Enterprises (SMEs), respectively. In keeping with the adapted
cleavage-structure model, I recruited interviewees from the Cumhuriyet
 INTRODUCTION 3

Halk Partisi (Republican People’s Party, CHP), the JDP, and the Saadet
Partisi (Felicity Party, SP) to reflect the secularist-Islamist cleavage.
In addition to this adapted cleavage structure, I develop new cleavage
structure for clarifying roots of the current Turkish party system. Lipset
and Rokkan (1967) considered the Industrial Revolution and French
Revolution as the roots of the Western European party systems as the for-
mer gave rise to the land-industry divide in Britain and the latter gave rise
to the state-church fault line in France. Similarly, I understand the estab-
lishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 as the root of the Turkish-­
Ottoman/Republican-Imperial divide that gave rise to the Turkish party
system, and hence I developed this overarching Turkish-Ottoman/
Republican-Imperial cleavage. To this leading theoretical paradigm, I ulti-
mately added additional theoretical frameworks such as a new version of
centre-periphery (Kahraman 2008), machine party politics (Stokes et al.
2013), and the logic of the political survival (Bueno de Mesquita et al.
2003) based on fieldwork data given that the cleavage structure was not
sufficient in elaborating the consolidation of the JDP. Examining the party
system according to sociological factors is a chief source of novelty in the
research presented here, because the scholarly literature on Turkish party
systems and parties has generally focused on theories related to electoral
institutions (e.g. Sayarı 2007; Özbudun 2013; Gumuscu 2013; Ayan
Musil 2011; Ete et al. 2015; Sayarı 2016; Esen and Gumuscu 2016;
Wuthrich 2015; Sayarı et al. 2018). Aside from the theoretical part, the
book contributes to the existing scholarly literature on the Turkish politics
and society with its field research findings. Scholarly work on Turkish poli-
tics and society, the JDP, and country studies have increased dramatically
over the last decade. This work has addressed a wide range of subjects such
as Islamist movements, democratisation, state-military relations, and
European Union (EU) membership. I disentangle this growing literature
according to the major themes relevant to my objectives, which leads to a
focus on research on Turkish politics and the JDP (mainly country stud-
ies) and Turkish politics and society and voting behaviour in local and
legislative elections.
The majority of scholars who have tackled the JDP’s emergence use the
framework of debates on Islamism versus secularism, democratisation,
Europeanisation, and state-military relations. Thus, Eligür (2010) explains
the rise of political Islam from a social movement theory perspective. She
argues that the movement of the Türk-İslam Sentezi (Turkish-Islamic
Synthesis), compounded with the malfunctioning state and Islamist
4 S. BERMEK

grassroots organisational scheme, contributed to the Islamist mobilisation

in Turkey. This leads to the conclusion that socioeconomic factors provide
rather a partial explanation to the rise of political Islam in Turkey. Yavuz
(2003) adopts a constructivist approach in his analysis of the Islamic
movements (e.g. Nakşibendi Sufi Order, Nur movement, Neo-Nur move-
ment, National Outlook movement) and their political repercussions.
More recently (2009) he has provided a more diversified account of the
JDP by including the socioeconomic bases of the JDP in his analysis. He
highlights the fact that owners of small businesses and industrialists, shop-
keepers, master craftsmen, semi-industrialist farmers, and owners of con-
struction firms make up the JDP’s base. Similarly, Hale and Özbudun
(2010) add the social bases of the JDP to their analysis of JDP’s first ruling
tenure (2002–2007).
This book focuses on acquiring a deeper insight into the social bases of
the JDP. To do so it looks to what extent long-, medium-, and short-term
economic factors and the changes in social structures they ignited contrib-
uted to the JDP’s rise in 2002. More precisely, the book considers the
economic decisions from the beginning of the Republic up to 2002 and
how they led to changes in social structures in Turkish society and in their
political demands. In addition to this account of the socioeconomic ori-
gins of the JDP, which constitutes the demand side, I also look at the sup-
ply side, the transformation of the political party system and parties as
products of political and social cleavages. This dual analysis appears to
contribute to the scholarly literature by elucidating the supply and demand
mechanism behind JDP’s emergence.
In addition to the scholarly literature from the political Islam perspec-
tive, some scholars add different angles such as Europeanisation, democ-
ratisation, and/or state-military relations with political Islam. A number
of contributions in this vein appear in a single-edited volume, Secular and
Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party
(Cizre 2008). For example, Cizre’s (2008) volume explores the JDP’s
place within the Turkish political system with respect to JDP’s policy
agenda in civil-military relations, EU conditionality, human rights, and the
evolution of political Islam. She argues that, despite the EU reform pro-
cess that curtailed the military’s supremacy over Turkish politics, the
Turkish army was still too powerful. In the same volume, Çınar (2008)
argues that the JDP has used the EU project as a means to ease secularist
restrictions on public expression of Islamic belief. He illustrates that the
party used conditionality to restrict the political authority of the military.
 INTRODUCTION 5

Another contribution to the same edited volume co-authored by Çınar

and Duran (2008) discusses the historical evolution of political Islam and
how Turkish Islamism differs from religious movements in other Islamic
states. Çayır (2008) argues that a “self-critical Islam” that encourages
Islamic actors to embrace both modern lifestyles and religiosity at indi-
vidual level has replaced the Turkish Islamism of the 1970s and 1980s.
Other scholars analyse the JDP, based on its policy agenda (e.g. economic
and social agenda) following its consolidation in the party system. Amongst
them, Uzgel and Duru (2009) have considered the JDP as the new politi-
cal actor of the neoliberal transformation and compiled works written on
the social, economic policy, legal aspect, domestic, and foreign political
agenda of the party. In another publication Insight Turkey (2017), scholars
have addressed the 15 years of the JDP, elaborating on the three consecu-
tive JDP governments’ performance in economic and financial stability,
creating a changing pattern in Kurdish peace initiatives as well as health-­
care policies. Another book which Ersoy and Ozyurek (2017) edited
addresses contemporary Turkish foreign and domestic politics. It does so
by exploring the impact of changing dynamics in the region following the
Arab uprisings and domestic politics by looking at the impact of the role
of strong single government on the transformation of political institutions
and the relations between state and citizens.
Here I contribute to this rich literature by highlighting the JDP’s elec-
toral consolidation in consideration of the divergence between its dis-
course and its policies. Namely, while the party’s discourse has wide appeal,
the policies it pursues target its core constituencies. Actually, in the early
years of the JDP’s control of the state, the JDP had welfare policy agenda
(e.g. health-care reform, social assistance) in line with its party’s rights-­
based discourse that aimed to bring free health-care and welfare assistance
to each citizen. However, over the course of the JDP’s ruling tenures,
party’s welfare agenda diverged from its initial discourse on universalist
welfare system and emphasis on social state started to target only the lower
stratum that constitute majority of its votes and eventually a discrepancy
between deliverables and policy discourse emerged. This book’s title
­references this discrepancy between the party’s discourse and delivery,
which I call hybrid political Islam.
While I contributed to the literature by highlighting the discrepancy
between the party’s discourse and deliverables, the recent literature on the
JDP has taken a new direction by taking a more critical approach—than
literature written on the early years of the JDP—to the JDP’s entrenchment
6 S. BERMEK

in Turkish politics and society. Scholars have started to focus on the JDP’s
authoritarian politics, which have become more and more evident. For
instance, Cizre’s (2016) edited manuscript assesses the 13 years of the JDP’s
and its leader’s ruling tenures from the viewpoints of major critical actors
(Kemalist civil society organisations, gender-driven Republican feminists,
Alevi community, Gülen movement, Gezi protesters, and socialist scholars).
Regarding the party’s political position, she asserts that JDP lost its centrist
position after the legislative elections of June 2015. She argues that the shelv-
ing of the two-year ceasefire and peace with the Kurdish bloc to serve
Erdoğan’s political ambitions has revealed his adherence to the traditional
statist discourse of the Turkish state. Similarly, Başer and Öztürk (2017) high-
light the consequences of the constitutional referendum of 2017 that ushered
in a change from a parliamentary model to an executive presidency, granting
President Erdoğan far-reaching new powers across Turkey. They also empha-
sise the democratic reversal that has thereby occurred in Turkey. Similarly,
Öktem and Akkoyunlu (2017)2 scrutinise Turkey’s regime shift and abandon-
ment of democratic politics following the installation of hyper-presidential
system. They explore this regime change by focusing on a comparative analy-
sis (Turkey, Russia, Southeast Europe, and Latin America), pointing out the
repercussions of such a regime change in religious, educational, ethnic, and
civil society policies. Their volume concludes that this extensive authoritarian
shift3 has not resulted in consolidation but in rather severely split and con-
tested polity. While Öktem and Akkoyunlu (2017) explore Turkey’s move to
authoritarianism from different policy angles, Bayulgen et al. (2018) explore
reversal and resilience in hybrid regimes by analysing elite strategies and their
coping mechanism against challenges to the JDP rule. Through their analysis
on Turkish case, they illustrate how elite conditions contribute to the resil-
ience and vulnerability of hybrid regimes in general as well as their regime path.
This book contributes to the literature on authoritarian politics in
Turkey by providing another explanation of this shift to illiberal democ-
racy. The research incorporates theories of machine party politics (or cli-
entelist parties) and a political survival mechanism to clarify how the JDP
has supplied policies to meet the demands of its core constituency (supply
side). In revealing that the JDP functions as a machine party, I suggest
that authoritarianism is in the party’s DNA and that its early days reflect
this, which has paved the way to authoritarianism in Turkish politics under
a political boss. Thus, I demonstrate how the JDP’s consolidation and its
entrenchment in Turkish society and politics has led to the manifestation
of authoritarian tendencies that were once hidden.
This book also complements scholarly works that highlight the struc-
tural aspects of the JDP and its impact on the society and politics. These
 INTRODUCTION 7

structural aspects include the JDP’s organisational features, specific policy

areas, and state-business relations. Sociologists and anthropologists under-
took the first research in this vein (Delibas 2015; Joppien 2017; Doğan
2016). Delibas (2015) for instance explains how political Islam in Turkey
has emerged at a grassroots level as a response to socioeconomic and polit-
ical conditions that were aggravated by the neoliberal economic policies of
the 1980s, rapid urbanisation, and cultural globalisation. Joppien’s (2017)
thorough examination of municipal politics’ daily practice enlightens the
core aspects of Turkish politics such as political mobilisation, civil society’s
role, decision-making practices, and linkages between voters and politi-
cians. Doğan (2016) analyses the JDP’s party organisation at the neigh-
bourhood level and the grassroots mobilisation. However, these works
have each focused on specific jurisdictions within Turkey rather than the
country as a whole. This book builds on their efforts with a more compre-
hensive approach that touches upon both voters’ needs (rights-based dis-
course and social, economic, and religious aspirations) and the JDP’s
catering to its core constituencies (supply side) to demonstrate JDP’s
political consolidation.
As to social policy issues and state-business relations, Bugra and
Savaskan (2014) illustrate how political action can reshape the business
community and patterns of business development. More importantly, they
demonstrate how over the last decade business associations increasingly
instrumentalised the religion as a strategic means in order to establish bonds
of trust and solidarity among their members. Yılmaz (2017) has analysed
the transformation in the health-care system of Turkey that took place in
line with the neoliberal transformation requests of the multinational organ-
isations since the 2000s. Bugra and Candas (2011) and Dorlach (2016)
scrutinise the welfare system during the JDP period and theoretically explore
the JDP’s welfare agenda. Beyond these works that specifically analyse wel-
fare policy system, my book focuses on the JDP’s social policy areas to
demonstrate how it has taken advantage of these social policies—health-care
reform and social assistance—in order to cater to its core constituencies.
Another stream of literature that influences the current study is the flourish-
ing literature on Turkish voters’ preferences at Turkish national elections and
local elections (Çarkoğlu et al. 2018; Çarkoğlu and Yıldırımı 2015; Çarkoğlu
and Aytaç 2015; Marschall et al. 2016; Akarca 2015; Gidengil and Karakoç
2014; Şeker and Dayıoğlu 2015; Çarkoğlu and Kalaycıoğlu 2009). This litera-
ture bears on my discussion and analysis of the demand side of the JDP’s
consolidation as it demonstrates how the party’s social and economic policy
agenda have appeased the JDP’s social bases. As a whole, the book aims
8 S. BERMEK

to contribute to the literature about the contemporary Turkish political

system by assembling the economic, political, and social agenda of the
JDP with original field research and use of a theoretical framework that
prompts a focus on sociological factors in the structuring of party system.
The book is organised as follows. Chapter 2 analyses thematically the
evolution of social cleavages since 1923 and their translation into Turkey’s
political process in the context of its historical and political background. It
appears necessary to make such a retrospective analysis as the current roots
of the party system reflect the events that attended the establishment of
Republic in 1923. Thus, I perform a longitudinal analysis, taking the
reader from 1923 to 2002 to illustrate how changes in political and soci-
etal cleavages have led to the emergence of the current parties and party
system, and finally to the rise of the JDP to power in 2002. To that end,
Chap. 2 incorporates Lipset and Rokkan’s cleavage structure and describes
a new cleavage taxonomy relevant to the Turkish context. It then explores
how this new taxonomy has operated over time. Because cleavages are
extremely dynamic, the analysis considers the foundation, evolution, and
translation of each cleavage and the resulting effect on party development.
The chapter further explains how the JDP managed to identify the politi-
cal winners and losers of the Republican era and to win over the losers
(including the Kurdish, Alevi, Left, and/or Liberal segments of the
­society) who were alienated by the Republican nation-state. Chapter 2
illustrates how the JDP assembled an overarching electoral coalition in
order to rise in power in 2002 and thus provides insight into how the
party rose by exploiting the supply side of the demand-supply mechanism.
In Chap. 3, I explore the institutional factors that are related to parties
and the party system, the interrelationship between economic changes and
structural issues, and how they have shaped the evolution of the Turkish
party system from the demand side (voters). The contention of this chap-
ter is that both structural and institutional changes shaped the evolution
of the Turkish party system. The changing economic programmes are
considered to be a main catalyser of the structural changes in society.
Here, structural issues refer to diversified elements of society such as social
changes, class changes, and educational levels. This chapter responds to
the question as to how changes in socioeconomic structures in Turkish
society affected the emergence and the sustainment of the JDP’s electoral
success. In order to do this, it highlights how, with the socioeconomic
transformation after the 1980s, a change in the rising classes’ demands
occurred, which led to an appetite for a political party with features such
 INTRODUCTION 9

as the JDP initially seemed to have. Hence, the chapter elucidates the
demand side regarding the emergence of the JDP in 2002. Chapter 3 also
disentangles the main themes behind the emergence of the JDP, which in
turn become the subjects of Chaps. 4 and 5.
In Chap. 4, I explore the issue of social policies and how the JDP con-
solidated its electoral power by meeting the demands of ordinary people,
via catering to its core constituencies. To demonstrate this strategy, the
chapter opens with a discussion regarding the emergence of discrepancy
between the party’s discourse and policies. This divergence between policy
and discourse highlights that the major way the JDP delivers for its core
constituencies is its universal social welfare agenda. Following this opening,
the chapter elaborates on how the JDP’s pro-rights discourse deviates from
its policies and how policies such as its macroeconomic stability programme
nonetheless provided an electoral advantage in four consecutive elections.
Chapter 4 investigates two important policy areas: health and social assis-
tance policies (e.g. increases in social benefits for disadvantaged groups and
marketisation of the health-care system) in order to demonstrate how they
contributed to the party’s political consolidation and entrenchment in
Turkish society. The chapter also points out that the JDP’s machine party
characteristics contributed to its consolidation and its resilient support
among its target constituency more than its religious discourse.
Chapter 5 pursues the main findings from Chap. 4 regarding the diverg-
ing feature between the party’s discourse and its policy agenda. Thus, the
JDP’s hybrid ideology and its continuous supply for the political demands
of its core constituency characterises it as a machine party rather than a
standard political party of familiar attributes. In addition, its hybrid ideol-
ogy, more than its Islamist background, explains how the JDP adapts itself
to new political dynamics, thus remaining resilient in its politics. To be
more specific, Chap. 5 analyses the party’s view of the role that social and
human rights play in Turkish social discourse, as well as the role they play
in Turkey’s bid for EU membership as an anchor for democratisation.
Thus, it appears that the JDP has used this language and these themes to
further its entrenchment in the Turkish society. This policy is also reflected
in the JDP’s approach to issues such as the state’s negotiation for EU
membership, a headscarf ban, advocacy for demilitarisation, and human
rights extensions for ethnic minorities in the country. The chapter further-
more elaborates how the JDP has changed its ideological framing over
time, positioning itself to ally with other stakeholders when political inter-
ests dictate. Finally, it describes the extreme, rather unprincipled basis
10 S. BERMEK

of the JDP’s consolidation of power, which led to its elimination of all

competing authorities, discarding old alliances when they were obsolete,
and ready establishment of new alliances to improve its electoral advantage
through a powerful new coalition.
Chapter 6 illustrates that the Turkish-Ottoman/Republican-Imperial
cleavage dominates the new cleavage taxonomy relevant to the Turkish
context. Cleavages (namely Turkish-Kurdish, Sunni-Alevi, secularist-­
Islamist, capital owner-worker, centre vs. centre at periphery, big urban
conglomerate-Small Medium Enterprises [SMEs] cleavages) are still active
in changing the Turkish societal dynamics and, unlike the established
Western European parties that the Lipset and Rokkan study addresses, the
JDP governs in an environment in which cleavages still constitute distinct/
notable fault lines. Chapter 6 explains also how the overarching cleavage
relates to the current JDP’s ruling tenure and highlights how the JDP
attempts to fit into the Ottoman side of this cleavage. Moreover, the chap-
ter demonstrates how the fieldwork research helped me identify illuminat-
ing approaches to the study of parties in general and the JDP in particular.
It helped demonstrate that the JDP’s hierarchical party organisation
scheme is actually similar to machine parties in South America and that
existed in the United States in the first half of the nineteenth century. The
chapter also highlights the future of the Turkish party system with respect
to the JDP’s political survival under the inspiration of the political party
survival theories. It thus reflects the findings of the book and discusses the
political survival of the JDP up to the election results of 24 June 2018.
Chapter 7, the concluding chapter, takes the reader through a history
of Turkey’s party system and demonstrates how changes in social struc-
tures have resulted in the formation of parties and its constituencies. It
also assesses the impact of institutional factors such as coup d’états on par-
ties. The chapter highlights how both institutional factors and socioeco-
nomic transformation had contributed to the emergence of the JDP in
2002. Then it assesses how the JDP caters for the needs of the majority of
society by using benefits of a single-party government as well as via tan-
gible policies. Chapter 7 summarises all the analysis chapters, and in line
with them, it attempts to forecast of Turkish politics following June 2018
elections. It concludes that even though the JDP and Erdoğan assured
victory in the June 2018 elections, this will cause tension in society among
the opposition especially given signs of impending downturn. Despite
this, Turkish society’s dynamism and strong middle classes would provide
a bulwark against chaos.
 INTRODUCTION 11

Notes
1. The cleavage-structure theory is deduced from Talcott Parsons’ paradigm of
societal changes (Lipset and Rokkan 1967, pp. 7–10). When the Parsonian
paradigm is traced back further, it reveals that Parsons used a thoroughly
Weberian class analysis in his works (Tribe 2007, p. 222).
2. More scholarly works are as follows: Waldman and Caliskan (2016), Abbas
(2017).
3. For an extensive literature review of scholarly work on authoritarian politics
in Turkey, please consult Somer (2016, p. 7).

References
Abbas, T. (2017). Contemporary Turkey in Conflict: Ethnicity, Islam and Politics.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Akarca, A. (2015). Putting Turkey’s June and November 2015 Election Outcomes
in Perspective. Insight Turkey, 17(4), 81–104.
Ayan Musil, P. (2011). Authoritarian Party Structures and Democratic Political
Setting in Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Başer, B., & Öztürk, A. E. (Eds.). (2017). Authoritarian Politics in Turkey:
Elections, Resistance and the AKP. London/New York: I.B. Tauris.
Bayulgen, O., Arbatli, E., & Canbolat, S. (2018). Elite Survival Strategies and
Authoritarian Reversal in Turkey. Polity, 50(3), 333–365.
Bueno de Mesquita, B., Smith, A., Siverson, R. M., & Morrow, J. D. (2003). The
Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Bugra, A., & Candas, A. (2011). Change and Continuity Under an Eclectic Social
Security Regime: The Case of Turkey. Middle Eastern Studies, 47(3), 515–528.
Bugra, A., & Savaskan, O. (2014). New Capitalism in Turkey the Relationship
Between Politics, Religion and Business. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Çarkoğlu, A., & Aytaç, S. E. (2015). Who Gets Targeted for Vote-Buying?
Evidence from an Augmented List Experiment in Turkey. European Political
Science Review, 7, 547–566.
Çarkoğlu, A., & Kalaycıoğlu, E. (2009). The Rising Tide of Conservatism in
Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Çarkoğlu, A., & Yıldırım, K. (2015). Election Storm in Turkey: What Do the
Results of June and November 2015 Elections Tell Us? Insight Turkey,
17(4), 57–79.
Çarkoğlu, A., Aytaç, S., & Campbell, D. (2018). Determinants of Formal Giving
in Turkey. Journal of Muslim Philanthropy & Civil Society, 1(1), 40–50.
Çayır, K. (2008). The Emergence of Turkey’s Contemporary ‘Muslim Democrats’.
In Ü. Cizre (Ed.), Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the
Justice and Development Party (pp. 62–80). London/New York: Routledge.
12 S. BERMEK

Çınar, M. (2008). The Justice and Development Party and the Kemalist establish-
ment. In Ü. Cizre (Ed.), Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of
the Justice and Development Party (pp. 109–132). London/New York:
Routledge.
Çınar, M., & Duran, B. (2008). The Specific Evolution of Contemporary Political
Islam in Turkey and Its ‘Difference’. In Ü. Cizre (Ed.), Secular and Islamic
Politics in Turkey: The Making of the Justice and Development Party (pp. 17–41).
London/New York: Routledge.
Cizre, Ü. (Ed.). (2008). Secular and Islamic Politics in Turkey: The Making of the
Justice and Development Party. London/New York: Routledge.
Cizre, Ü. (Ed.). (2016). The Turkish AK Party and Its Leader: Criticism, Opposition
and Dissent. London/New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Delibas, K. (2015). The Rise of Political Islam in Turkey: Urban Poverty, Grassroots
Activism and Islamic Fundamentalism. London: I.B. Tauris.
Doğan, S. (2016). Mahalledeki AKP (AKP at the Neighbourhood). Istanbul: ̇
̇
Iletiş im Yayınları.
Dorlach, T. (2016). The AKP Between Populism and Neoliberalism: Lessons from
Pharmaceutical Policy. New Perspectives on Turkey, 55, 55–83.
Eligür, B. (2010). The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Ersoy, M., & Ozyurek, M. (Eds.). (2017). Contemporary Turkey at a Glance II
Turkey Transformed? Power, History, Culture. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Esen, B., & Gumuscu, S. (2016). Rising Competitive Authoritarianism in Turkey.
Third World Quarterly, 37(9), 1581–1606.
Ete, H., Altunoğlu, M., & Dalay, G. (2015). Turkey Under the AK Party Rule:
From Dominant Party Politics to Dominant Party System? Insight Turkey,
17(4), 171–192.
Gidengil, E., & Karakoç, E. (2014). Which Matters More in the Electoral Success
of Islamist (Successor) Parties – Religion or Performance? The Turkish Case.
Party Politics, 22(33), 325–338.
Gumuscu, S. (2013). The Emerging Predominant Party System in Turkey.
Government and Opposition, 48(2), 223–244.
Hale, W., & Özbudun, E. (2010). Islamism, Democracy and Liberalism in Turkey:
The Case of the AKP. New York: Routledge.
Joppien, C. (2017). Municipal Politics in Turkey Local Government and Party
Organisation. London: Routledge.
Kahraman, H. (2008). Türk Siyasetinin Yapısal Analizi-I Kavramlar Kuramlar
Kurumlar (Structural Analysis of Turkish Politics-I Concepts Theories
̇
Institutions). Istanbul: Agora Kitaplığı.
Lipset, S. M., & Rokkan, S. (1967). Cleavage Structures, Party System, and Voter
Alignments: An Introduction. In S. M. Lipset & S. Rokkan (Eds.), Party
Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross-National Perspectives (pp. 1–64). New York:
Free Press.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Fruitful women, 60.
Fruit tree, a simile, 15.
Fruitless suckling, 283.
Fumigations, 129.

Garters, ill effects of, in pregnancy, 123.

Gathered breasts, 282.
causes of, 283.
importance of early treatment, 286.
German breakfast, 289.
Gestation, period of, 185.
Ginger plaster, 157.
Girl or boy?, 188.
Greens, cabbages, and pickles, 290.
“Guarding of the bed,” 218.

Hair, on washing, 46.

Health, a beautifier, 23.
importance of, 101.
of wives, 13.
worth trying for, 17.
Heart, palpitation of, during pregnancy, 167.
Heartburn in pregnancy, 147.
Hints to attendants, 228.
to mother when infant is ill, 268.
Home known only in England, 86.
Honey, on the wholesomeness of, 289.
Hot-water bag, 147, 168.
House, a healthy, 36.
Household duties, 86.
good, 272.
Hysteria, 113.
Husband in lying-in room, 210.

Idle ladies, 78.

people, 25.
Idleness brings misery, 127.
effects of, 17.
India-rubber teat and shield for drawn-in nipple, 276.
for sore nipple, 280.
Indolence, the ill effects of, in pregnancy, 126.
Infant born apparently dead, 230.
the period of suckling an, 293.
the cry of an, 230.
Introductory Chapter, 13.
Irish women, poor, 38.
Irritation and itching, 172.

Jam as an aperient, 89.

Jeremy Taylor’s description of a wife, 13.

Labor, 199.
the easy and the hard, 94.
rapid, directions concerning, 228.
symptoms of, 199–215.
treatment of, 216–254.
Lavements in pregnancy, 144.
Leather cheaper than physic, 24.
Legs, the swollen, of pregnancy, 152.
Length of time of first labor, 210.
of an after labor, 210.
Life is to be well, 18.
Light, effects of, 79.
is life, 79.
Little ablution—much clothing, 84.
Lively women and easy labors, 127.
Luxurious idle wife, 77.
Luxury, an age of, 28.
ill effects of, 38.
Lying-in room, 237.
temperature of, 237.

Maid-servants and the “ologies,” 92.

Marmalade as an aperient, 290.
Marshmallow and chamomile fomentation (note), 245.
Martin Luther on work, 89.
Mastication, thorough, 54.
Materials of food should be mixed and varied, 265.
Means to strengthen, 16.
Meddlesome breast-tending, 260.
midwifery reprobated, 205.
Medical men, 209.
Medicines in pregnancy, 140–173.
opening, danger of, 99.
Menstrual fluid, 111.
Menstruation, 103.
accompanied with “the whites,” 112.
before marriage, 111.
during 30 years, 102.
 painful, 111.
dangers of, 111.
profuse, 112.
sparing, 112.
too pale or too dark, 111.
when not properly performed, 111.
Milk at its “height,” 259.
the best way of “drying up” the, 296.
flowing away constantly, 280.
very fattening, 54.
Miscarriage, 174.
care required after, 178.
causes of, 175.
consequences of a neglected, 178.
flooding in, 177.
prevention of, 179.
symptoms of a threatened, 176.
treatment of, 179.
usual time of taking place, 177.
Misconception and prejudice, 238.
Mission, the glorious, 101.
Monthly nurse, 189–198.
Morning sickness, 117, 158.
Mothers predisposed to consumption, 300.
who cannot suckle, 299.
unnatural, 255.
Mountain-air, 97.
Mufflers and sore throats, 84.
Mutton-chops, folly of living entirely on, 52.

Nature in early morning, 68.

Navel, pouting of, as a sign of pregnancy, 122.
Navel-string, the manner of tying, 233.
 not to be tied until the child breathes, 232.
Nipple, cracked and fissured, 279.
during suckling, 257.
means to harden, 162.
great importance of hardening, 162.
retraction of, 275.
shields, 276.
sore, 277.
an obstinate, 299.
washing of, and breast, 257.
wet, 280.
shields, Wansbrough’s, 279.
Nose, a sentinel, 129.
Nurse, monthly, 189–198.
importance of choosing a good, 189.
on wearing crinoline, 197.
on wearing slippers instead of shoes, 198.
Nursery-basin, 43.
Nursing, prolonged, danger of, 293.
apron, 263.

Oatmeal, Derbyshire, 143.

gruel as a fomentation, 245.
Occupation, 87, 272.
fresh air, and exercise, 272.
Offspring of very young and very old, 104.
Olive oil as an aperient, 142.
Opening medicine, 99.

Pains, “bearing down,” 203.

before and during menstruation, 111.
“grinding,” 200.
at night in pregnancy, 139.
Painless parturition, 212.
Palpitation of the heart in pregnancy, 167.
Passion, the ill effects of, during suckling, 270.
Pendulous belly of pregnancy, 154.
Pepper plaster, 157.
Period of gestation, 185.
of taking exercise, 254.
Pessaries, 248.
Physic, a substitute for exercise, 31.
best, is exercise, 25.
Piles in pregnancy, 148.
Pleasure and health, 85.
Plethoric pregnant females, 136.
Poisoned by one’s own breath, 35.
Porter and ale for a nursing mother, 266.
Position after delivery, 237.
of a mother during suckling, 270.
of patient after labor, 237.
“Pottering” nurse, 190.
Poultice, a bread and milk and sweet oil, 282.
Precursory symptoms of labor, 199.
Pregnancy, 117.
duration of, 185.
a natural process, 127.
period of, 185.
signs of, 117.
Preliminary observations, 13.
Preparation for health, 47.
for labor, 216.
Profession of a wife, 90.
Prolific mothers (note), 105.
Proper time for a patient to sit up after labor, 246.
to send for medical man, 200, 203.
to send for the nurse, 200.
Protrusion of the bowels, 149.
Prunes, stewed, 289.
Puberty, period of (note), 105.
Pump-water, contamination, 132.
on boiling, 133.
on purity of, 132.

“Quickening,” 120.
flatulence mistaken for, 121.
Quiet after confinement, 246.

Rain and wind, exercise in, 24.

Rats in drains and sewers, 130.
“Reckoning,” to make the, 186.
Refreshment after labor, 235.
Remedies to prevent costiveness, 291.
Respiration, artificial, 232.
Rest after delivery, 234.
in pregnancy, 133.
and quietude after labor, 246.
Restlessness at night, 138.
remedies for, 138.
Rich ladies, 38.
Rising of the sun on seeing the, 71.
Rock-salt, 45.
Rules for a female prone to miscarry, 180.
for barren wife, 14.
of health, 99.

Sea-bathing, in pregnancy, 125.

Sea water good for hair, 46.
Servants taught the “ologies,” 92.
Shivering during labor, 201.
“Show,” a sure sign of labor, 200.
Shower-bath in pregnancy, 125.
Sick pregnancies, 161.
Sickness during labor, 201.
Signs of the fœtal circulation (note) 123.
of pregnancy, 117.
Sitting over fire, 27.
with back to fire, 27.
Sitz-bath, the value of, 44, 124, 172.
Skin of the abdomen cracked, 154.
Skylight the best ventilator, 128.
Sleep in pregnancy, 137.
the choicest gift, 77.
the value of, immediately after labor, 238.
for young wife, 78.
Sleepiness of pregnant females, 138.
Sleeplessness of pregnant females, 138.
Slipper bed-pan, 239, 244.
Sluggard’s dwelling, 71.
“Smoking dunghill,” a, 131.
Sore nipples, 277.
Spirits during suckling, 268.
Spurious labor pains, 183.
Stages of labor, 213.
Stays should not be worn during labor, 218.
Stocking, elastic, 153.
Stomach, functions of, 271.
Subsidence of the womb before labor, 199.
“Suck-pap,” 258.
Suckling, 255.
when female is pregnant, 300.
Suppers, hearty meal, 52.
Support to bowels after confinement, 236.
Swedish ladies, 91.
Swollen legs in pregnancy, 152.
Symptoms of labor, 199.
denoting necessity of weaning, 298.

Table of duration of pregnancy, 185.

Taking, the frequent, of physic, 31.
Teat, india-rubber, and shield, 276.
Teeth frequently decay in pregnancy, 156.
and gums, 55.
Temperature of a lying-in room, 237.
“The top of the morning,” 72.
Things which will be wanted at a labor, 216.
Tic-douloureux, 157.
Tight lacing injurious to a young wife, 81.
ill effects of, in pregnancy, 123.
Time when a child should be weaned, 293.
Toothache in pregnancy, 155.
remedies for, 156.
Tooth extraction, the danger of, in pregnancy, 155.
“Trap to catch sunbeam,” 81.
True labor pains, 202.
“Trying of a pain,” 221.
“Turn of years,” 115.

Unladylike, on being, 96.

Urine, retention of, 240.

Vaginal syringe, 196.

Veal-and-milk broth, 251.
Veins, enlarged, of the leg, 152.
Ventilation, importance of, 33, 128.
manner of performing, 34.
of lying-in room, 254.
thorough, 36.
Visitors in a lying-in room, 238.

Walk before breakfast, 47.

in frosty weather, 28.
Walking glorious exercise, 23.
Warm ablutions after labor, 245.
baths for infants apparently still-born, 231.
Water poisoned by drains, 132.
Waters, “the breaking of the,” 202.
Weaning, 292.
Weaning an infant, the method of, 294.
Wellington, the Duke of, 67.
Westmoreland and Cumberland poor women, 229.
Wet-nurses’ and mother’s milk, 265.
Whining and repining, 95.
“Whites” during pregnancy, 169.
cause miscarriage, 112.
when not pregnant, 112.
Wife, a domestic, 90.
educated to be useful, 90.
instructing servants, 92.
the mission of a, 22.
the profession of a, 90.
young, 13.
Wine, abuse of, 57.
bibbing causes barrenness, 57.
drinking of, 55.
in France, 61.
on children taking, 61.
much injures complexion, 64.
during suckling, 267.
Womb, bearing down of, 247.
Work, a cure for many ailments, 93.
Wormwood on nipples in weaning, 296.
 ADVICE TO A MOTHER
ON THE
MANAGEMENT OF HER CHILDREN,
AND ON THE
TREATMENT ON THE MOMENT
OF
SOME OF THEIR MORE PRESSING
ILLNESSES AND ACCIDENTS.

BY

PYE HENRY CHAVASSE,

FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND; FELLOW
OF THE OBSTETRICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON; FORMERLY PRESIDENT OF
QUEEN’S COLLEGE MEDICO-CHIRURGICAL SOCIETY, BIRMINGHAM;
AUTHOR OF “ADVICE TO A WIFE ON THE MANAGEMENT OF HER OWN
HEALTH.”

“Lo, children and the fruit of the womb are an heritage and cometh of the Lord.”

SEVENTEENTH EDITION.

PHILADELPHIA
J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.
1881.
 TO

Sir CHARLES LOCOCK, Bart., F.R.S.,

FIRST PHYSICIAN-ACCOUCHEUR TO HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN.

Dear Sir Charles:

Your kind and flattering approval of this little Book, and your
valuable suggestions for its improvement, demand my warmest
gratitude and acknowledgments, and have stimulated me to renewed
exertions to make it still more complete and useful, and thus more
worthy of your approbation.
You have greatly added to my obligation, by allowing me to
indicate those passages of the work that you considered required
correction, addition, and improvement. On reference to these pages,
it will be at once perceived how greatly I am indebted to you, and
how much I have profited by your valuable advice.

I have the honor to remain,

Dear Sir Charles,
Your faithful and obliged servant,
PYE HENRY CHAVASSE.

Priory House, Old Square,

Birmingham.
 PREFACE.

The sale of this book is enormous; where hundreds were formerly

disposed of, thousands are now sold; and the sale still increases with
increasing velocity.
The book has been a great success: I had the good fortune, some
thirty years ago, to turn up new ground—to hit upon a mine, which I
have, ever since, even until now, worked with my best energy and
ability. One cause of the immense success this work has achieved is,
that it treats of some subjects which, although they be subjects of
vital importance to the well-being of children, all other works of a
kindred nature do not even touch upon.
I have, during the last thirty years, been constantly on the watch to
give a mother additional and useful advice on the management of her
children; so that, in point of fact, this present edition consists of
more than treble the quantity of information contained in the earlier
editions. The quantity is not only increased, but the quality is, I trust,
greatly improved.
The last edition, comprising five thousand copies, has been rapidly
exhausted: to supply the increased and increasing demand, seven
thousand copies of this—the Ninth Edition—are now published.
The enormous, and, for a medical work, unusually large sale, is most
gratifying to me as well as to my worthy publishers.
I have taken great pains to improve the present edition: much new
matter has been introduced; several paragraphs have been abridged;
some portions have been rewritten—as my extended experience has
enabled me to enter on many of the subjects more fully, and, I trust,
more usefully; and the book has been throughout thoroughly revised.
Lord Chesterfield, in writing to his son, once said: “If I had had
longer time, I would have written you a shorter letter.” Now, I have
found time both to curtail some of the passages of this work, and to
remove many, indeed, a large majority of the quotations from the
text. I have, consequently, been able to fill up the various spaces with
much original, and, I trust, useful matter; and thus, without
materially increasing the bulk of the book, to keep it within
reasonable bounds. The notes and annotations of Sir Charles
Locock are, however, perfectly intact—they are too valuable either to
be omitted, or to be, in the slightest degree, curtailed.
The writing, revising, improving, and enlarging of this, and of my
other work—Advice to a Wife—have, for upwards of a quarter of a
century, been my absorbing occupation—my engrossing study. I have
loved, and cherished, and tended the two books as though they were
my children; and have, in each successive edition, always striven to
bring them, as nearly as my abilities would allow, to a state of
completeness—to make them, in fact, a perfect Vade-mecum for
Wives and Mothers. I might truly say, that the occupation has ever
been to me a source of pure and unalloyed enjoyment. The correction
of the pages has often cheered me when I have been in grief or in
trouble, and has soothed me when, in my profession, I have been
either harassed or vexed: truly, I have had my reward! My fervent
desire is, that some portion of the pleasure and comfort I have
derived from the writing of these books may be experienced by my
readers. If it be only a tithe of what I myself have felt, I shall be more
than amply rewarded for my pains.

P. H. C.
CONTENTS.
 PART I.—INFANCY.
PAGE
Preliminary Conversation 1013
Ablution 1016
Management of the Navel 1024
Clothing 1028
Diet 1032
Vaccination 1056
Dentition 1062
Exercise 1075
Sleep 1077
The Bladder and the Bowels 1084
Ailments, Disease, etc. 1085
Concluding Remarks on Infancy 1119

PART II.—CHILDHOOD.
Ablution 1120
Clothing 1123
Diet 1132
The Nursery 1150
Exercise 1172
Amusements 1177
Education 1183
Sleep 1188
Second Dentition 1194
Disease, etc. 1195
Warm Baths 1294
Warm External Applications 1295
Accidents 1297

PART III.—BOYHOOD AND GIRLHOOD.

Ablution, etc. 1318
Clothing 1327
Diet 1332
Air and Exercise 1337
Amusements 1341
Education 1347
Household Work for Girls 1355
Choice of Profession or Trade 1355
Sleep 1359
On the Teeth and the Gums 1364
Prevention of Disease, etc. 1366

Index 1403