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 Noureldin Abdelaal

‫اﻟﱰﺟﻤﺔ‬
Translation

‫ﺑني اﻷﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ‬
between English

‫و اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ‬
and Arabic

A Textbook for
Translation Students
and Educators
Translation between English and Arabic
Noureldin Abdelaal

Translation between
English and Arabic
A Textbook for Translation Students
and Educators
Noureldin Abdelaal
University of Nizwa
Nizwa, Oman

ISBN 978-3-030-34331-6 ISBN 978-3-030-34332-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34332-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This book is dedicated to the soul of my
father.
Acknowledgements

I offer my heartfelt thanks to my father, who spared no effort in supporting me,

and to my great mother, who has always kept me in her prayers and prayed for my
success. I am also deeply indebted to my mother who has always been immensely
supportive.
My deepest thanks go to my wife and my children for their solicitude and love.
To all who have supported me in the preparation of this book, I extend my
gratitude.

vii
Contents

1 Translational Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Definitions of Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Translation Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Meaning in Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Translation Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Stages of Translation Theories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Linguistic Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.2 The Communicative Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.3 The Functionalist Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1.4 The Ethical/Aesthetic Stage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.1 Direct and Oblique Translation (Vinay & Darbelnet,
1958/2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.2 Van Leuven-Zwart’s Comparative-Descriptive Model
of Translation Shifts (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.3 Overt and Covert Translations (House, 1997). . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.4 Jakobson’s Equivalence (1959). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.5 Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence
(Nida, 1964). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.6 Communicative and Semantic Translation
(Newmark, 1981, 1988). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.7 The House, Nida, and Newmark’s Theories
in a Nutshell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.8 Form-Based and Meaning-Based Translation
(Larson, 1998). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.9 Halliday’s Typology of Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2.10 Catford’s Typology of Equivalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.2.11 Mona Baker’s Typology of Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.2.12 Koller’s Notion of Equivalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.13 Popovič (1976) Types of Equivalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.14 The Cognitive Approach to Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

ix
x Contents

2.2.15Functionalist Approach in Translation

(Non-equivalence Approach). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.16 Darwish’s Notion of Equivalence (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.2.17 The Polysystem Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3 Grammatical Problems in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Arabic Tense as a Problem in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2 Translating English Tenses and Aspects into Arabic
(Based on Collins COBUILD English Grammar, 2005). . . . . . . . . 74
3.3 Gender as a Problem in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.4 Grammatical Category as a Problem in Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5 Syntactic Order: Foregrounding and Backgrounding
as a Problem in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.6 Shifting (Iltifat) as a Problem in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4 Lexical and Semantic Problems in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.1 Lexical Gaps at the Semantic Field Level
(Lack of Equivalent Problem). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2 Improper Selection of Vocabulary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.3 Lexical Ambiguity: Polysemy and Homonymy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.4 Synonymy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 Problems in Translation of Rhetorical Devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5 Culture as a Problem in Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1 Culturally Bound Terms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2 Idioms and Fixed Expressions as a Problem in Translation . . . . . . 123
5.3 Collocations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4 Strategies to Translate Culturally Bound Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.5 Pym’s Typology of Translation Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.6 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Abbreviations

SL Source language
ST Source text
TL Target language
TT Target text

xi
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Transeme and architranseme relationship (based on

van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative-descriptive model
of translation shifts, 1989).......................................................... 18
Table 2.2 Main categories of van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative model
(from van Leuven-Zwart 1989, pp. 159–169)............................ 18
Table 2.3 The gradual erosion of the notion of equivalence
in translation studies................................................................... 45
Table 2.4 Terms used in the translational action approach......................... 56
Table 5.1 The collocations of ‘bend’.......................................................... 129
Table 5.2 Typology of translation solutions (Pym, 2018, p. 45)................ 133

xiii
Translational Concepts
1

Overview

This chapter explains the main concepts related to translation. It provides theo-
retical definitions of translation. It also explains the concept of the ‘translation
unit’, and how scholars of translation disagree on identifying the unit of transla-
tion. Some scholars consider a word to be the unit of translation; others believe
that a unit of translation may be a sentence, piece of text, or culture. Moreover,
the chapter sheds light on the thorny notion of meaning in translation studies.
In particular, this chapter covers the following topics:
A. Definition of translation
B. Translation unit
C. Meaning in translation

1.1 Definitions of Translation

Translation is a controversial concept that is hotly debated. There are many

­definitions of translation that revolve around meaning, and the different notions
of equivalence. Halliday et al. (1965) describe translation as the establishment of
textual equivalents, rather than lexical or grammatical equivalents. Thus, as stated
by Halliday et al. (1965), translation is not a mere word-for-word rendition but,
rather, translation is seen as a whole text-to-text transplanting. Catford (1965,
p. 20), similar to Halliday, defines translation as ‘the replacement of textual mate-
rial in one language, i.e. the source language (SL) by equivalent textual material
in another language, i.e. target language (TL).’ House (2001) perceives translation
as a reproduction of a text in an SL in an equivalent text in a TL. Thus, Halliday
et al. (1965) see translation in terms of textual equivalence, and not word-for-word
equivalence. Widdowson (1978) sees translation from a different perspective;

© The Author(s) 2020 1

N. Abdelaal, Translation between English and Arabic,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34332-3_1
2 1 Translational Concepts

he views translation from a communicative perspective. Widdowson states that

translation should neither operate at the word level, the sentence level, the lexical
level, or the grammatical level; translation should be only at the communicative
level. As for Hatim and Munday (2004), they state that there are two distinctive
senses of translation: translation as a process, and translation as a product. They
view translation, or to use their words, the ambit of translation as: (1) the process
of transferring a ST into a TT in a specific socio-cultural context; (2) a product
which is the result of the previous step; and (3) the cognitive, linguistic, visual,
cultural and ideological phenomena that are a principal component of (1) and (2).
This definition seems have greater care for the socio-cultural aspects of translation.
Other scholars and researchers (e.g. Venuti, 2004; Ahmed, 2006) see transla-
tion as a process that not only implies conveying meaning in a TL, but that should
retain the same style and tone of a ST: the translated text should not appear to be
a translation but, rather, should appear to be an original text, wherein no translator
is visible. This definition focuses on the equivalence level between a ST and a TT;
it goes beyond lexical equivalence to include style and tone, which are difficult
to achieve. However, another perspective sees translation as reproducing a text in
one language in another TL to make it accessible to a larger audience (Ordudari,
2007). Ordudari’s definition is more concerned with the aim of translation; that
is, to reach a greater audience, which applies to many types of texts. Levý (1967)
sees translation as a process of decision making, whereby the components of this
decision are:

1. The situation: sometimes the SL expresses one lexical item using a certain item
where the TL has two equivalents for the same word. For example, a transla-
tor has to make a decision when translating the English word ‘eclipse’ because
it has two equivalents in Arabic (i.e. one is related to the moon and the other
related to the sun).
2. Instruction I: This implies defining the class of possible alternatives.
3. Instruction II: This denotes making a selection from the available class
­alternatives. This selection is context-based. For example, to translate the word
‘eclipse’ into Arabic, a translator should refer to the context to understand
whether it is a ‘lunar eclipse’ (relating to the moon), or a ‘solar eclipse’ (relat-
ing to the sun).

Levy’s (1976) view of translation is related to the process of the translation, which
sounds practical. Levy’s perspective of translation sounds comprehensive, as it
encompasses the notion of ‘equivalence’ without disregarding the role of a transla-
tor in selecting the most appropriate equivalent. Another perspective of translation
is that of Reiss (2004), who sees translation as a process of producing a text in the
TT that is functionally equivalent to the ST. However, she goes on to say that, dur-
ing the communication process, the message will be altered, perhaps by a transla-
tor’s views, or experience and knowledge. These changes can result in two types
of message changes:
1.1 Definitions of Translation 3

1. Unintentional changes: Changes may result from the differences between the
structure of a language, or from the degree of the translator’s competence.
2. Intentional changes: These changes can affect the functionality of the ST. This
kind of change occurs if the aim of the ST is rendered differently in the TT.

Reiss’s view of translation equivalence is in terms of functional equivalence.

Overall, most of the aforementioned views of translation are centred on certain
basic notions—lexical equivalence and meaning in translation; and the functional
equivalence in translation—that reflect the different approaches and theories of
translation.

Exercise

‘Translation’ has been given various definitions by a variety of scholars.

­Elaborate on this, explaining the implications behind each of these definitions.

1.2 Translation Unit

A translation unit, as defined by Manfredi (2014), is the linguistic level employed

by a translator during their act of translation. Theorists hold a variety of positions
in regard to the translation unit, depending on what they consider a translation
unit to be. For example, Vinay and Darbelnet proposed the terms ‘lexicological
unit’ or ‘unit of thought’ as a translation unit. They rejected the notion that a word
can be a unit of translation (Manfredi, 2014). Newmark (1988, pp. 66–67), on the
other hand, regards a ‘sentence’ as the best unit of translation. He justifies his view
by stating that a sentence is a unit of thought and a means presenting objects. He
adds, ‘All lengths of language can, at different moments and also simultaneously,
be used as units of translation in the course of the translation activity’ (Newmark,
1988, pp. 66–67). However, Newmark mentions that in some texts such as expres-
sive texts, a ‘word’ should be deemed as the unit of translation as it can better
convey the finest nuances. Bassnett (2005), however, states that a text should be
the unit of translation, especially in relation to literary prose texts. Strangely,
Snell-Hornby considers the notion of culture as the unit of translation (Hatim and
Munday 2004). Manfredi (2014), in line with Halliday and Matthiessen (2014),
argues that a clause is the most proper unit of translation. However, Manfredi
states that in written translations, especially literary ones, a sentence should be
considered as the unit of translation. Sentence, in this context, refers to a graph-
ological unit that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. ‘Word,
in its context, can be the proper unit of translations, especially authoritative and
sacred texts such as the Holy Quran because nuances between words give different
meanings.’ In addition, faithfulness to the ST requires carrying out the translation
process at the word level, rather than at sentence level. In sum, different schol-
ars revealed different understandings and perspectives of the unit of translation.
Whatever the case may be, translating these units of translations (whether word,
4 1 Translational Concepts

sentence, clause, or culture) poses many problems, which will be discussed in due
course. However, first, we should discuss meaning in translation, as translation is a
process of conveying meaning.

Exercise

One important notion in translation theory is the ‘unit of translation’. Why

do you think that this notion is important? How does it affect the theory and
­practice of translation?

1.3 Meaning in Translation

Halliday (1992) states that a main feature of translation is that it is a process of

meaning-making and that without such creation of meaning there is no translation.
He also states that this creation of meaning is a guided activity. Halliday further
comments that, for a language theory to be related to translation, it should be con-
cerned with functional semantics. He explicates his notion of function by stating
that it does not refer to the vague sense of use; rather, it refers to ‘metafunction’.
Metafunction, as defined by Halliday, is ‘function as the fundamental organizing
concept around which all human language has evolved’ (Halliday, 1992, p. 15).
He has made it clear that his notion of functional semantics does not imply dis-
carding the formal patterns (e.g. phonological or syntactic patterns), but that these
formal patterns should keep the semantic relations in place. He states that com-
plete semantic equivalences between any two languages cannot be absolute. They
can be contingent on the contextual meaning of an item. He makes a clear deduc-
tion of the meaning of ‘equivalence of meaning’ as being ‘equivalence of func-
tion in context’ (Halliday, 1992, p. 16). Halliday recommends that, in a translation
process, target contextual equivalents should be found. A translator, then, should
select from among the variants of equivalents. A translator should also identify the
relevant context that conditions their choice in order to translate the given ‘item’ in
the most relevant way.
Halliday (1992) believes that linguistics cannot offer a ‘theory of translation
equivalence’; rather, it can offer a ‘theory of context’. Such a theory of context
that can be offered to a translator is driven by the functional notion of ‘constit-
uency’. By the use of the term ‘constituency’ (which refers to one of Halliday’s
contexts) Halliday refers to the part–whole hierarchical relationship between
grammatical constituents. Put more simply: a clause is made up of phrases,
phrases are made of words, words are made up of morphemes, and so on. Follow-
ing this model, a translator needs to move one or more levels up the scale. Hal-
liday gives an example of the morpheme ‘-er’, which can be moved to a word,
such as in the word ‘driver’. The ‘-er’ morpheme in ‘driver’, depending on context,
means either a person who works as a driver, or someone who is currently driving.
Thus, a translator should select the proper equivalent based on the meaning of this
1.3 Meaning in Translation 5

morpheme in context. It is noteworthy to highlight that, for example, the context

of a morpheme such as -er comprises the words with which it may occur.
Halliday (1992) states that any piece of discourse represents the mapping of
three simultaneous structures with three different constituents of meaning (i.e.
ideational, interpersonal and textual). Halliday recommends examining all these
meanings, including the ‘writer’s construction of his or her own subjectivity and
that of the audience, of attitude to and distance from the subject-matter and so
on’ (Halliday, 1992, p. 20). Another context mentioned by Halliday is ‘discourse
semantics’, which, for example, includes grammatical metaphor. Other contexts
are those of situation (Halliday, 1992, p. 21), and culture (Halliday, 1992, p. 23),
as one cannot decide on the meaning of a word without considering the situation
and culture as factors that contribute to meaning-making. To return to the defini-
tion of translation as a ‘guided creation of meaning’, Halliday argues that such
creation of meaning is constructed through the context of a situation, which results
from analysis of the text. Thus, such context of situation will ‘guide’ the creation
of the new translated text.
However, there are various types of meaning, and a variety of classifications
according to a number of semanticists and linguists. For example, Cruse (1997)
identified four types of lexical meaning: propositional meaning, expressive mean-
ing, presupposed meaning and evoked meaning. The term ‘propositional meaning’
is used to describe the relation between a word and its real or imaginary meaning.
For example, socks are ‘a kind of cloth worn on feet’. This kind of meaning can be
judged in terms of true or false. This meaning is referred to by other semanticists
(e.g. Palmer, 1981; Hurford et al., 2014) as ‘denotational meaning’. ‘Expressive
meaning’ refers to the speaker’s feelings or attitudes. Thus, this meaning cannot
be judged in terms of true or false. For example, ‘cruel’ and ‘unkind’ are words
that denote the meaning of disapproval of someone’s attitude: of the two words,
‘cruel’ has the stronger and most negative meaning. Some words have proposi-
tional and expressive meaning (e.g. whinge); some have expressive meaning only
(e.g. bloody); and others have propositional meaning only (e.g. book).
The third type of meaning is ‘presupposed meaning’, whereby meaning arises
from restrictions occasioned by co-occurrence. These restrictions include selec-
tional restrictions and collocational restrictions. Selectional restrictions are always
observed, with the exception of the figurative use of language. For example, the
verb ‘speak’ is expected to refer to a human being, while ‘meow’ to non-human
creatures. Collocational restrictions, on the other hand, refer to arbitrary semantic
co-occurrences. For example, a law is broken in English, whereas in Arabic it is
contradicted, not broken. The last type of meaning is the ‘evoked’ meaning, which
arises from differences in dialect and register. Propositional meaning is the only
type of meaning to fall into the true/false category.
Leech identified seven types of meaning in semantics: conceptual, associative,
affective, collocative, connotative, reflected and thematic. ‘Conceptual meaning’
is sometimes referred to as ‘denotative’, ‘designative’, ‘cognitive’, or ‘descriptive’
meaning. It is the primary meaning of a lexeme, and is based on contractiveness
6 1 Translational Concepts

and constituent structures. This meaning can be found in dictionaries—wherein

certain lexical features are identified (constituent structures), and other lexical
features are excluded (contractiveness structures)—and can be syntactically ana-
lysed. ‘Associative meaning’ refers to the individual mental understandings of
the speaker. It is subdivided into six categories: connotative, collocative, social,
affective, reflected and thematic. ‘Connotative meaning’ is the real-world meaning;
it is associated with a specific lexeme, based on the user’s experience, and it is
subjective. It includes ‘social meaning’, which differs from one person to another
depending on factors such as age, gender and so on. For example, the word
‘home’ may encompass meanings for the language user that differ from those
of another. For some, ‘home’ implies ‘love’, ‘wife’, ‘family’; for others, it may
imply ‘boredom’ and ‘monotony. ‘Affective meaning’ is the meaning that commu-
nicates the emotions of the language user. For example, ‘I am awfully sorry for
doing that’ is an expression of regret, or feeling sorrow. Intonation and voice tim-
bre can affect this kind of meaning. ‘Reflected meaning’ is the meaning that arises
from the use of word in a specific context; for example, ‘pray’ can have a v­ ariety
of meanings, depending on the context. ‘Collocative meaning’ is the meaning that
collocates with specific words; for example, ‘pretty’ and ‘handsome’ refer to the
same denotative meaning but they are used in a collocatively different manner.
As for ‘thematic meaning’, it depends on the order of words and how they affect
meaning. In other words, it depends on the theme (i.e. what is being talked about).
Transferring meaning from an ST to a TT is a complex process due to the
complicated nature of the notion of meaning, on which there is no particular
agreement. Meaning has no precise definition; Ogden and Richards (1923) listed
16 different meanings for the word ‘meaning’ itself. Meaning is an ambiguous
and fuzzy concept that lacks clear-cut understanding. Such ambiguity of mean-
ing is a characteristic of all languages (Bock, 1986). Ghazala (2008) identifies
meaning as the linguistic components: grammar, vocabulary, style and phonol-
ogy. Grammar, by turn, includes sentence, clauses, word order, tenses and such
matters. Vocabulary includes the sense relations (e.g. synonymy, antonymy and
so on), idioms, collocations, proverbs, metaphor, culture and such. Style includes
ambiguity, repetition, redundancy, nominalization, verbalization, fronting, for-
mality and so forth. Phonology includes rhyme, rhythm, assonance, alliteration
and so on. Together, these elements shape meaning. Though, in translation, gram-
mar may not be translated in a straightforward manner, it nonetheless affects the
meaning and the message conveyed (Ghazala, 2008). Hence, as Ghazala (2008)
states, only meaning—which includes grammar, style, vocabulary and pho-
nology—is translated; there are a few exceptions, however, such as in poetry,
in which prosody may be the primary aim, rather than meaning. Meaning is
regarded as the total components of words, grammar, style and sounds (Ghaz-
ala, 2008). Ghazala mentions that it is difficult to translate meaning and form
simultaneously. Ghazala’s perspective on the difficulty of preserving meaning
and form simultaneously is consistent with Larson’s (1998) perspective of trans-
lation. Quine (1959) proposed a different notion of meaning in translation. He
introduced what he called ‘empirical meaning’. Empirical meaning is defined as
1.3 Meaning in Translation 7

‘what remains when, given discourse together with all its stimulatory conditions,
we peel away the verbiage’ (Quine, 1959, p. 94). As for Cruse (1997), each word
is assumed to have canonical traits that cannot be discarded. For example, a bird
has the canonical trait of flying.
Translating such meaning from one language to another is challenging.
Nugroho (1999) argues that rendering meaning is a process that involves aspects
such as diction, grammatical structure, communication setting, and cultural con-
text of the ST. He adds that meaning in an ST should be equivalent to meaning in
a TT. In short, translation is basically about translating meaning from one SL to a
different TL. This process of transferring meaning is complicated, and many prob-
lems must be faced.

Exercises

1. According to Leech, what types of meaning describe the following words?

Provide appropriate translations for these words.
A. Girl: [+HUMAN-ADULT+FEMALE]
B. Secondhand in: (a) a second-hand car
(b) a second-hand smoker
C. Mother vs. mama
2. Meaning is an important concept in translation studies and has been defined
in different ways. Explain.
3. Explain, with examples, the seven types of meaning proposed by Leech.
4. Cruse identified three types of meaning. Explain these types, with examples.

References
Ahmed, M. F. (2006). Investigating some semantic problems in the translation of the Holy
Quran. Adab al-Rafidayn, 2(43), 61–72.
Bassnett, S. (2005). Translation studies. Vasa (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis.
Bock, J. K. (1986). Syntactic persistence in language production. Cognitive Psychology, 18(3),
355–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(86)90004-6.
Cruse, D. A. (1997). Lexical semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ghazala, H. (2008). Translation as problems and solution. Beirut: Dar El-Ilm Lilmalayin.
Halliday, M., Macintosh, A., & Strevens, P. (1965). The linguistic sciences and language teach-
ing. London: Longman Publishing House.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1992). Language theory and translation practice. Rivista Internazionale Di
Tecnica Della Traduzione, 1(1), 15–25.
Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. (2014). Halliday’s introduction to functional grammar
(4th ed.). New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203431269.
Hatim, B., & Munday, J. (2004). Translation: An advanced resource book. London and New
York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis.
House, J. (2001). Translation quality assessment: Linguistic description versus social evaluation.
Meta: Journal Des Traducteurs, 46(January), 243. https://doi.org/10.7202/003141ar.
Hurford, J. R., Heasley, B., & Smith, M. B. (2014). Semantics: A coursebook. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press.
Larson, M. (1998). Meaning-based-translation. Oxford: University Press of America.
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Levý, J. (1967). Translation as a decision process. In L. Venuti (Ed.), To honour Roman Jakobson
on the occasion of his seventieth birthday (Vol. 2, pp. 1171–1182). The Hague: Mouton.
Levy, J. (1976). Translating as a decision process. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies
reader (pp. 148–189). London: Routledge.
Manfredi, M. (2014). Translating text and context: Translation studies and systemic functional
linguistics. Volume 2: From theory to practice. In Quaderni del CeSLiC. Functional gram-
mar studies for non-native speakers of English (p. 158). Bologna: Centro di Studi Linguisti-
co-Culturali (CeSLiC). https://doi.org/10.6092/unibo/amsacta/3219.
Newmark, P. (1988). A textbook of translation. Hertfordshire: Pearson Education Limited.
Nugroho, A. B. (1999). Meaning and translation. Journal of English and Education, 2(3),
94–112.
Ogden, M., & Richards, I. A. (1923). The meaning of meaning. New York and London: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich.
Ordudari, M. (2007). Translation procedures, strategies and methods. Translation Journal, 3(5),
781–789.
Palmer, F. (1981). Semantics: A new outline. London and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Quine, W. V. O. (1959). Translation and meaning. In R. A. Brower (Ed.), On translation. Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press (Reprinted in L. Venuti (Ed.). (2000). The translation
studies reader (pp. 94–112). London: Routledge).
Reiss, K. (2004). Type, kind and individuality of text: Decision making in translation. In L.
Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader (2nd ed., pp. 168–179). New York: Routledge.
Venuti, L. (2004). The translation studies reader. London and New York: Routledge.
Widdowson, H. (1978). Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Translation Theory
2

Overview

This chapter briefly explains the stages of translation theory: the linguistic stage,
the communicative stage, the functionalist stage and the ethical/aesthetic stage.
It also presents the notion of equivalence in translation theories, with reference
to the most prominent theories in translation, supported by examples.
The chapter covers the following topics:

Stages of translation theories

The notion of equivalence in translation theories
The following research works support the contents of this chapter:

1. Direct and Oblique Translation (Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/2004)

2. 
Van Leuven-Zwart’s Comparative-descriptive Model of Translation
Shifts (1989)
3. Overt and Covert Translations (House, 1997)
4. Jakobson’s Equivalence (1959)
5. Dynamic Equivalence and Formal Equivalence (Nida, 1964)
6. Communicative and Semantic Translation (Newmark, 1981, 1988)
7. Form-Based and Meaning-based Translation (Larson, 1998)
8. Halliday’s Typology of Equivalence
9. Catford’s Typology of Equivalence (1965)
10. Mona Baker’s Typology of Equivalence (1992/2011)
11. Koller’s Notion of Equivalence
12. Popovič (1976) Types of Equivalence
13. The Cognitive Approach in Translation (Bell, 1991)
14. The Functionalist Approach
15. Non-Equivalence Approach (Skopos Theory)
16. The PolySystems Theory

© The Author(s) 2020 9

N. Abdelaal, Translation between English and Arabic,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-34332-3_2
10 2 Translation Theory

2.1 Stages of Translation Theories

In his discussion of translation theory, Munday (2009) explains that translation the-
ory was controlled by the West until recent times. He adds that, in Western Europe,
the topic of word-for-word or sense-for-sense translation was the subject of heated
debate until the twentieth century. Further, Munday (2009) states that ‘translation
studies’ as a discipline did not emerge until the second half of the twentieth cen-
tury; it arose from the branches of applied comparative linguistics and modern lan-
guages. The concept of translation studies was first introduced by James Holmes as
a substitute for ‘translation science’, or ‘translatology’, in 1972. However, Newmark
(2009) favours ‘translation theory’ over ‘translation studies’. He views theory as an
important framework that should be taught to translation students, though he states
that learning a theory is not fundamental to being a good translator. Peter Newmark
(2009) identified four stages of translation theory: linguistic, communicative, func-
tionalist and ethical/aesthetic. Each stage is marked with a unique approach.

2.1.1 Linguistic Stage

Covering the period up to 1950, this stage was basically concerned with literary
texts—that is, poetry, short stories, plays, novels and autobiographies. This stage
was predominantly concerned with the discussion of the word-for-word translation
(literal), as opposed to sense-for-sense translation (natural, liberal, or idiomatic).
During this period, there was preference for sense-for-sense or contextual trans-
lation over word-for-word translation. This, as Newmark states, marks the inter-
pretive theory of translation. The most prominent work of translation theory in
this period was Essay on the Principles of Translation by Alexander Tytler (1790).
Tytler (1797, pp. 14–15), as cited in Newmark (2009), defined a good translation
as one in which ‘the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into
another language as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt, by a
native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak
the language of the original work’. Newmark adds that what can be inferred from
Tytler’s statement is that a good translation should completely convey the message
of the ST; it should also follow the same style and manner of the original, and
should have all the ease of the original composition (p. 23). George Steiner’s After
Babel (1975) marks the end of this linguistic stage.

2.1.2 The Communicative Stage

Beginning in around 1950, this stage marked the application of linguistics to trans-
lation studies; it mainly covered non-literary and literary texts. It was concerned
with the categorization of text registers, the participation of a range of readership
groups (from the less well-educated to the expert) and the identification of types of
procedures for translating various segments of a text.
2.1 Stages of Translation Theories 11

2.1.3 The Functionalist Stage

Commencing in around 1970, this stage covered mainly non-literary texts—that is,
‘the real world’. It was concerned with the intention of a text and its essential mes-
sage, rather than the language of the ST. Translation in this period was concerned
with how to translate a text functionally.

2.1.4 The Ethical/Aesthetic Stage

Since around 2000, this stage has been concerned with authoritative and official
or documentary texts, and includes serious literary works. It highlights translation
as a truth-seeking profession. The truth is essentially twofold: the correspondence
of a factual text with reality; and the correspondence of an imaginative text with a
meaningful allegory—and, consequentially, the correspondence of the translation
with the respective type of text. Newmark concludes that these translation theory
stages are cumulative; in other words, they overlap, or, in Newmark’s words, they
‘absorb without eliminating each other’ (2009, p. 21). Having shed light on the
different stages of translation theories, we shall move on to the unit of translation.

Exercise

Explain the stages of translation theory.

2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories

Discussing the concept of ‘equivalence’ brings into the discussion the perspectives
of concepts. There are two main perspectives of concepts: the universality of con-
cepts, as proposed by Chomsky (1977), and the relativity of concepts. According
to Chomsky, all humans share the same basic brain structures and, thus, there are
deep similarities between all languages, even if these are not obvious in surface
grammar. Universalists believe all languages have a commonality, or universal
concepts, that are shared by all languages. Relativists believe that languages are
too disjointed and, hence, concepts are not common among languages (Steiner,
1998). In his book After Babel (1998), Steiner rejects Chomsky’s universality of
concepts. Steiner believes that language is relative and that, thus, languages are
too disjointed. Steiner takes the stance of the Relativists and opposes that of the
positivistic Universalists (Steiner, 1998). These variant stances of Universalists
and Relativists bring different understandings of the notion of equivalence. Simply
put, if we were to adopt the Universalist stance, we would say that equivalence is
achievable between languages because they are similar in deep structure, at least.
However, adopting the Relativist stance, it can be argued that real equivalence
12 2 Translation Theory

does not exist between languages. Those different stances created considera-
ble debate in relation to the concept of equivalence, which has always been a
source of disagreement among scholars and theorists of translation and linguistics
­(Munday, 2009).
According to Munday (2009), equivalence is a thorny issue in the realm of trans-
lation studies; it is fuelled by the debate among theorists and scholars; some schol-
ars more or less reject the notion (e.g. Gentzler, 2001; Snell-Hornby, 1988/1995),
while others find it useful and helpful (e.g. Baker 1992; Kenny 1998). By con-
trast, some scholars perceive that translation without equivalence is impossible
(e.g. Koller, 1989, 1995; Nida and Taber, 1974/1982). However, Munday con-
cludes that equivalence is a principal issue in the world of translation, and that it
will remain essential to the practice of translation (Munday, 2008, p. 49). There is
clear evidence of the necessity for equivalence in translation; first, the definitions
of translation mainly revolve around the notion of equivalence (e.g. Catford, 1965;
Newmark, 1981, 1988); second, translation is basically a kind of communication,
hence equivalence between ST and TT is a requirement; third, difficulty of trans-
lation and untranslatability are always discussed with respect to finding equivalent
items in a TT (Yinhua, 2011). The concept of equivalence was dominant in the dis-
cussions of translation during the period during the 1960s and 1970s (Venuti, 2004).
Many scholars and theorists, adopting a variety of perspectives, discussed the
notion of equivalence. The notions of equivalence of Vinay and Darbelnet, Mona
Baker, Jakobson, Nida, and Newmark, together with the strategies proposed by
them, will be discussed in the following sections.

2.2.1 Direct and Oblique Translation (Vinay & Darbelnet,

1958/2004)

Vinay and Darbelnet (2004) were basically influenced by Catford’s (1965) shifts.
They identified two strategies of translation: direct and oblique. They argued that
changing the syntactic order and lexis of the ST in the TT is sometimes neces-
sary in order to transpose certain stylistic effects of the ST, so as to fill the gap
in the TL: oblique translation. Sometimes it is possible to transpose the ST mes-
sage elements into the TT individually, due to structural or metalinguistic parallel-
ism between the ST and the TT: direct translation. These strategies are subdivided
into seven procedures; three for direct translation and four for oblique translation.
Those for direct translation include: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transpo-
sition, modulation, equivalence, adaptation.

A. Borrowing, is where an SL word is transferred to the TT to fill a semantic gap

in the TL. One of the advantages of this strategy is that it keeps the same con-
notations of the SL (Ni, 2009). Moreover, this method adds the flavour of the
SL culture to the TL. Some of the borrowed items became a central core of the
repertoire of lexicons in the TL. For example, menu, coup d’état, café, alcohol,
sheik and Islam are part of the English language, though they basically
2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories 13

belong to other cultures and language. Similarly, Arabic words such

as ‫ أنترنت‬،‫ سوبرماركت‬and many others were borrowed from English. Also, many
words were borrowed from Arabic to English, such as: cotton, falafel, algebra,
sheriff, Mujahidin, Fedayeen, caliph, sheik, halal and many others. Using bor-
rowing as a translation strategy should observe the style and message to be con-
veyed accurately.
B. Calque, whereby an SL expression or structure is transferred with minimum
adaptation, is a special kind of borrowing and is subdivided it into two types:
lexical calque and structural calque.
1. In lexical calque, the SL lexis are transferred into the TT without violating
the syntactic structure of the TT; for example, translating the English expres-
sion ‘compliments of the season’ into French as ‘Compliments de la sai-
son!’. Other examples are ‘Secretary General’, which is translated into
‫ األمين العام‬and ‘life is a journey’, which can be rendered as ‫الحياة رحلة‬. Other
examples, respectively, include translating cornerstone, feedback, play a role
as ‫ تغذية راجعةو يلعب دورا‬,‫حجر الزاوية‬.
2. In structural calque, a new structure is introduced into the TL, translating the
ST lexicons literally. For example, translating the English expression ‘Science
fiction’ into French as ‘Science fiction’. In this example, the English struc­ture
is introduced into the French language. To clarify, calque is a kind of
literal translation that sometimes observes the lexical features of the ST (i.e.
lexical calque), and at other times observes the structural features of the ST
(structural calque). Examples of structural calque between English and Arabic
rarely exist because the two languages belong to two different families.
C. Literal translation is a word-for-word translation; it is described as the most
common procedure between related or close languages and cultures (e.g. French
and Italian). For example, translating ‘Ahmed is a student’ as ‫ أحمد يكون طالب‬is a
literal translation that can be used for a didactic purpose only. However, literal
translation is sometimes possible at the lower level of language. For example,
translating ‘I love Rabiaa’ as ‫ انا أحب ربيعة‬is an acceptable literal translation.
Other examples are:

Example

• I drink tea.
• ‫أنا أشرب الشاي‬
• I speak English.
• ‫أنا أتجدث األنجليزية‬
• I bought a villa.
• ‫أنا اشريت فيلال‬

According to Vinay and Darbelnet (2004), if all the direct or literal translation
procedures, mentioned above have not yielded acceptable translations, oblique
translation offers an alternative. The unacceptability of translation as identified by
Vinay and Darbelnet refers to cases where ‘the message translated:
14 2 Translation Theory

1. gives another meaning;

2. has no meaning;
3. is structurally impossible;
4. does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic experience
of the TL; or
5. has a corresponding expression, but not within the same register’ (p. 87).
Oblique translation procedures include: transposition, modulation, equivalence
and adaptation.

D. Transposition implies changing a part of speech (i.e. word class) without

altering the meaning. There are two types of transposition: obligatory and
optional.
1. Obligatory transposition, which is sought when the TL does not allow any-
thing other than a specific form. For example, the French expression ‘Dès
son lever’ must be transposed into the English expression ‘As soon as he
gets up’. This is the only permissible form in English. A further example is
translating ‫ أغتسل‬as ‘to wash up after having sex or ejaculation’. In this
example, the ST verb must be rendered as a clause in English due to a lack
of equivalence.
2. Optional transposition. An example of optional transposition is the English
expression ‘As soon as he gets up’; if it were translated back into French, it
would be translated as: ‘Dès son lever’, or ‘Dès qu’il se lève’. Hence, it is
optional to employ either transposition strategy (i.e. ‘Dès son lever’) or
calque strategy (i.e. ‘Dès qu’il se lève’). A further example is ‫الذين يؤتون الزكاة‬,
as it can be translated as ‘zakat payers’ or ‘those who pay zakat’. Transposi-
tion is similar to Catford’s categorical shifts. Other examples of optional
transposition are translating ‘she screamed when she saw the snake’ as
‫ لقد صرخت عند رويتها الثعبان‬and ‫المؤمنين‬, which may be translated into English as
‘those who believed’.
E. Modulation involves the changing of the semantics and point of view expressed
in the SL; this strategy is followed when literal translation or transposition can
result in unidiomatic or unsuitable text in the TL. Similarly to transposition,
there are obligatory and optional modulations. An example of an obligatory mod-
ulation is the phrase, ‘The time when’, which must be translated into French as
‘Le moment où’ (literally: ‘the moment when’). By contrast, optional modulation
turns a negative SL expression into a positive TL expression. In addition, a free
(optional) modulation can only be fixed (obligatory) when referred to in diction-
aries and grammar books. Other examples of modulation are the French phrase
‘peu profond’, which may be translated into English as ‘shallow’; ‘lend me your
ears’, which can be translated as ‫‘ ;اعرني اتنباهك‬a piece of cake’, which can be
translated as ‫ ;امر هين او سهل‬the translation of ‘ups and downs’ as ‫ ;تقلبات الحياة‬and
translating ‘you are going to have a child’ as ‫ستصبحين أما‬.
F. Equivalence is a strategy whereby different stylistic or structural means are
used by the SL and TL, respectively, as in idioms and proverbs. In other words,
2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories 15

the ST and TT can render the same message using different styles or different
structures. For example, the much onomatopoeia of animal sounds, e.g. the
sound of a donkey in English would be transcribed as ‘heehaw’, while in
French it would be transcribed as ‘hi-han’. Most equivalence is of a syntag-
matic nature (i.e. interchangeable); hence, equivalence mainly comprises a
fixed phraseological repertoire of idioms, clichés, proverbs, nominal or adjecti-
val phrases and so on. For example, the French proverb ‘Il pleut à seaux/des
cordes’ is an equivalent to the English proverb ‘It is raining cats and dogs’.
Vinay and Darbelnet (2004), however, warn against creating equivalences or
calques without having ready-made equivalences. For example, a translator
should not create an equivalent of the previous proverbs in Arabic because they
are not culturally accepted. Other examples are ‫شئت أم أبيت‬, which can be trans-
lated as ‘willy nilly’, and ‘let things slide’, which can be translated as
‫دع األمور تجري في أعنتها‬. Examples of proverbs are as follows:

Example

ST TT
All that glitters is not gold ً ‫ليس كل مايلمع ذهبا‬
A friend in need is a friend indeed ‫الصديق وقت الضيق‬

G. Adaptation is the last calque strategy proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet

(2004), and is the changing and/or explaining of cultural differences between
an SL and a TL. This strategy is employed to create situational equivalence.
For example, the English ‘hello’ can be adapted to be assalamu alikum in Ara-
bic, instead of its linguistic equivalent ‫أهال‬. This strategy is frequently used in
translating literary work. It is also used in translating movies. For example
translating swearwords (e.g. ‘fuck’, ‘damn’) as ‫اللعنة‬. Also, translating ‘boy-
friend’ and ‘girlfriend’ as ‫صديق و صديقة‬.
After their discussion of these seven strategies of translation, Vinay and Darbelnet
(2004) conclude that these strategies frequently overlap, as more than one strategy
can be used within the same text or even the same sentence. For example, as
­suggested by Vinay and Darbelnet (2004), the translation of ‘private’ (as would be
written on a door) by ‘défense d’entrer’ can be considered as a simultaneous trans-
position, modulation, and equivalence. It is a transposition because the adjective
‘private’ is transformed into a nominal expression; a modulation because a state-
ment is converted into a warning; and an equivalence since it is the situation that
has been translated, rather than the actual grammatical structure. A working exam-
ple of the use of the above-mentioned translation procedures can be found in the
following example.
16 2 Translation Theory

Example

The principles guiding the development of information technology and sys-

tems within the federal Government are contained in a ‘Federated Architecture
Program’ run by the Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. The Committee is,
however, concerned that the child parliament project is run by civil society and
therefore is not provided with adequate support, especially financial support, to
enable the programme to be sustainable.
‫تردالمبادئالموجهةلتطويرتكنولوجياالمعلوماتونظمالمعلوماتداخلالحكومةاالتحاديةفي’البرنامجاالتحاديللبنية‬
.‫األساسية‘الذييديرشؤونهمجلسالخزانةالتابعلمجلسالوزراءالكندي‬
‫ تشعر اللجنة بالقلق ألن المجتمع المدني هو الذي يدير مشروع برلمان الطفل وال يحظى من ثم‬،‫ومع ذلك‬
.‫ لضمان استمراره‬،‫ ال سيما الدعم المالي‬،‫بالدعم الكافي‬

As seen in the Arabic translation in the example, some of the strategies suggested
by Vinay and Darbelnet (2004) have been used in the translation. For example, the
ST is reported in passive voice, while the TT is reported in active voice, which is
a modulation. Similarly, the ST begins with a verb, which is common in Arabic,
while the TT begins with a noun, which is also a modulation procedure.
Also, translating ‘The principles guiding the development of information tech-
nology and systems’ as ‘‫ ’المبادئ الموجهة لتطوير تكنولوجيا المعلومات ونظم المعلومات‬is a lexi-
cal claque where the ST words were rendered into Arabic, preserving the syntactic
norms of the TL. Another example of calque is translating ‫ مشروع برلمان الطفل‬as ‘the
child parliament project’—the ST adjectival word ‘concerned’ was translated to a
verbal phrase (i.e. ‫)تشعر بالقلق‬, which is a transposition. A further example that
explicates the use of Vinay and Darbelnet’s procedures is a segment of text from
Gibran’s Arabic work The Broken Wings (translated by Anthony Rizc Allah Ferris):

Example

Target text Source text

…and my beloved, beautiful Selma is
dead and nothing is left to commemorate
her except my broken heart and tomb
surrounded by cypress trees. That tomb
and this heart are all that is left to bear
witness of Selma. (p. ix)
‫و سلمى – سلمى الجميلة العذبة قد ذهبت إلى ماوراء الشفق‬
‫األزرق ولم يبق من آثارها في هذا العالم سوى غصات أليمة‬
‫ فذلك‬.‫في قلبي وقبر رخامي منتصب في ظالل أشجارالسرو‬
‫القبر وهذا القلب هما كل مابقي ليحدث الوجود‬
(p. 101) ‫عن سلمى كرامه‬

In the translation above, there is a modulation in translating ‫و سلمى – سلمى الجميلة العذبة‬
(proper noun + proper noun + adjective + adjective) as ‘my beloved, beautiful Selma’.
Ferris opted to delete the repeated proper noun and to add the adjective ‘beloved’ to
translate ‫العذبة‬. The translation also exemplifies transposition, as the ST expression
‫( ذهبت إلى ماوراء الشفق األزرق‬literally: ‘went to the beyond of the red twilight’) refers to
death. Therefore, the translator rendered it as ‘dead’, which is a transposition that made
the translation lose the aesthetic feature used in the ST. ­Similarly, ‫ غصات أليمة في قلبي‬was
rendered as ‘broken heart’, which is a transposition.
2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories 17

Exercises

1. Translate the following text, explaining which of Vinay and Darbelnet’s

strategies were used in translating the text.
New satellite imagery shows that construction on an experimental reactor is
making ‘expeditious’ progress—just three months after the Kingdom
announced plans to build it, according to former director for nuclear inspec-
tions at the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Robert Kelley.
Kelley estimated that the reactor could be completed in ‘nine months to a
year’.
The Kingdom has been open about its nuclear program with the IAEA,
which sent a team to Saudi Arabia last July to check on building plans.
It has repeatedly pledged that the program is peaceful. But Crown Prince
­Mohammed bin Salman said last year that ‘without a doubt if Iran developed
a nuclear bomb, we will follow suit as soon as possible’ (Source CNN).
2. Explain the differences between oblique and direct translation
­procedures.
3. As a translator, what procedures would you attempt first in a given
translation task? Why?
4. Does the employment of specific translation procedures depend on the
type of text? How?
5. Translate the following texts, stating the procedure used in your
­translation.
a. There is a big living room in my house.
b. We have two ranch hands, who do everything in the ranch.
c. Amal is my true friend.

2.2.2 Van Leuven-Zwart’s Comparative-Descriptive Model

of Translation Shifts (1989)

Van Leuven-Zwart (1989) proposed a comparative model that aims to carry out
analysis above the level of a sentence. The model is primarily based on Vinay and
Darbelnet’s categorization of direct and oblique translations, and consists of a
comparative model and descriptive model. The comparative model aims to ana-
lyse an ST and its TT at micro levels, or based on microstructural shifts. Van Leu-
ven-Zwart divides texts into comprehensible units, which she called ‘transemes’.
For example, ‘I love my parents so much’ is a transeme because it is a comprehen-
sible unit. Its equivalent transeme in the TL is ‫أنا أحب والدي كثيرا‬. The identified
transeme is compared to what she calls an ‘architranseme’, the invariant principal
meaning of the ST transeme, but does not stand as a full equivalent for the ST
transeme. In the example ‘I love my parents so much’, ‘to love’ is the archi-
transeme. Then, each transeme is compared with its architranseme and the rela-
tionship between the two transemes is recognized (Munday, 2001). If the ST and
TT transemes are found to be synonymous in relation to the architranseme, then it
18 2 Translation Theory

can be deduced that no shift occurred. However, if they are found not to be synon-
ymous, then shifts are assumed to have occurred. The main shifts are modulation,
modification and mutation. Within each main category, there are subcategories.
Table 2.1 explicates these three main categories. Let us consider the following
example and its translation for purposes of clarification (Table 2.2).

Example

I speak English fluently.

‫انا أتحدث األنجلزية‬
With regard to the descriptive model, it is a macrostructural model that aims to
analyse the ST. It refers to the three metafunctions of language: ideational, inter-
personal and textual. The model, however, has drawbacks, as in practice it is diffi-
cult to apply to a long text. Also, tracking shifts does not seem to be easy.

Table 2.1  Transeme and architranseme relationship (based on van Leuven-Zwart’s compara-

tive-descriptive model of translation shifts, 1989)
ST TT
Transeme Speak English fluently ‫انا أتحدث األنجلزية‬
Architranseme To speak ‫أتحدث‬

Table 2.2  Main categories of van Leuven-Zwart’s comparative model (from van Leuven-Zwart
1989, pp. 159–169)
Shift Definition
Modulation One of the transemes corresponds with the
architranseme; however, the other differs either semantically or stylistically. In
the previous example, there is a modulation because the ST has an extra word
that does not exist in the TT; that is, fluently
Modification Both transemes show some form of disjunction (semantically, stylistically,
syntactically, pragmatically, or in some combination of these) compared to the
architranseme
Mutation It is impossible to establish an architranseme, either because of addition, dele-
tion or some radical change in meaning in the TT

2.2.3 Overt and Covert Translations (House, 1997)

House (1997) views equivalence as a relation between an ST and its translation.

In House’s words, translation is doubly bound: on its ST on one hand, and on its
recipient’s communicative condition, on the other hand. She adds that absolute
equivalence is impossible, and that an important term that should be discussed
is ‘invariance‘, which refers to dealing with equivalence according to each indi-
vidual case. Based on situational dimension and functional equivalence, House
2.2 The Notion of Equivalence in Translation Theories 19

differentiates between two types of translation: overt and covert. Overt trans-
lation focuses on the universal meaning of a text, without addressing the reader.
This kind of translation is employed for translating STs of an established value.
She also considers that the intelligibility of a text depends on the culture of a text.
Hence, according to her, if a text is indigenous, it needs overt translation, which
can be provided through annotations, insertions, or expansions (Venuti, 2004).
This applies to translating the Holy Quran, prophetic hadiths, president’s speeches
and so on. Overt and covert translations are examples of translation approaches (or
global strategies) that deal with the text at the macro level. To achieve this, transla-
tion strategies (local strategies) are always employed. In the case of overt transla-
tion, ST oriented strategies are used, such as borrowing, literal translation and the
like. The following is an example of overt translation:

Example

ST TT
The Fatah-led Palestinian Authority in the ‫ التابعة لكل‬،‫اتهمت منظمة هيومان رايتس ووتش قوات األمن‬
occupied West Bank and Hamas authori- ‫ باستخدام التعذيب‬،‫من السلطة الفلسطينية وحركة حماس‬
ties in the Gaza Strip routinely arrest and ‫ ضد منتقديها‬،‫الممنهج والتهديد واالعتقاالت العشوائية‬
torture peaceful critics and opponents, ‫ومعارضيها‬
Human Rights Watch says.

As seen in this example, the translation preserves the overtones and undertones of
the ST. To maintain the ST features in the translation, borrowing was employed;
for example, borrowing ‘Human Rights Watch’ as ‘‫’منظمة هيومان رايتس ووتش‬. Literal
translation was also employed throughout the text.
Covert translation, by contrast, makes translation equal to a ST in the target
culture. In other words, a translated text will appear to be original and not a mere
translation. Thus, in covert translation, the ST and its culture are not specifically
addressed. The most important consideration is to convey the ST message in a
functional manner. This approach can be used to translate novels, drama and such
texts. The following is an example of covert translation low:

Example

ST TT

Source: Alice in Wonderland and its translation by Amira Kiwan

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Uutimineen
kellokukan sineen
huone hukkuu udunhimmeään.

Kerran ilma alakuloinen

tulvi tuoksuin aavistuttavin.
Punaisena
valmunkukkasena
hehkui lampun silkkivarjostin.

Hiilen lailla hiipui, luhistui sydän polttavine haaveineen.

Valkeata, vilunraukeata lamppu kylvää härmää huoneeseen.

AKORDI.

Sinä, sinä olet viileys, tuoksu ja valo. Sinuun, sinuun

tuskainen tuleni sammuu.

Hengitän sua kuin sairas

vuoriston ilmaa.
Silmin sinua juon
kuin merta ja aurinkoa —!

Sinä, sinä olet onni ja sieluni rauha. Sinussa, sinussa elän,

liikun ja olen.

HILJAISIMMAT.
 Me, jotka olemme maailmassa hiljaisimmat ja köyhimmät,
emme pelkää Kuolemaa.

Sillä me seisomme joka hetki niin lähellä Kuolemaa, että

me kuulemme sen hengityksen huo'unnan. Eikä se herätä
meissä kauhua.

Kun suljemme vihdoin väsyneet silmämme

iankaikkisuneen, tarttuu se lempeästi jalokivin
koristamattomaan käteemme ja johdattaa meidät suuriin,
hämäriin pylvässaleihin, missä tummain hyasinttien tuoksu
leijailee ilmassa kuin suitsutus.

HARTAUS.

Oi metsä, metsä, huminasi on niinkuin kaukaisen rannan

pehmeä kuohu, johon venheeni vaahtoaalloista ajautuu. Oi
metsä, hiljaisuutesi on pilvikorkea, sinisenhimmeä vuori, min
sammalta haavainen jalkani astua saa.

Oi metsä, metsä, tuoksusi kuin pyhä sauhu mäntyjen yllä

keinuu ja lailla suurten lintujen kasvoillani sun havuntummat
varjosi leyhyvät. Oi kuule huokaukseni, oi tajua sieluni
äänetön, janoova hartaus: oi anna mulle ruskea rauhasi ja
vihreä viileytesi!

KEVÄTHÄMÄRÄ.
 Ui sateen henki yllä kaupungin, ja lyhdyt kuni silmät hunnun
takaa niin salamyhkäisinä hehkuvat.

Ja puussa laulaa näkymätön lintu.

On arka mutta kiihkeä sen ääni
kuin ensimmäinen, värähtävä nuoruus.

Ja maailmani kesken ihmisten on aavistavan hiljainen ja

yksinäinen. Mun hyvä on: se nöyrä onni, jota pyysin, nyt
kypsyy salaa sydämessäni.

Ui sateen henki yllä kaupungin.

LAULU KAUKAISESTA
RAKKAUDESTA.

BLAYAN PRINSSI.

Moni donna kaunis ja nuori ois mulle tuhlannut viehkeyttään,

mut en haaveen taivaita nähnyt ma heidän silmissään.

Vain laulu kaukaisen lemmen

soi sydämessäni päivin, öin.
On alla vieraiden tähtein
hän, jota ikävöin.

Hänen valkea kaupunkinsa

kuin lintu kylpee vaahdossa veen.
Näen rannalla huojuvat palmut
ja linnan torneineen.

Hän pylväiden varjossa kulkee,

ja huntunsa hiljaa häilyvät.
Sinitummat silmät on hällä,
kädet hienot, lempeät.
 Miten aamuni tuoksuvatkaan,
miten iltani hiutuvat hurmioon!
Hänen sielullensa ma haastan,
sen värinän kuullut oon. —

Yli Välimeren siintojen kerta ui laivani Tripoliin valkamaan,

ja ma uskollisuuteni palkan hänen huuliltansa saan.

TRUBADUURILAULU.

Donna, kirsikankukkien aikaan olivat tunteenne lempeämmät.

Alta vihreän samettihilkan ruskeat silmänne hymyilivät.

Valkeiden kirsikankukkien aikaan

lähditte lehtohon käyskelemään
aivan ilman aikojanne,
seurana neittä ei yhtäkään.

Valkeiden kirsikankukkien aikaan

heititte silkinkirjailutyön.
Syyttä suotta kynttilä paloi
ikkunassanne halki yön.

Valkeiden kirsikankukkien aikaan

suostuitte laulajan suuteloon.
Nytpä ilkutte neitoinenne.
Kuinka ansainnut sen oon?
 Donna, kirsikankukkien aikaan
olivat tunteenne lempeämmät.
Alta vihreän samettihilkan
ruskeat silmänne hymyilivät.

AAVELINNA.

Ritari se nuori harpunsoiton kuuli syksy-yössä kulkeissaan,

huomas jyrkänteellä linnan loiton, lähti sitä kohden ratsullaan.
Tuohustulet paloi ikkunoissa, valoi synkkään pimeyteen
loistettaan.

Kiiti halki metsän kammottavan ritari ja takaa piilipuun näki

vallihaudan ammottavan kuni kuilun paistehessa kuun.
Nostosilta vaipui vingahtaen, haipui portin kumu tuulen
voihkailuun.

Vartijoita etsein harhailivat miehen silmät — turhaan

kuitenkin. Ovet itsellänsä aukenivat autioihin holvisaleihin.
Jälleen soitto kumma kuului, laulu tumma johti askeleita
ritarin.

»Sieluni mun valittuaan vuottain liekin lailla kesken

myrskysään lepattanut on, sen tuloon luottain tuijottanut
yöhön pimeään. Niinkuin pilvet tuolla, vuodet kiitää — kuolla
orpo kaipuu ei voi ikänään.»

Hämärästä salin sisimmäisen löysi ritari nyt laulajan, neidon

nuoren, kultakutripäisen, ihanan, mut oudon valkean. Soi kuin
 huokausta harppu — lukki musta punoi verkkoaan sen
laitahan.

»Vieras olet mulle, armas impi. Sinut sentään sydämeni

mun tuntee: olet muita kaunihimpi, ääni, kasvot sull' on
kaihotun. Lempeni ma annan kodiksesi, kannan täältä kauhun
kammioista sun»

»Liian myöhään saavut, noutajani.

Kuule sana julma kohtalon:
ruusut, jotka hehkuu hiuksillani,
kukkia jo ovat kalmiston.
Kolkko, ah, on hauta,
kylmä kirstun lauta!
Mutta rauha mulla vihdoin on»

Haamu vaikeni ja usvaan haihtui. Muurit harmaat linnan

äskeisen jylhään kivirauniohon vaihtui hiljaa, kumeasti
jyristen. — Kuu vain yössä paloi, hohdettansa valoi yli miehen
vanhan, murheisen.

SULEIKA.

Minä talomme katolta kerran sun ohitse kulkevan näin, ja

niinkuin erämaan palmupuu sa olit silmissäin. Tosin kertoivat
köyhyydestä sun ryysyiset vaattehes, mut kuitenkin korkein
haaveeni ois olla arvoises.
 Sillä mustien silmäisi liekki oli ylpeä, ylhäinen. Ah, tuhkaksi
palaa tahtoisin ma tulessa liekin sen! En muuta autuutta
tunne, kuin että sinut nään: jos ohi talon taas et käy, ma
kuolen ikävään!

II

Joka ilta sun askeleesi mun luokseni johtavat ja raoista

ristikkoportin sataa kuumat suudelmat. Mikä onni: on kolkassa
muurin tuo tuuhea öljypuu. Sen ryhmyiset oksat suojellen yli
päittemme kaareutuu.

Kas, tähtivalo kirkas läpi lehvien lankeaa! Sen taakse

tummat kasvonsa yötaivas hunnuttaa. Sano, tyttöä lempiä
voitko, jok' on huntunsa poistanut? Joka yö minä nyyhkytän
vuoteellain, kun oot mua suudellut.

III

Minä riemusta väristen varron sitä päivää, mi valjetessaan

sinut vieraaksi isäni huoneeseen tuo tytärtä anelemaan! Sinä
viet minut matalaan majaan. On puutarha ympäri sen. Minä
puutarhurin vaimo olen nuori, onnellinen.

Käyn aamuin kaivolla kantain saviruukkua päällä pään. Ma

jauhan, leivon, askaroin ain' iltapimeään. Kukat, hedelmät,
joilla ei vertaa, sinä vaalit ja korjailet. Yön tullen käymme
nukkumaan kuin pesässä kyyhkyset.

IV
 Oi, miksi halvan neidon näin petit, mahtavin? Et köyhä
armaani ollutkaan, josta lauloin, haaveksin! Oot rikas, kultaa
sulla on täynnä kammiot ja kallein helmin kivetyt sun linnasi
permannot.

Tuhat vaimoa haaremissas on kaunista, kiemailevaa. Mua

kaipaat hetken leluksi vain, millä ikävääs haihduttaa. Mut
vaikka parvessa neitoin olen halvin, mitättömin, on puhdas
lempeni liian kallis kaliifin linnaankin!

Minä koraanin lausetta silkkiin nyt kirjailen viheriään. Voi

häntä, ken enää armastaan ei kohtaa eläissään! Sen poskilta
punaiset valmut pian haaltuu, varisee, pois hiusten kimmel
katoaa, säde silmäin himmenee.

Yks ajatus mieltäni vainoo, en rauhaa siltä saa: hänen

omansa olla voisin nyt, hänen luonansa asustaa. Oi Allah,
ankarasti et takana kuoleman mua tuominne, jos rintahain ma
tikarin painallan!

YÖ KEITAALLA.

Kaivolta hiljaa kamelin kellot soivat.

Punaisin liekein leimuaa nuotion palo.
Jalkaisi juuressa uskollisna ma valvon,
 telttas on minulle armahin asuintalo.
Kaivolta hiljaa kamelin kellot soivat.

Muistatko kangastuksen kaupunkia?

Kuin sen korkeat minareetit hohti,
hartain kaipuin kohoten taivahalle,
niin minun sieluni halaa sinua kohti.
Muistatko kangastuksen kaupunkia?

Laulaa palmujen latvoissa tuulen humu.

Kylmä on yö, mutta poveni polttavan kuuma.
Hengitä oliivintummilta kasvoiltani
suloisimpain yrttien tuoksu ja huuma!
Laulaa palmujen latvoissa tuulen humu.

OI SULAMITH, ON PÄIVÄT HÄMÄRTÄYNEET.

Oi Sulamith, on päivät hämärtäyneet ja tippuu kypressien

kyyneleet. Sun liljas sateen alla väsyneihin ja kylmiin unelmiin
on vaipuneet. Oi Sulamith, on päivät hämärtäyneet.

Ja jalkas, yli kukkuloiden käyneet,

on niinkuin metsälinnut uupuneet.
Ei kuninkaasi marmor'altahilla
oo kyyhkyt valkeammat kylpeneet
kuin jalkas, yli kukkuloiden käyneet.

Sa katsot kammiosi ikkunasta:

Siell' ohi kantotuoli Salomon
 nyt mustain orjain olkapäillä keinuu,
ja verhot purppuraiset alhaall' on.
Sa katsot kammiosi ikkunasta.

Mut illan varjoin langetessa vasta sa päästät ikäväsi

valloilleen, ja jähmettynyt sydämesi puhkee nyt itkuun
lämpimään ja hiljaiseen, ah, illan varjoin langetessa vasta.

NETKRON SADUSTA.

Netkron laulu.

Ma kylven aamun noustessa Niilin rannalla, kun taivas

sinihehkuvana palaa. Soi pääni yllä palmujen raikas humina,
ja vesiheinä polviani halaa.

Mun ruumiini on nuori ja ruusuntuoksuva,

sen syleilyynsä sulkee vilpas Niili.
Ma lootuskukan lailla keinun virran laineilla,
mut poskeni on polttavat kuin hiili.

Ma lootuskukan lailla keinun virran laineilla, ja tyttö valkein

kaupungissa lienen, mut poskeni on punaiset, ah, pelon
hurmasta: on kotka vienyt sandaalini pienen!

Pyhä lintu.

Ja kedolla juur' oikeutta jakaa ruhtinas, kun huutoon

puhkee tuhatpäinen kansa: sen yllä kaartaa korppikotka,
 ilman valtias, ja kohu kuuluu siiveniskuistansa!

Kuin tervehtien pudottaa se pienen sandaalin

nyt maahan mahtavimman jalkain juureen,
ja taivaan sineen kohoo jälleen komein kaarroksin!
Jää kansa kaikki ihmetykseen suureen.

Mut papit viisaat selittää: »Oi poika Auringon,

tää ennusmerkki onnea on tuova!
Näin pyhä lintu valinnut lie sulle puolison.
Oot hänen kanssaan kulta-ajan luova.»

»Ape rek!»

Tää mistä torven toitotus ja rumpuin pauhu tuo

ja huudot, jotka valtatiellä kajaa?
Käy Farao nyt viininmyöjän, muukalaisen luo.
Hän majan eteen vaunuillansa ajaa.

On kautta pyramiidein maan hän neittä etsinyt,

ken sandaalin vois tuta omaksensa.
Oi Netkro, synnyinhetkelläs on tähti hymyillyt:
sun ruhtinas nyt nostaa rinnallensa!

Oi Netkro, laske viiniruukku kädestäsi pois,

mi liian kaunis halpaan ompi työhön.
Hän vaunuissaan sua odottaa, ei viipyvän sun sois
Vain kiinnä kukka tummain hiustes yöhön!
PUISTOKUJA.

KEVÄT.

Oi kevät, liian paljon valoa sa kylvit yli köyhän maailmani ja

sädeverkoin kimaltelevin sa häikäisit ja kiedoit katsettani.

Sun kuuma ihanuutesi on tuleen sytyttänyt olentoni. Nyt

kevät sielussani on, mun polttaa oma julma aurinkoni!

KULTAISET PALLOT.

Oi ystäväni, kentälle jo käy!

On aamu, pilvenhattaraa ei näy.
Kuin mahla nuoruus kuohuu suonissamme.
On kevät villi tuoksu, joka huumaa,
ja sydän pursuu kaipausta kuumaa.
Se veripunaisena kukkii poskillamme.
 Lyö maila, pallot kilvan kiitävät
ja sinitaivaan lakeen liitävät.
Ah, kuinka hiekka säihkyy silmissämme!
Ja päivät, jotka vierimistään vierii,
kuin kultapallot ajan verkkoon kierii.
On huima, aurinkoinen leikki elämämme!

KELLASTUNEESTA VIHKOSTA.

Tähti.

Konsa palaa kotiin yön ihanaisin tähti? Iäisyys jo mennyt

on, siitä kun se lähti.

— Oi, en ehdi milloinkaan loppuun taivaltani. Kauneuden

kaipaus mull' on povessani!

Tähtikruunu:

Laps iltataivaan tähtihin kun silmin katsoi sinisin, tämä

kuului kuiskaus huuliltaan: »Oi, tähtikruunun kuinka saan?»

Ohi tuskan tuliterien,

ilon, lemmen kultamerien
kun kuljet rauhan kaupunkiin,
siell' astut seetritemppeliin,

viet unelmistas armaimmat ja uhrin niistä rakennat! Niin

vasta, kaikki kadottain, saat tähtösiä sadoittain.
KATKENNEIDEN PILARIEN KAUPUNKI.

Me vuorilaaksoon rakensimme kauniin kaupungin.

Se hurmas silmää pylvästöin ja puistoin kukkivin.

Se kohos säihkyin ihanuutta ilmaan siniseen.

Se oli sydäntemme usko onneen, valkeuteen.

Mut kerran outo vavistus sai järkkymähän maan,

ja pilarimme korkeat ne sortui sijoiltaan.

Oi kaupunki, oi kaupunki, oi aarre nuoruuden!

Nyt muratti ja sammal verhoo raunioita sen.

TÄHTISUMUA.

Lasna Totuus niinkuin tulisäen

heitti sydämeeni hohdettaan.
Nytpä tuhat totuutta ma näen:
taajan tähtisumun yllä maan.

Huntuaan yön hämähäkki kutoo

yli avaruutten himmeäin.
Tähti tähden jälkeen lentää, putoo.
Kaikk' on samanlaiset silmissäin!

UNEKSIJAT.
 Suur Uneksija parhain kun hylkäs tämän maan, niin meidät
suossa harhain hän jätti tarpomaan.

Niin vaikea nyt vuottaa

on suurta hetkeään
ja valtakuntaan luottaa,
ah, näkymättömään.

Siks moni eri teitä

on kulkenut jo pois
ja pilkannutkin meitä,
kuin verivieras ois.

Mut luopioiden luku

vaikk' yhä kasvaa vain,
niin suuri myöskin suku
on meidän, uskovain.

Ei epäilyksen peikot
voi meitä käännyttää:
jos voimamme on heikot
ja murhe näännyttää,

me suojaan vaellamme taas katakombien, ja yössä

soihtuinamme on liekit laulujen.

PUISTOKUJA.
 Näin usein tuntuu: on kohtalomme kuin pitkä, varjoisa puistotie.
Me sitä käymme, ja loputonten se hämäryyksien halki vie.

Ah, joskus kaartuvat lehtiholvit niin vihannoivina yllä pään,

ja kevätkiurujen laulu villi siell' yhtyy lähteiden helinään.

Ja joskus keltaiset lehdet lentävät lailla liekkien nääntyväin.

Käy kylmä, viiltävä koillistuuli ja pilvet painuvat maata päin.

Mut uupumatta vain eespäin rientää on yhä kaipaus kulkijan,

siks kunnes Kuoleman lintu laulaa ja kuultaa kartano Kuoleman.

Yön yhden siellä me levähdämme, pois aamun tullen jo matka

on.
Ei unen ikuisen kammioihin voi jäädä henkemme rauhaton.

Oi ystäväni, on kohtalomme kuin pitkä, varjoisa puistotie.

Me sitä käymme, ja loputonten se hämäryyksien halki vie.
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