COMMUNITY-BASED FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AS AN APPROACH TO

PARTICIPATORY MANAGEMENT OF RESERVOIR FISHERIES - A CASE

STUDY OF TWO FISHING VILLAGES AT THE NAM NGUM RESERVOIR,
LAO P.D.R.

by

Sommano Phounsavath

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Science.

Examination Committee Dr. John B. Hambrey (Chairman)

Prof. Peter Edwards (Co-chairman)
Prof. C. Kwei Lin
Dr. Harvey Demaine

Nationality Lao
Previous Degree M.Sc. in Zootechnics
Moscow Veterinary Academy
Moscow, Russia

Scholarship Donor Mekong River Commission

Asian Institute of Technology

School of Environment, Resources and Development
Bangkok, Thailand
December 1998
 Acknowledgement

I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and profound thanks to Dr. John B.
Hambrey for his support, guidance and suggestions to complete the present work. I also wish
to express profound respects to Professor Peter Edwards, Professor C. Kwei Lin, Dr. Harvey
Demaine, and Dr. Amararatne Yakupitiyage for their valuable advices and recommendations.

I am also thankful to Mr. Sam Nuov, Mr. Peter Degen, Dr. Niklaas Mattson, and Mr.
Henrik Nilsson from the MRC for their valuable recommendations and help. A special thank
is addressed to my former senior Dr. Phouangparisack Phravongviengkham for his helpful
advice.

I am deeply indebted to the Nam Ngum Reservoir Management and Development

Project for providing me with necessary facilities and help during my fieldwork. I am greatly
thankful to Mr. Boun Gnou and Mr. Thien Thong for their help during field data collection.

I am greatly obliged to my family, parents and sister, for their inexhaustible support
during my two-year period of study.

Thanks are also extended to the faculty and staff of the Aquaculture and Aquatic
Resources Management Program.

Finally, thanks are extended to the Mekong River Commission who granted me the
present scholarship.

ii
 Abstract

An assessment was made of the present management system of the fisheries in the
Nam Ngum reservoir to investigate the existing potentials of the local communities to be
involved and to participate in the development of a community-based fisheries management
system. The study was primarily focused on two major fishing communities of the Nam Ngum
reservoir, namely the Phonsavath and Xai Oudom villages, in order to investigate their
existing institutional structures and types of organizations that directly affected the
management of fisheries. Different attitudes of the local fishers toward the establishment of a
community-based fisheries management system were also investigated. A total of 150 fishers
households were interviewed using structured questionnaires. The assessment of local
institutions and organizations was conducted through the method of Rapid Appraisal of
Fisheries Management Systems or RAFMS (Pido et al., 1996).

The results revealed the existence of different traditional institutional structures and
organizations involved in the management of fisheries in the two villages, as well as different
fishers’ behaviors and fishing practices. The majority of all respondents from both villages
(79%) agreed toward the establishment and legislation of village management zone, however,
with preference for a district-level partitioning of the reservoir fishing boundaries. The
majority of all respondents (93%) were well aware of the current fishing regulations. A
significant proportion of respondents (85%) were in agreement to comply with the
establishment of a fishing license system provided the regulation would receive unanimous
support from the majority of fishers. All of the respondents agreed to comply with the
regulation of closed fishing season without any exception. The majority of all respondents
(59%) had a positive attitude in relation to the establishment of a fishers association, however,
only a minority of respondents (43%) were interested to participate in such an organization.
Nevertheless, the most favoured structure of fishers association was suggested to be
established at the village level, and appropriately divided into fishing units under equal
conditions for all types of fishers irrespective of the types of fishing gears.

The main pre-requisites for the development of a community-based fisheries

management system in the study area still were not yet developed, such as interests and
willingness for the establishment of fishers associations, and voluntary and responsible fishers
compliance with fishing regulations. Means to facilitate such development were either lacking
or unclearly defined. However, the establishment of management zones and fishermen
associations could be promoted at the village level, when further investigation should be made
for possible stratification of reservoir fishing boundaries at the district level.

iii
 Table of Contents

Chapter Title Page

Title Page i
Acknowledgment ii
Abstract iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii
Glossary x
Acronyms xi

1. Introduction 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Problem Statement 1
1.3 Objectives of the Study 2
1.4 Scope of the Study 3

2. Literature Review 4
2.1 Reservoir Fisheries Management and Related Problems 4
2.2 Community-Based Fisheries Management 7
2.2.1 Concepts of Community-Based Fisheries Management 10
2.2.2 Economics of Community-Based Fisheries Management 10
2.2.3 Justification for Community-Based Fisheries Management 11
2.2.4 Limitation of Community-Based Fisheries Management 11
2.3 National Fisheries Development Policies 12
2.3.1 Present Fisheries Development Policies 12
2.3.2 Reservoir Fisheries Development Policies 13
2.4 Management System of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries 14
2.4.1 Historical Development 14
2.4.2 Development and Organization of Fishing Cooperatives 17
2.4.3 Administrative Framework and Boundaries 19
2.4.4 Human Settlement and Population 20
2.4.5 Fishing Regulations 22
2.4.6 Fish Sanctuaries 23
2.4.7 Fish Collection and Handling 23
2.4.8 Fish Marketing, Prices and Taxation 24
2.4.9 Problems and Constraints 25
2.5 Characteristics of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries 28
2.5.1 Fishing Craft 28
2.5.2 Fishing Gears 28
2.5.3 Fishing Grounds 31
2.5.4 Fisheries Production 31

iv
3. Methodology 33
3.1 Study Area 33
3.2 Sampling Design 33
3.3 Data Collection Techniques 33
3.3.1 Collection of Secondary Data 34
3.2.2 Collection of Primary Data 34
3.3.3 Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems 36
3.3.4 Fishers Household Survey 36
3.4 Data Processing and Analysis 37

4. Results 38
4.1 Socio-economic Background of the Study Area 38
4.1.1 Demography 38
4.1.2 Community Services and Facilities 39
4.1.3 Means of Communication 40
4.1.4 Local Institution and Organizations 41
4.1.5 Priority Community Development 42
4.1.6 Land Use and Production 43
4.1.7 Livestock 44
4.1.8 Aquaculture 44
4.1.9 Fisheries 45
4.2 Fishers Household Survey 47
4.2.1 Ethnic Identification 47
4.2.2 Household Composition 48
4.2.3 Age Structure 48
4.2.4 Educational Status 49
4.2.5 Occupational Structure 49
4.2.6 Pattern of Household Income 52
4.2.7 Pattern of Household Expenditure 54
4.2.8 Pattern of Land Use and Production 57
4.2.9 Ownership Pattern of Livestock 59
4.2.10 Ownership Pattern of Fishing Gears 59
4.2.11 Pattern of Fishing Activities 60
4.3 Fishers Attitudes and Comments 63
4.3.1 Establishment of Fishers Association 64
4.3.2 Fishing Regulations 64
4.3.3 Conservation of Fisheries Resources 67
4.3.4 Fish Collection and Fish Prices 68
4.3.5 Village Management Zone and Fishing Boundaries 68

5. Discussion 71

6. Conclusion 75

7. Recommendation 76

v
References 77

Appendix A 82

Appendix B 90

vi
 List of Figures

Fig. No Title Page

2-1 Community-based Fisheries Management 9

2-2 A Hierarchy of Co-management Arrangements 9

2-3 Fishery Production of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1982-1997) 32

3-1 Flow Diagram of the Study Methodology 35

4-1 Years range of Residency of the Respondents by Ethnicity 39

4-2 Range of Age of the Respondents by Ethnicity 49

4-3 Education Level of the Respondents by Ethnicity 50

4-4 Main Occupations of Lao Loum Respondents (Phonsavath) 51

4-5 Main Occupations of Lao SoungRespondents (Phonsavath) 51

4-6 Main Occupations of Lao Loum Respondents (Xai Oudom) 52

4-7 Household Class Income of the Respondents by Ethnicity 53

4-8 Proportion of Household Income of Xai Oudom Respondents

(Lao Loum) 55

4-9 Proportion of Household Income of Phonsavath Respondents

(Lao Loum) 55

4-10 Proportion of Household Income of Phonsavath Respondents

(Lao Soung) 55

4-11 Proportion and Types of Household Expenditures of the Respondents 56

4-12 Average of Annual Household Expenditures of the Respondents by

Ethnicity 56

vii
 List of Tables

Table No Title Page

2-1 International Assistance for Fisheries Development in the Nam

Ngum Reservoir 16

2-2 Total Number of Immigrants into the Nam Ngum Reservoir from
1971 to 1980 21

2-3 Total Population of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1997) 22

4-1 Population by Ethnicity of the Phonsavath Village (1998) 38

4-2 Average Household Size of the Respondents by Ethnicity 48

4-3 Occupational Structure of the Respondents by Ethnicity 50

4-4 Average of Annual Household Income of the Respondents by

Ethnicity 52

4-5 Pattern of Land Use of the Respondent Households by Ethnicity 57

4-6 Pattern of Land Ownership of the Respondent Households by

Ethnicity 57

4-7 Average Years of Land Use of the Respondents Households by

Ethnicity 58

4-8 Types of Agricultural Products Cultivated by the Respondents

Households 59

4-9 Livestock Ownership Pattern of Respondent Households by

Ethnicity 61

4-10 Fishing Gears Ownership Pattern of the Respondent Households by

Ethnicity 62

4-11 Types of Fishing Gears Ownership of the Respondents by Ethnicity 63

4-12 Average of Fishing Years Experience of the Respondent by

Ethnicity 63

4-13 Attitudes Toward the Establishment of Fishers Association 65

4-14 Fishers Attitudes Toward Fishing Regulations 66

viii
4-15 Respondents Observation on Fish Catches 67

4-16 Respondents Views and Comments on Fish Catches 69

4-17 Fishers Attitudes Toward Fish Collection and Fish Prices 70

4-18 Fishers Attitudes Toward Village Management Zone and

Stratification 70

ix
 Glossary

Ban Village
Hai Upland paddy field
Khet Zone
Kip Lao currency
Lao Loum Lowland Lao
Lao Soung Highland Lao or Hmong hill tribe mostly living in northern part of Laos
Lao Theung Midland dwellers or tribes living in plateau areas of central and southern
part of Laos
Muang District
Na Lowland rice field
Nam River
Pa Fish

x
 Acronyms

CBFM Community-based Fisheries Management

DLF Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Lao PDR
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
ha Hectare
HP Horsepower
kg Kilogram
km Kilometer
Lao PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic
MAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Lao PDR
MRC Mekong River Commission
NRFMP Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries Management Project (1995)
NRMDP Nam Ngum Reservoir Management and Development Project (1996)
PMRF Project for Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Lower Mekong
Basin (Mekong River Commission)
RAFMS Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries Management System

xi
 1. Introduction

1.1 General

Reservoir fisheries is relatively a new sub-sector of fisheries in Lao PDR. The total
surface area of current reservoirs in the country was estimated to be about 50,000 hectares
(DLF, 1994). More new reservoirs, primarily for hydropower generation and irrigation
purposes, are expected to be completed in Lao PDR for the near future with an estimated
total surface area of about five million hectares (De Silva, 1996). This would provide great
potential for the development of reservoir fisheries if appropriate management measures are
carefully taken. At present time, the Nam Ngum reservoir is the largest reservoir of the
country, which has a total surface area of about 37,000 hectares. The reservoir is an
important source of cheap animal protein for the local rural population and also provides
opportunities of full and part-time employment for the traditional farming communities
living in the vicinity of the reservoir, providing them with additional household income and
animal protein supplement.

However, the research efforts expended on the socio-economic and management

aspects of reservoir fisheries in the country are relatively scanty. Various post-impoundment
studies of the reservoir fisheries have been previously done for the Nam Ngum reservoir
since its dam closure, but they were mainly focusing on technical aspects (Smithsonian
Institution, 1975; Interim Committee, 1984, 1989, 1993; Mekong Secretariat, 1993). Very
few studies on socio-economic aspects of fishing communities were conducted (Interim
Committee, 1982; Mekong Secretariat, 1990; Burapha Development Consultants, 1992;
Jacob, 1995).

There is, therefore, a great requirement in socio-economic studies concentrating on

the development of appropriate models for effective management of reservoir fisheries in
Lao PDR. Although there are available fisheries management options or models developed
worldwide and within the region, it is generally recognized that they must be first locally
tested for each specific area and approved by all the involved resource users. Full
participation of the local communities living in the reservoir area has been recognized to be a
pre-requisite for the successful implementation of any fisheries development programs.
community-based fisheries management (CBFM) is one alternative management scheme that
is based on a participatory approach and calls for direct involvement and contribution of the
community into the management of local fisheries resources. The development and
strengthening of local grass-root institutions is the foundation for effective management of
fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir.

1.2 Problem Statement

The present fisheries management system of the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly based
on the implementation of conventional fishing regulations such as fishing gear restrictions
and establishment of closed areas and season. The high enforcement cost of such measures
makes the regulations ineffective because of high immigrating rate of fishers into the

1
reservoir and lack of institutional capacity on the part of the local fishery authorities. Illegal
fishing still prevails in some fishing grounds and infraction of fish sanctuaries also occurs
because of lack of monitoring and patrolling. The scattered small-scale subsistence fisheries,
which is a type of multiple-gear and multiple-species fisheries, also complicate the
management tasks of the fisheries authorities. The main problem does not only rely on the
enforcement of strict fishing regulations but also on how to convince the local fishing
communities that they are necessary for their own benefits and call for their voluntary
participation for a more sustainable way of management of the reservoir fisheries resources.

In fisheries, especially small-scale fisheries, the traditional emphasis and concern of

management has been on the resource component rather than on the social component
consisting of the individuals and institutions, which participate in the use of the resource
(Emmerson, 1980). Fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly artisanal. The reservoir is
located in the rural area and provides employment opportunities and an inexpensive source of
animal protein to the poor sectors of the communities living in the vicinity of the reservoir.
The social aspects of the fisheries have a direct impact on its management, therefore, the
local fishing communities should be involved into the management decisions of their own
resource of subsistence. Since fisheries is a renewable resource, its exploitation and
management should rely on the perception and responsibilities of the fishing communities.
The common property of the fisheries in Nam Ngum reservoir has to be conserved and
protected by the fishers themselves. The development and strengthening of local institution
among the fishing communities is therefore proposed as an alternative to form the basis for
the development of a community-based fisheries management system. However, there is a
lack of studies on social aspects of the local fishing communities on which to base rational
fisheries management strategies, such as their organizational structure, institutional
arrangements and mode of fishers participation and commitment.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this present research study was to assess the present
management system of the fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir, its strengths and
weaknesses, and the potential of the local fishing communities to be involved and take
participation in the development of a community-based fisheries management system.

The immediate objectives required in order to achieve the above overall objective
were as follows:

1) to identify the general constraints and potentials related to the management of fisheries in
the Nam Ngum reservoir,

2) to assess the existing organizational structures and institutional arrangements of the fishing
communities in the Nam Ngum reservoir,

3) to investigate the attitudes of the local fishers toward the development of a community-
based fisheries management system,

2
4) to explore alternative management systems and, in particular, assess the feasibility and
desirability of a community-based fisheries management system.

1.4 Scope of the Study

The study specifically focused on two major fishing villages located in the vicinity of
the Nam Ngum reservoir. The study was primarily focused on the assessment of structures
and arrangements of the local institutions and organizations that contributed, or affected, the
management of fisheries within the communities; and also an investigation of fishers
attitudes toward possible development of a community-based fisheries management system.
A comparison of the two types of fishing communities was also made, as the communities
were constituted of different ethnic groups. Anonymous interviews were conducted with
household heads, being either full-time or part-time fishers.

3
 2. Literature Review

2.1 Reservoir Fisheries Management and Related Problems

As is well known, most of reservoirs in the Asian region were mainly constructed for
other major purposes than fisheries, such as for hydropower generation and irrigation. The
fishery was generally regarded as a secondary benefit from reservoirs. However, most of
reservoirs are located in the rural areas, and their fishery is a cheap source of animal protein
that also provides additional household income as well as employment opportunities to the
local population. Nevertheless, the rapid development of fisheries, often induced by
population growth and migration, has led to complex problems of the management of these
fisheries. The management of reservoir fisheries deals with multiple inter-related problems
that could be tentatively classified as follows: /1 political, 2/ social, 3/ economic, 4/
technical, and 5/ environmental aspects. Each aspect is hereunder discussed in more detail:

a) Political Aspects

Most problems of this kind relate to implementation of government policies and

strategies. Reservoir fisheries is often seen as a source of revenue to governments; this
implies government intervention and results in the establishment of a revenue-oriented
management of the fisheries. Problems often occur during the process of resource allocation
as the fisheries is a primitive common property resource at the first stage. Different types of
conflict may occur between the fishery agencies and local authorities or other involved
parties. As stated De Silva (1987) “the organizational structure of reservoir fisheries
management has received little attention in the region… a more concentrated effort is
therefore needed to bring about an effective coordination between all resource users”. There
is often a lack of legislation of fisheries in reservoirs and, therefore, the resource is being
exploited as a common-property. Another constraint is reluctance from the concerned
authorities to delegate their authority to the local communities. Community participation in
management of fisheries is therefore constrained due to unwillingness of the local authorities
for decentralization. Fisheries management in many Southeast Asian countries has been
heavily influenced by the Western concept of the need for centralized administrative
authority to effectively manage a resource. This approach is top-down, often involving little
or no effective consultation with resource users. Further, it is often not suited to developing
countries with limited financial and personnel resources to implement and enforce laws, rules
and regulations in widely dispersed fishing grounds (Pauly and Chua 1988, Pauly 1989).

b) Social Aspects

As mentioned De Silva (1996), “The Asian reservoir fishery is essentially artisanal…

there is very little known of the socio-economic aspects of the respective fisheries, and it is
believed that lack of information has hampered the development and execution of fishery
regulations effectively”. Management of fisheries in reservoirs mainly deals with multiple-
stakeholders, which have different interests and behaviors. Conflicts between the different
stakeholders are frequent events for the management of fisheries. Nevertheless, the common

4
interests of the majority must be first secured and protected. The majority of the rural
population living within the reservoir areas is mostly traditional fishers who often depend on
the fisheries for subsistence, and also practice fishing as a main occupation. They should
therefore be the first group of users to receive legal right to use the resource. However, an
effective management of fisheries requires the involvement of all stakeholders in order to
find out the best options and reach negotiated agreements in a compromise and consensus
manner. A preliminary identification of all key stakeholders would therefore be
recommended. The main stakeholders are usually local fishers, fishery agencies, fish traders,
people involved in local fish processing and transport, and a new group, that has been
recently emerging, namely the aqua-farmers who mostly practice fish cage culture within the
reservoir. Amarasinghe (1988) mentioned that fisheries management is usually mainly
concerned with the rational exploitation of the fishery resource. Therefore, the participation
of the local fishers is essential in implementing management strategies, especially in the
subsistence artisanal fisheries of most developing countries. Any fishery regulation imposed
by the government could only be effectively implemented through fishers’ participation.
Nevertheless, organizing fishers to form an extension society is possible only if they see
obvious benefits in their participation.

c) Economic Aspects

The economic aspect of management problems of fisheries consists in principle of

how to ensure sustainable use of the fisheries resources for future generations while
optimizing the benefits of a profitable fishery for all resource users. Different systems of
resource allocation and management rules are being used depending on each specific
reservoir conditions. Government intervention is often implemented through the
establishment of control and regulations of fish marketing channels, control of fish prices,
fishing licenses, and taxation.

d) Technical Aspects

The management of fisheries in multipurpose reservoirs has certain constraints such

as conflict with electricity generation, irrigation and flood control. Fisheries management is
therefore obliged to be done within the framework of these primary requirements, and
constrained by resulting water-level fluctuations and drawdown. A more multi-disciplinary
approach is therefore required to include fisheries managers in the management of reservoirs
for a more effective way of management of the fisheries.

Traditional management of reservoir fisheries in the past has been mainly done by
fisheries biologists, resource assessment experts, fishery agency officers, local authorities
without any preliminary consultation or involvement of the affected resource users or, in
other words, the local fishers themselves. An alternative approach would be directed toward
encouraging more participation and involvement from the fishers and other resource users in
order to be able to identify their real needs and make the best use of their local knowledge,
and increase their sense of responsibility for the future of the fishery.

5
 Different management processes and decision structures are being used throughout
the region, such as regional management bodies, co-management, community-based
management, and traditional management practices. Research on socio-economics and the
structure of fishing communities combined with biological research is needed to formulate
management objectives (FAO, 1996). Many countries have initiated fisheries management
systems that involve those in local communities most affected by the management decisions.
These systems vary from country to country and within countries. Most common has been a
shift to cooperative or collaborative fisheries management where government and the local
communities share responsibility and effort for management. Nickerson (1997) pointed out
that although there are differences between collaborative, traditional and community-based
fisheries management systems, however, they have fundamental similarities. For small-
fisheries and artisanal fisheries, intensive management analyses are often not possible or
cost-effective. In such cases, management measures will probably not depend on quantitative
analyses, but rather on assessing the practicality of ensuring that the precautionary measures
are accepted and observed by the fishing community. An alternative would be to establish a
community-based fisheries management system. This would decentralize fisheries
management authority to the local resources users and could reduce the cost of fisheries
management and enforcement (FAO, 1996). Economic and social aspects should be taken
into consideration. Suwignyo (1987) suggested that fisheries management of reservoirs need
to cover aspects of reservoir zone (zonation) management, fisheries exploitation patterns and
reservoir conservation policies. Reservoir zone management is a new concept that could
bring positive impacts on all reservoir uses, including fisheries management. The
management option to be used in a specific reservoir should be adequately suitable and
flexible to the existing local conditions. Adaptive management option need to be considered
for more effectiveness.

e) Environmental Aspects

There is a great need for more scientific research to understand the ecological and
socio-economic complexities of reservoir resources. The information and knowledge-base on
the reservoir ecosystem and the human linkages should be enhanced (Ahmed, 1996). De
Silva (1987) suggested that any reservoir fisheries management strategies should be based
upon scientific studies. Reservoirs are a type of complex ecological system that does not only
include opportunities for the use of fisheries resource, but also and those of water, land and
forestry, each of which has different correlated impacts on the others. Reservoirs are unique
and each reservoir has its specific conditions essential to the overall ecological system of the
region within it is located. Its potential resources are not only limited to those common
natural resources such as land , water and estuaries, but also include watershed, islands,
drawdown areas as well as other numerous non-utilized local ecological niches. The fisheries
could much affect the environment and, in the opposite way, the environment could also
affect the fisheries. The environmental problems in managing reservoir fisheries are usually
problems associated with water quality, degradation of natural habitats, decline in biological
diversity of the aquatic fauna and fish species.

2.2 Community-based Fisheries Management

6
 Various types of fisheries management systems have been recently developed in the
Asian region. However, they were mostly developed for coastal fisheries. Some success has
recently been achieved with Community-Based Fisheries Management (Tokrisna, 1997).
Inefficiency in centralized or government-based fisheries management among coastal states
in developing countries has led to the development of Community-Based Fisheries
Management. CBFM has been thought of as an effective management scheme due to the
success in Japanese coastal fisheries management. The term, “Community-Based Fisheries
Management” was used for the first time at a FAO/Japan Expert Consultation on the
Development of Community-based Coastal Fishery Management System for Asia and the
Pacific, which was held in Kobe 1992 (Yamamoto, 1996). In those days it had been
considered that the Community-Based Fisheries Management System (CBFM) is a kind of
fisheries management system, created by fishers under their own initiative. The FAO expert
consultation, which was held in Kobe in 1992, did not discuss anything on the definition of
CBFM. Another term, “co-management” (CM), is often used in many papers, dealing mainly
with coastal fisheries management, and also “self-management” (SM) which is considered as
totally self-imposed voluntary management without any legal framework imposed by the
government. Co-management is a management system to be practiced by the fishers (and/or
fisheries organization) and government together. Both CM and SM fall under the category of
the CBFM system (Yamamoto, 1996). The Figure 2-1 shows the general pattern of CBFM in
relation to other traditional management systems. There are essential development stages
required for the development of a community self-management system. Generally, most of
reservoir fisheries are under centralized government management, which is represented by
the fishery or local authorities. Implementation of a co-management system is the most
common way of involving the local communities in the management of the fishery resource.
However, there are essential requirements that need to be arranged by the government
authorities. The Figure 2-2 shows a hierarchy of these co-management arrangements. Only
after a successful implementation of these mutual arrangements and strengthening of local
institutions, or the communities, that could be considered the implementation of a
community-based management system. Ability and willingness of the communities are also
the main pre-requisites to be considered for the development of CBFM.

There is a growing recognition among fisheries experts in Southeast Asia of the need for
extensive resource user participation in the development and implementation of management
policies (FAO 1992, Scura et al. 1992, Kuperan and Mustapha 1994, Yamamoto 1994,
Juntharashote 1994). The growing realization of the need for increased participation by
resource users in fisheries management and greater localized control over access to the
resource can be seen in a wide range of policies and programs throughout the region.
Community-based resources management has re-emerged as a way to involve resources users
and to utilize local community institution arrangements and knowledge in fisheries
management. The exact nature of that role and the amount of authority that the national
government and the community have will differ and depend upon country and site-specific
conditions and priorities. In virtually all cases, however, the future of community-based
resource management seems to lie in a form of co-management, a sharing of responsibility
and authority for resource management between the government and the local resource users
or the community (Pomeroy, 1994). The conditions for successful fisheries co-management,
that also could be considered for community-based management as well, were identified by

7
Pinkerton (1989), Ostrom (1990, 1992) and Pomeroy (1994) as following: a) clearly defined
boundaries, b) clearly defined membership, c) group cohesion, d) existing organization, e)
benefit exceed costs, f) participation by affected parties, g) management rules enforced, h)
legal rights to organize, i) cooperation and leadership at the community level, j)
decentralization and delegation of authority, k) coordination between govrnement and
community. Yamamoto (1997) also suggested additional prerequisites for the development
of a community-based fisheries management system as follows: a) formulation of fishery
law, b) formulation of a fisheries management plan, and c) granting fishing rights and fishing
licenses to fishers.

Other important key conditions to be taken into consideration, for successful

development of CBFM, are the ability and willingness of the communities to manage their
own fishery resources. The community’s ability to manage a specific fishery resource (e.g.
fishing ground, fish sanctuary, or conservation area) depends on its existing level of
organization and control capacity. The community must have a strong organization,
preferably fishers’ organization, having some funds and available people to be engaged in the
management and control of the local resource. Self-voluntary participation and permanent
commitment, from the local authorities and fishers, are necessary for the implementation of
CBFM. Permanent control has to be done by the community itself to manage, take for
example, local fishing grounds in order to restrict violators or prevent illegal fishing. Another
example, the community could be involved in the management of specific conservation areas
or local spawning grounds. The incentive for voluntary community commitment would be to
protect and conserve the local fishery resource for its own long-term benefit. However, there
must be common interest and willingness from the part of the different interest groups or
stakeholders within the community. At least, there must be some group cohesion and existing
leadership amongst the local fishers. Another important point consists of what type of
community should be involved in CBFM. The community could be defined at the village
level, district level or province level depending on the specific local conditions.

There is very little known about traditional community-based resources management

systems in Southeast Asian countries. The generally held belief is that most of these
traditional systems have been replaced by centralized governmental control (Pomeroy, 1994).
The community-based management system is not almost new in the region, but rather lack of
documentation and information dissemination. Cunningham (1997) mentioned that some
fishing communities, in Laos, have highly developed traditions of fisheries management, i.e.
village-based fisheries management systems. These systems could be strengthened and
extended with a little support from government authorities as they are involving the
resources users or the local communities themselves into the management process, which is
more cost-effective for the long-term view.

8
 FISHERIES MANAGEMENT FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
UNDER LIMITED ENTRY UNDER OPEN ACCESS

(BOTTOM-UP MANAGEMENT) (TOP-DOWN MANAGEMENT)

SM CM IM

CBFM

Figure 2-1 Community-Based Fisheries Management (CBFM)

(Source: FAO, 1995; Yamamoto, 1996)

Abbreviations:

SM - Self Management
CM - Co-Management
IM - Institutional Management
CBFM - Community-based Fisheries Management

GOVERNMENT-BASED
MANAGEMENT
COMMUNITY-BASED
MANAGEMENT

Government CO-MANAGEMENT Community

centralized self-governance/
management Informing self-management
Consultation
Cooperation
Communication
Information exchange
Advisory role
Joint action
Partnership
Community control
Inter-area coordination

Figure 2-2 A Hierarchy of Co-management Arrangements (Source: Berkes, 1994)

9
2.2.1 Concepts of Community-Based Fisheries Management

Yamamoto (1996) defined CBFM as a kind of fisheries management system, which is

created under the initiative of fishers based on a fishing right granted to a group of fishers.
Fishing right is a prerequisite for the development of community-based fishery management.
Developing a community-based fisheries management system should be considered an
appropriate legal framework by focusing on fishing license, fishing right and fishers’
organization. Decentralization of fisheries administration is clue for the success of the
community-based fisheries management system. A legal framework to be followed by the
fishers should be provided by the government, most preferably in form of national law, for
the development of a community-based fisheries management system. A sort of fishers’
organization is also indispensable to create a community-based fisheries management
system.

Boonchuwong (1997) recognized community-based fisheries management as an

effective and fair management system. It is also beneficial to economic administration and
makes monitoring and enforcement more effective than central government management
system. CBFM leads to responsibility and awareness building of fishers as the resource
owner, which bring about longer utilization of resources. Awareness building on the
obedience of rules and regulations, which is regarded as a part of community culture, would
be useful for individual fishers as well as the community as a whole. CBFM also provides an
opportunity for communities to develop strategies of management which are consistent with
community conditions and need because fisheries communities are regarded as mechanism
and tool management measures which is more acceptable and easier to monitor and evaluate.
CBFM is a method, which fully utilizes traditional local knowledge and skill so that basic
resource information can be used together with biological information in management.
Moreover, the method can reduce conflict and keep society in the communities united.

2.2.2 Economics of Community-based Fisheries Management

Tokrisna (1997) determined community-based fisheries management system as an

option for a more cost effective management scheme. Market failure due to the fisheries
being a common property resource and unsuccessful conventional fishery management by
the central authority makes way for CBFM. Lack of control induces costly races in fishing
and depletion of resources. High costs of monitoring and enforcement constrain effective
central management, therefore, the control structure has to be corrected. CBFM, granting
fishing right thus the control to the community, is recommended as an option. Institutional
environments such as laws and regulations, social norms and customs are given to the
community. These are external elements, which are out of the community’s control. The
success of CBFM greatly depends on the facilitating institutional environments.

However, the economic factors to be considered in the implementation of CBFM

were identified as the transaction cost including the exclusivity and management cost
(Tokrisna, 1997). The transaction costs are defined as the costs that arise when a community
exercises ownership rights to the resources and enforces their exclusive right. They consist of
the cost of arranging an agreement, ex ante, and monitoring and enforcing, ex post. The

10
CBFM transaction costs depend on measurability of fishery resources. Recognition and
awareness of fishery resource values lowers the transaction costs of CBFM. Another factor
determining transaction costs is the nature of transactions. The costs can be lowered if
transactions are voluntary, durable and simultaneous. Lastly, non-exclusivity and high
governance costs discourages willingness of those local fishers to participate in CBFM
schemes. Improving quality of fishery resources will be difficult without active participation
among fishers. Transaction costs are high in such cases. Maximizing the net benefit from
CBFM involves both maximizing resource rent from sustainable stock as well as minimizing
transaction costs of the controlled fisheries. Whether it is worthwhile to adopt CBFM
depends on costs and returns from fishing and transaction costs of which exclusivity and
governance play a key role. CBFM can be a solution if the net benefit from this management
scheme can be maximized. Investigation of the economics of CBFM, examining the
organization of the control structure including various contractual arrangements, economic
activities and economic results provides basic guidelines in adopting successful CBFM.

2.2.3 Justification for Community-Based Fisheries Management

Pomeroy and Williams (1994) emphasized that the potential advantages of CBFM
include effectiveness and equity. It can be more economical in terms of administration and
enforcement than centralized systems. It involves self-management where the community
takes responsibility for a number of managerial functions. It provides a sense of ownership
over the resource, which makes the community more responsible for long-term sustainability
of resources. Fishers are given incentive to respect the rules because they complement
cultural values and because they are seen as individually and mutually beneficial. CBFM
allows the community to develop a management strategy, which meets its own particular
needs and conditions. Since the community is involved in the formulation and
implementation of management measures, a higher degree of acceptability and compliance
can be expected. CBFM makes maximum use of indigenous knowledge and expertise to
provide information on the resource base and to complement scientific information for
management. Its strategies can minimize social conflict and maintain or improve social
cohesion in the community.

2.2.4 Limitation on Community-Based Fisheries Management

Pomeroy and Williams (1994) pointed out that CBFM may not be suitable for every
fishing community. Many communities may not be willing to take or able to take on the
responsibility of CBFM. A long history of dependency on government may take years to
reverse. Leadership may not be available within the community to initiate or sustain the
CBFM efforts. Economic, social and/or political incentives for many communities may not
be present. The risk involved in changing fisheries management strategies may be too high
for some communities and fishers. The costs for individuals to participate in CBFM
strategies, such as time and money, may outweigh the expected benefits. Sufficient political
will may not exist among the local resource stakeholders or in the government to actually
manage the fisheries in responsible and sustainable manner. Actions by users groups outside
the immediate community may undermine or destroy the management activities undertaken
by the community.

11
 Yamamoto (1996) suggested that for promoting the community-based fisheries
management system, fishery statistics should be available at least at the sub-district level.
The type of fishery statistics required are not only fishery inventory data such as number of
fishing households, fishing boats and fishermen but also number of fishing units by gear
types, catch by species as well as by gears.

Pomeroy (1994) states that effective community-based resource management is

dependent upon the strength of the local organization and its ability to command respect
from its members and enforce institutional arrangements. Success is often simply due to the
leadership of the local organization. While governments may be willing to call for more
community involvement in resource management, this must be matched by action at the
government level to establish commensurate rights and authorities. The devolution of
significant authority to manage the fisheries, away from the national government to a local
organization, may be one of the most difficult tasks in revitalizing effective community-
based resource management systems. Fisheries administrators maybe reluctant to relinquish
their authority or portions of it in order to protect the positions of their own agencies.

2.3 National Fisheries Development Policies

2.3.1 Present Fisheries Development Policies

The policy towards fisheries in the Lao PDR is guided by the “new economic
mechanism”, a market-oriented economic policy set in a framework of broad sectoral
programs within which particular projects may be carried out. Current national agricultural
and fisheries development policies center around the following priority programs:

a) food self-sufficiency and security,

b) protection and conservation of natural resources,
c) production and local processing of cash crops and livestock for export,
d) water resources development, and
e) rural development.

The development of fisheries mainly falls within the first program. According to
officials of the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), the average per caput intake of
animal protein in the Lao PDR is 20 kg per year, of which fish currently makes up 7-8 kg,
compared to 4-6 kg coming from pork, 2-3 kg from poultry, 1-3 kg from eggs and 2-4 kg
from cattle and buffalo combined. The proportion of protein coming from fish was estimated
to be more higher for the rural areas.

However, fisheries is also seen as having potential in relation to other components of

the national agricultural policy. The potential for increasing the use of some 739,000 ha of
inland fishery resources is claimed to be considerable, both as means of increasing farm
incomes to reduce the need for shifting cultivation and as a source of export earnings. The
fishery resource of the country was estimated to be confined to the Mekong river (200,000

12
ha), its tributaries (54,000 ha), lakes and reservoirs (57,000 ha), fish ponds (9,000 ha),
bundled paddy fields (418,000 ha) and about 1,000 ha of wetland swamps (Phonvisay, 1994).

The first priority fishery programs are focused on aquaculture extension and
mitigation of fish yield decline in natural water bodies. A pressing requirement was
identified, by the officials of the DLF, to be the need for technical assistance in formulation
of control regulations for fish stock exploitation in both reservoirs and rivers.

Present fisheries development strategies and actions programs are built around the
three agro-ecological zones of the country, namely: southern, central and northern zones. The
development strategy of Lao PDR regarding fisheries has been to conserve the natural
resources and develop fish farming, by pursuing a better integration of fish breeding and
raising. Priority in short, medium and long-term is to be given to reduction of declining
harvest and development of fisheries in the rivers and reservoirs as well as to fish farming in
ponds and rice fields through the establishment of primarily breeding and aquaculture
facilities based on sustainable exploitation of both indigenous and selected suitable exotic
fish species. Collectively, these actions could allow the fisheries sub-sector to increase
gradually its production figures from the current estimates.

In order to achieve the above mentioned development policy and strategies,

appropriate action programs were developed by the DLF which are program oriented and are
geared towards serving long-term and sustainable development of the sub-sector. Major
research and development priorities are set by taking into the following fisheries programs:

a) aquaculture and wetlands management,

b) reservoir fisheries management,
c) aquatic resources identification and research, and
d) post-harvest technology and regulations.

2.3.2 Reservoir Fisheries Development Policies

The reservoir fisheries is increasingly important in the country. It is clearly seen by

the authorities concerned that full participation of the grassroots communities that directly
depend on the fisheries and related aquaculture is fundamental to the success and
sustainability of any fisheries development programs. It is also recognized that reservoir
fisheries management is an important integral component of rural development with
significant contribution to the overall socio-economical development in the country. The
development and improvement of living conditions of the local communities is a pre-
requisite for a rational and sustainable use of the reservoir resources. Fisheries management
should form the basis for all water resources conservation and development, including
hydropower generation, irrigation, wetland management, land reclamation, management of
other aquatic wildlife and tourism. However, the volume of research and developmental
works carried out in the reservoir fisheries sub-sector does not yet reflect the development
potentials and opportunities of the sub-sector in question.

13
 The priority research and development activities for the reservoir fisheries sub-sector
are set into five main areas, namely improvement of basic infrastructure, institutional
strengthening, adaptive and extension research, pilot development schemes, and development
of planning and research strategies. The main requirements, based on the precedent five
priority areas, for the development of national reservoir fisheries are, 1/ establishment and
strengthening of fish stations and hatcheries, 2/ development of managerial and technical
expertise, 3/ extension methodology for alternative aquaculture development, 4/ effective
coordination and development of appropriate technical support system, 5/ establishment of
an information system for reservoir fisheries.

Concerning the Nam Ngum reservoir, the government authorities (MAF) recognized
the reservoir as a unique national natural resource that has great potential for development
and also could serve as a good model of environment and resource conservation. The general
policy and strategies aim for the improvement of living conditions of the local population
and primarily focus on how to ensure self-sufficiency and food security of the local
communities. The development of fishing communities in the Nam Ngum reservoir has been
recognized to be fundamental to solve the present problem of environment degradation, and
protection of aquatic and fishery resources for the short and long-term. Pressing requirement
to remediate the present situation in the Nam Ngum reservoir has been identified as
revitalization and implementation of the existing fishery legislation, instructions and
regulations in coordination with all involved and concerned parties ranging from the local
authorities up to the central agencies.

2.4 Management System of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries

2.4.1. Historical Development

Some pre-impoundment studies were conducted prior to the initial construction of the
Nam Ngum dam. Pantulu (1969) noted that there was no important commercial fisheries
exploitation existing above or below the dam site on the Nam Ngum river prior
impoundment. Nevertheless, Pantulu (1969) initially suggested several management options
for the future exploitation of fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir as following:

1. The reservoir could be leased out to a private entrepreneur, on a highest basis,

who would be responsible for bringing in fishers, organizing fishing and
transporting the catch, but would have to enforce strictly the regulations
formulated by the reservoir authority.
2. The fishery authority could organize the exploitation of the reservoir by selecting
and licensing fishers, providing them with proper gear and craft, and marketing
the fish.
3. Another alternative would be for the authority to initially select the fishers and
organize a cooperative or cooperative of fishers to exploit the lake. This
cooperative, through loans obtained from banks or the fishery authority, would
invest in the purchase of nets, boats, transportation facilities, etc.

14
 However, Pantulu (1969) also mentioned some problems and constraints that could
be associated and result from the above three options. The first option of leasing system was
predicted to lead to over fishing problems and degradation of the fisheries resource if no
effective governmental control would be enforced, and also would result in the exploitation
falling into highly profit minded people. The second option of establishment of fishing
license system seemed to be the most profitable option for the both side of fishers and
government authorities, however, the government would have to born all expenditures for the
maintenance of equipment and also arrange the procedures of marketing fish. In the third
option of establishment of fishing cooperative, the cooperative would have to reimburse the
loans and facilities provided by the authorities by paying a specified part of its profits.

The fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir began to gradually develop a few years after
the completion of the hydropower dam in 1971. On its creation, the reservoir became an
important source of fish, as food and income, for most of the population of the Vientiane
Province and neighboring areas.

In 1978, the Government of Netherlands under the auspices of the Mekong

Committee had funded a project called "Development and Management of Fisheries in the
Nam Ngum Reservoir".

The project supported:

• The development of the infrastructure facilities such as the project offices, the floating
fish landing platform, an ice plant, a machinery repair workshop, laboratory building, a
road from the dam site up to the project headquarters,
• The provision of an insulated van for the transport of fish to Vientiane, fishing nets and
outboard engines,
• The training of selected fishers in fishing techniques and maintenance craft and gear,
• The baseline survey on the living conditions of fishing communities,
• The biological research on the limnology and fish population of the Nam Ngum
reservoir.

Six years after the end of the Netherlands project, in 1981, another project of the
Mekong Committee called the project for "Development of Fishermen Communities in the
Nam Ngum Reservoir", which was funded by the Swiss Government, began in January 1988.
The development objectives of the project were 1) to improve the living standards and
develop the fishing communities in the Nam Ngum basin, and 2) to encourage fishers to
participate in the exploitation of the resources of the reservoir at a sustainable level through
re-organization of fishing cooperatives. The project provided some basic facilities such as
two carrier boats, a three-tons capacity flake ice plant and one insulated truck for fish
collection and transportation of fish to the local markets at Thalat and Vientiane. However,
the project faced with many constraints due to complicated fish prices structure and
procedures complemented by un-competitiveness with the private sector. Most of the fish
catch by-passed the project to be sold to local fish traders at more attractive offered prices.

15
 Since 1995 until present time, a new project funded by the Danish Government
through the Mekong River Commission is under its first phase of completion and focuses on
fish stock assessment and socio-economic survey of the fishing communities (Project for
Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Lower Mekong Basin). The Nam Ngum reservoir
being included as a component from Lao P.D.R. The general objective of this regional
project is to increase sustainable fish production from reservoirs in the Lower Mekong Basin
and to involve fishing communities around the reservoirs in the management of fisheries.
This will be achieved by strengthening the capacity of Government agencies to develop
appropriate fisheries management policies and mechanisms through which theses policies
can be implemented effectively. Major components comprise the collection of biological,
economic and social data, the training of Government personnel in fisheries monitoring and
stock assessment, and through pilot project demonstrations involving local fishing
communities. A second phase of the project was also recommended, concentrating on
implementation of models for reservoir fisheries management, developed during the first
phase of the project, using a community-based fisheries management approach.

A list of previous and present international assistance for fisheries development in the
Nam Ngum reservoir in the recent years is shown in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 International Assistance for Fisheries Development in the Nam Ngum Reservoir

Project Organization Years Objectives

1. Development and Mekong 1978-83 Implementing specific pilot
Management of Fisheries Committee development project in the Nam
in Nam Ngum Reservoir (Netherlands) Ngum reservoir in order to evolve
basinwide strategy for management
and development of reservoir
fisheries
2. Development of Mekong 1988-90 Improvement of socio-economic
Fishermen Communities Committee condition of pilot fishing
in the Nam Ngum Basin (Switzerland) communities and sustainable
(Phase I) development of reservoir fisheries
3. Development of Mekong 1991-92
Fishermen Communities Committee (Same as above)
in the Nam Ngum Basin (Switzerland)
(Phase II)
4. Management of Mekong 1995-98 Sustainable high yield of reservoir
Reservoir Fisheries in the Committee fisheries under local community
Lower Mekong Basin (Denmark) agreement with government
(Phase I)
(Source: Interim Committee, 1992)

2.4.2 Development and Organization of Fishing Cooperatives

From 1979 to 1983, the government encouraged the creation of several villages into
fishing cooperatives. However, the cooperatives were not very successful because of poor

16
organization, lack of experience in cooperative setup, lack of services to support fishers such
as credit, fishing craft and gear and poor marketing system. Only eight villages, from a total
of 31 villages, participated in the establishment of seven fishing cooperatives (Mekong
Committee, 1984). The eight villages were located in the former Na Nam sub-district (Keo
Oudom District). In 1981, the Mekong Project (Development and Management of Fisheries
in the Nam Ngum Reservoir) conducted a survey in these eight villages and found that from
a total of 1340 full-time fishers only 443 (33%) fishers were participating in the fishing
cooperatives. However, it was also revealed by the same survey that they were in total 2351
active fishers accounting for 58% of the total population.

In 1987, the government undertook a new resettlement programs due to the large-
scale destruction of forests by the villagers around the Nam Ngum reservoir that were
practicing detrimental shifting cultivation. Villagers from the former cooperatives who were
mostly full-time fishers were therefore requested to resettle into new determined settlement
areas, which were initially planned to be established as new fishing cooperatives. The new
settlement areas, were the Xai Oudom village located in the Keo Oudom district and the
Phonsavath villages located in the Muang Hom district (now belonging to the Long Sane
district, Special Region Xaisomboune).

In 1988, a Mekong Committee’s Project for Development of Fishermen Communities

in the Nam Ngum Reservoir, funded by the Swiss Government, attempted to re-organize two
fishing villages into cooperatives. The villages were the Xai Oudom village (fishing
cooperative No 1) and the Phonsavath village (fishing cooperative No 2). Both villages were
tried to be developed as the main centers for fish collection in the reservoir in order to re-
organize fish collection, transportation and marketing of fish. However, both fishing
cooperatives were ceased in few years after the end of the project and do not longer exist at
the present time.

The lessons to be learned from the past failures of fishing cooperatives and previous
attempts of fishers organization in the Nam Ngum reservoir could be tentatively classified
into the following main issues:

a) Priority Strategies for Community Development

Most of previous strategies for community development had been mainly developed and
implemented by the local authorities with little prior consultation and early involvement of
the affected communities. One of the main constraints to community development was
related to the problem of consistent population re-settlement. Appropriate settlement
program for a more long-term has to be considered by the concerned authorities in order to
prevent problems associated with population growth and migration. Government support and
assistance should be first given to the permanent communities that are in real needs. Priority
development should be focused on the improvement of necessary community facilities and
services depending on the current requirements and conditions of each specific community.
One of the past failures to successful community development was related to erroneous
identification of the real potential and resources of the community. Not all communities have
potentials for the development of fisheries, and therefore, more considerations should be

17
addressed in the direction of developing other complementary development activities. An
alternative would be a more integrated and multi-disciplinary approach in the formulation of
development objectives with obligatory involvement of the affected or benefiting
communities.

b) Ability and Willingness for Fishers Participation

Previous experiences have shown that not all fishers and fishing communities are able or
willing to participate in fishing cooperatives or fishers organizations. The relatively low
number of fishers involved in the first fishing cooperatives was probably due to the required
criteria for enrollment. Only fishers who owned individual production means (motorized
boats and fishing gears) were able to participate in the cooperatives. This could be one
constraint restricting small-scale and subsistence fishers to participate in the fishing
cooperatives. Vital pre-requisite to organization of fishers is their own voluntary interest and
willingness to be organized. Other conditions for successful fishers participation also include
unity in common interest and cooperation between the different fishers groups. A sense of
leadership and responsibility amongst the fishers should also exist within the community.

c) Legal Framework for Organization of Fishers

Specific legal rights have to be formulated and formally introduced to allow and facilitate
fishers to organize themselves. The development and strengthening of fishers organization is
a must to ensure and protect their own interests and benefits. However, main incentive for
organizing fishing cooperatives should have been based on self-voluntary initiative of the
local fishers.

d) Strengthening and Self-sustaining of Fishing Cooperatives

One of the constraints to self-sustaining of fishing cooperatives was associated with the
failure to organize and manage the cooperative’s revolving fund. Complicated procedures
and lack of financial transparency within the administrative structure of the cooperatives had
led to fishers reluctance to participate in the fishing cooperatives. An attempt to solve this
problem was to give responsibilities for regular supervision and monitoring of the
cooperatives to the local authorities. However, a more effective approach would be to left
fishers who were the cooperative’s members to control and monitor their own organization
with the local and fishery authorities playing facilitating and supporting roles.

e) Fish Prices Setting and Taxation System

Main constraints, that had caused the fishing cooperatives to fail, were obviously
associated with the controlled fish prices and diverse taxation practices implied by the local
authorities. The controlled fish prices were set at government rates, which had led to un-
competitiveness of the government fishery company with the private sector. On top of that,
the implication of diverse taxation practices at both provincial and district levels also made
worst the financial situation of the cooperatives.

18
f) Support Services to Fishing Communities

Another constraint to fishing cooperatives was the lack of adequate government support
such as investment in community infrastructure or facilities and basic communal services
such as health and access to credit. One incentive to interest and participation of the local
villages in previous fishing cooperatives was related to the need in subsidized fishery supply
from the government company such as fuel and fishing nets.

2.4.3 Administrative Framework and Boundaries

Since the completion of the Nam Ngum dam in 1971, the reservoir was directly
managed by the authorities of the Vientiane Province as it was located in its administrative
area.The Food Supply Services of the Vientiane Province was the only agent responsible for
fish collection, handling, transport and distribution. The fisheries was organized separately
under different district authorities covering the lake. The Food Supply Company also
provided consumer goods and inputs to the fishers at state sector prices. During that period,
the Government encouraged the establishment of seven fishing cooperatives in the former Na
Nam sub-district (Keo Oudom district, Vientiane Province).

In September 1982, the Nam Ngum Fisheries Company was established. It was in fact
a joining of the provincial services with a fisheries project (Interim Committee,1982). The
Nam Ngum Fisheries Project provided basic infrastructure facilities such as an ice factory,
workshop, supply shop and transport facilities. The fisheries company was responsible for
the complete fishery operation chain, fish production, collection and handling, transport and
distribution. The company also received the right to purchase input supply at subsidized
government prices. However, the situation did not improve much for the fishers as the fish
buying prices were set at a government rate when the prices of most important consumption
goods and fishery supply were not stable. In top of that, were the problems of diverse
taxation systems that were additionally imposed by the local district authorities.

Since 1988, the Lao Government established the policy of a new economic
mechanism that relied on a more free-market system or trade liberalization. The provincial
authority had therefore opened a public auction to lease right of purchasing fish from the
Nam Ngum reservoir to the highest private bidder. A local private entrepreneur won the
leasing right and, since 1994 until present, has several times extended the annual contract.

Until 1994, The whole Nam Ngum reservoir was in the administrative zone of the
Vientiane province. Four districts covered the reservoir, namely, the district of Muang Hom,
Keo Oudom, Thoulakhom and Vang Vieng. At the present time, the whole reservoir falls into
the administrative boundaries of two respective provinces of Vientiane and Special Region
Xaisomboune. The Special Region of Xaisomboune was established in June 1994 by
dividing the old Vientiane Province into two parts. The Special Region having the same
administrative jurisdiction as a Province. In total, there are five districts and 30 villages that
cover the Nam Ngum reservoir as shown in Table A-1 (Appendix A).

19
 In June 1995, the Lao Government has established a national project called the “Nam
Ngum Reservoir Fisheries Management Project” (NRFMP). The primary objective of the
project was directly focusing on the management of fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir and
the development of fishing communities. The project was initially under the supervision of
the authorities of Vientiane Province (Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Services).
However, in November 1996, the same project has been renamed into the “Nam Ngum
Reservoir Management and Development Project” (NRMDP). The main objectives of the
project have been revised and primarily focus on the overall management and development
of the Nam Ngum reservoir. The main project roles are as following: (a) implement long and
short-term strategic plans, policies, legislation, instructions, regulations, notices and
recommendations on the management and development of the Nam Ngum reservoir as
outlined by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF); (b) coordinate between the
different involved government agencies and local authorities of the Vientiane Province and
Special Region Xaisomboune for the elaboration and implementation of regulations,
decisions, instruction, recommendations and notices from the Department of Livestock and
Fisheries and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; (c) survey, classify and define the
aquatic, wild life and ecological preservation areas, control and monitor fisheries in the Nam
Ngum basin and its estuaries; (d) elaborate and devise regulations for the management and
development of the Nam Ngum reservoir, experiment and promote alternative scientific and
technological knowledge to improve the development of fisheries and conservation of the
ecological environment; (e) implement international cooperation projects assigned by the
concerned departments and ministries in accordance with the government cooperation rules
and agreement principles.

The NRMD Project is under full legal function until present time and directly belong
to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). However, its technical direction is
ensured by the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) and under the responsibilities
of the Agriculture and Forestry Services of the Vientiane province in terms of administrative
aspects such as personnel, planning, budget and staff salaries. The project administrative
framework and linkages with the different government and local authorities is shown in
Table A-2 (Appendix A).

2.4.4 Human Settlement and Population

Prior to the inundation of the reservoir in 1971, there were 23 villages and about 751
households with a total population of 3,884 people located within the reservoir site (Interim
Committee, 1982). The largest part was resettled in around 10-20 kilometers south of the
dam site and along the Nam Sane river, about 15 kilometers from its confluence with the
Nam Ngum. The first evacuation took place in early 1967 and the last in 1971 when the
impoundment was started. Unfortunately, not enough studies were conducted prior and
during the dam project to assess its impacts on the socio-economic aspects of the original
communities. Resettlement programs were poorly organized and not enough living places
and land were made available at the first time. Since the creation of the reservoir, in 1971,
many people from other areas immigrated into the reservoir to take advantage of the fisheries
as well as of other local opportunities. The flow of immigrants during the first period of ten
years after the Nam Ngum impoundment is shown below in Table 2-2.

20
 The Table 2-2 shows the highest proportion of immigrants occurred during 1975 and
1976, (24.53% and 15.26%). This was probably due to the end of the civil war in 1975.

In 1981, the population increased to 9,561 people and 1,652 households living in 31
villages. It was estimated that about 48 per cent of the fishers were farmers before they
adopted fishing as an occupation (Interim Committee, 1982).

Table 2-2 Total Number of Immigrants into the Nam Ngum Reservoir from 1971 to 1980

Year Number of immigrants Percentage (%)

1971 654 8.65
1972 419 5.54
1973 406 5.37
1974 891 11.78
1975 1855 24.53
1976 1154 15.26
1977 495 6.55
1978 336 4.44
1979 474 6.27
1980 878 11.61
Total: 7562 100
(Source: Interim Committee, 1982)

In 1997, the total population of the Nam Ngum reservoir was reported to be about
16,202 people living in five districts and 28 villages (NRMDP, 1997). The population of the
Nam Ngum reservoir can be classified into three main ethnic groups, namely, the Lao Loum
ethnic group (Lowland Lao), the Lao Soung ethnic group (Highland Lao) and the Lao
Theung ethnic group (Middle Lao). The Table 2-3 shows the total population of the Nam
Ngum reservoir for each district by ethnic group for the year of 1997.

From the Table 2-3 the Lao Loum ethnic group constituted the majority of the total
population (54.27%), followed by the Lao Soung ethnic group (33.42%) and the Lao Theung
ethnic group (12.31%).

Table 2-3 Total Population of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1997)

District Number Population Lao Lao Lao House- Families

of Loum Soung Theung holds
villages
1. Vang Vieng 9 6462 4800 0 1662 1012 1112
2. Thoulakhom 2 678 141 537 0 94 110
3. Keo Oudom 3 1506 1495 6 5 235 242
4. Phoune 2 608 285 0 323 107 123
5. Long Sane 12 6948 2072 4871 5 1087 1131

21
 Total: 28 16202 8793 5414 1995 2535 2718
(Source: NRMDP, 1997)

In 1998, two more villages had been newly established meaning, therefore, a total of
30 villages are located around the Nam Ngum reservoir (see Table A-2 in Appendix A). No
information on the actual total of population for the year of 1998 was available, as the annual
population census was not yet finalized.

2.4.5 Fishing Regulations

The regulations of all fishing activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly based on
the regulation document No 567/AF issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
(MAF, 1995). The regulation document is composed of 39 articles, which are divided into
nine main parts as following:

Part 1 General principles on the management of fishing activities in the Nam

Ngum reservoir
Part 2 Rules for fishing activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 3 Delineation of wild life and environment reserves
Part 4 Protected fish species and reptiles in the Nam Ngum reservoir and Nam
Song estuary
Part 5 Restrictions
Part 6 Purchase and sale of fish in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 7 Fishing fees in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 8 Fines
Part 9 Implementation

The main important fishing regulations are the establishment of gear restrictions,
protected fish species, closed areas and season, fishing license, fees and fines, and regulation
on leasing right. The restricted fishing gears are: dynamites, shot guns, poison, electro-
fishing devices, harpoons, spears, beach seine, drag nets and gears of all mesh size lower
than five centimeters. The protected fish species are: Pangasius gigas, Pangasius
sanitwongsei, Pangasius hyphothalmus, Probarbus jullieni, Wallagonia miostoma, and also
some types of aquatic animals such as the soft-shelled turtle (Amyda sp.). Fishing licenses are
to be issued only to the permanent fishers from the Nam Ngum project authorities (NRMDP).
A renewable annual fishing license will be only issued to the local population living and
having fisheries activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir. Occasional and recreational fishers
from other areas will receive only temporary authorization of fishing from the project
authorities. The temporary fishing authorization will be valid only for a limited time of
fishing and determined fishing grounds. However, the issuing of fishing licenses to the
fishers in the Nam Ngum reservoir is not a new practice. An initial attempt to establish
fishing license system was made once, by the Nam Ngum Fisheries Project (NRFMP) in May
1993, but was unfortunately discontinued. The main causes were due to the lack of
participation from the majority of fishers and the fact that the fishing licenses system was
only experimented in some selected fishing villages. The practice was to register the

22
motorized boats of the fishers and to setup an annual fee of some 500 Kip for the right of
fishing in the reservoir.

Although, the above fishing regulations have already been formally declared, their
effective implementation remains to be enforced. This could be done only with the support of
strong local institutions and full-participation from the fishers.

2.4.6 Fish Sanctuaries

The authorities had established one permanent and three temporary fish sanctuaries.
The fish sanctuaries are the four main rivers that are flowing into the Nam Ngum reservoir,
namely, the Nam Ngum river, Nam Song river, Nam Tou river and Nam Sane river. The
Nam Ngum estuary had been declared a permanent closed and conservation area for the
whole period of year, when the three other rivers are closed only during the fish spawning
season from May to July of each year. However, there is frequent infraction of these
regulations by the local fishers because lack of enforcement and sanction measures, and
insufficient staff and budget to patrol and monitor these areas. Another constraint is the
unclear distinction of local boundaries and area of responsibilities.

2.4.7 Fish Collection and Handling

Fish collection in the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly done by village fish traders, who
play the role of middle traders, and receive some profits (5-10%) from their exclusive fish
sale to the fish dealer company or the local private bidder. There are, in total, 46 registered
fish traders in the Nam Ngum reservoir (NRMDP, 1998). A list of village fish traders in the
Nam Ngum reservoir is given in the Table A-3 (Appendix A). The most numerous fish
traders are from the Long Sane district (21 fish traders) and Keo Oudom district (17 fish
traders) that account for 45.65% and 36.95% of the total number of fish traders, respectively.
Fish collection is either directly made at the fishing villages or fishing grounds, depending on
the mutual arrangements between the fish traders and fishers. Beside collecting and
purchasing fish catch from fishers, the middle fish traders also play a significant role in
furnishing the fishers with needed fishing inputs such as fuel, fishing gears, boat spare parts
and also consumption goods. In addition, the middle fish traders also often provide credit to
fishers for buying fishing gears and equipment, mostly gill nets and fish hooks, or in some
case cash money. The fishers who received such credit have to exclusively sell their fish
catch to the moneylender or creditor who is the middle fish trader. Collection of fish catch in
most fishing villages is usually made in the morning period and then is either transported by
passenger or individual boats to the main landing sites. There are in total three authorized
fish landing sites in the Nam Ngum reservoir, namely, 1/ the main fish landing at the Nam
Ngum dam site (Keo Oudom district), 2/ fish landing site at the Tha Heua village (Vang
Vieng district), and 3/- fish landing site at the Na Pheui village (Thoulakhom district). The
whole fish catch has to be exclusively sold to the legal fish dealer company or its
representatives at the three fish landing sites. However, there are frequent cases when the
fishers by-pass their fish catch to illegal fish buyers either because of more attractive offered
fish prices or better convenience. In some cases, some fishers found more economically to

23
sell their fish catch to local buyers rather than transporting their fish catch to the distant
landing sites.

Concerning fish handling, most of fishers directly sell fresh their fish catch to the fish
traders without any initial preservation treatment. The fish catch is just assembled in
synthetic bags or bamboo baskets. Some crushed ice is only used by the fish traders that
could keep fresh the fish to some extent. Obviously, most of fish traders do not use yet any
containers or ice-boxes during fish collection. In most villages, ice has to be brought from
the main dam site either in form of ice blocks or ready crushed ice. At the landing sites, the
fish catch is categorized and separated by species, and only then, appropriately preserved
with crushed ice either in small containers or in wrapped up bamboo baskets before further
transportation by small trucks to the fish markets.

2.4.8 Fish Marketing, Prices and Taxation

The official regulations require that the fish prices must be negotiated and fixed based
on mutual agreement of the fishers with the fish dealer company taking into account the
fluctuation of the market fish prices, fishing seasons, fish categories and species. The Table
A-4 (Appendix A) gives the list of fish prices offered by the Nam Ngum Fish Dealer
Company in August 1998 for 18 commercial fish species and three types of processed fish
products. The fish products were mainly dried and fermented fish. The highest prices,
approximately US$ 1.25 per kilogram, were offered for Mystus wickii and Kryptopterus
apogon, and about US$ 1 per kilogram for Mystus nemurus and Wallagonia attu. The highest
price of fish product, approximately US$ 1 per kilogram, was offered for the small dried
Clupeids (Clupeichthys goniognathus). The fish prices system has been fully left to function
by the free market principles. However, the real situation is not much in favor of the fishers
side as middle fish traders have been also involved into the process and have therefore
greatly decreased the fishers bargaining power with the fish dealer. Consequently, specific
regulations have yet to be devised by the concerned authorities to appropriately control the
middle fish traders and other illegal fish market channels in order to protect the long term
benefit and interests of the fishers. The different interests of the three involved sectors have
to be cautiously secured, namely, the fishers as producers, the fish dealer and middle traders
as the service sector, and the fish market as final consumers. The ideal should be a fair
compromise between all those affected parties and stakeholders ranging from the fishers,
middle traders, fish dealer, consumers and up to the government authorities.

By the declared regulations, the Fish Dealer Company has full legal right to organize
the commercialization of fish from the Nam Ngum reservoir within the limits of the
Vientiane Province, Special Region Xaisomboune and Vientiane Prefecture. The fish sale
can be either made to the private or organizations sectors. The Fish Dealer Company has
eventually agreed and signed an annual leasing contract which mandates the company to pay
an annual levy of 16 million Kip (approximately US$ 4000) to be disbursed during each four
quarters of the year to the authorities of the Vientiane Province who is called the lessor and
the fish dealer company - the lessee. The lessehold is comprised of a floating fish landing
platform located at the main dam site where some facilities are available such as an access
road and electricity. The leasing contract is renewable for each year on the basis of the most

24
successful highest bidder and suspect to possible tariff revision by the concerned authorities
on prior mutual agreement. The lease-holder has also the responsibilities to fully comply
with the fishing regulations and other management rules and instructions as outlined by the
concerned authorities managing the Nam Ngum reservoir. The Fish Dealer Company also
has additional duty to participate in some form of donation for the restocking program of the
Nam Ngum reservoir, which is traditionally organized by the provincial authorities during
each year.

However, there are no other private bidders present to compete with the actual local
entrepreneur although the leasing contract has been publicly opened and renewed several
times since 1994. That could be explained by the fact that most of the Nam Ngum fish
traders and fishers became the inevitable permanent debtors of the Fish Dealer Company
because of the practice of credit for fishing gears and individual lending.

2.4.9 Problems and Constraints

The main problems and constraints hampering the effective management of the Nam
Ngum reservoir are several, and can be divided into four main aspects: legislation, economic,
social and technical aspects.

a) Legislation

Various conventional systems have been implemented in the management of the

fisheries in the past, but without much success. The management system has been shifted
from one to another, starting with the total centralized management system (Government
Food Supply Company), cooperatives (Nam Ngum Fisheries Projects), and finally leasing
system (Fish Dealer Company). The administration and management responsibilities of the
reservoir have been initially given to the local authorities (provinces, districts). However, no
clear distinction were made between the roles, functions and responsibilities of each involved
parties, namely, the central government authorities (fisheries authority), local authorities
(provinces, districts, villages), and the private sector (fish companies, fish traders).
Jurisdictional areas and boundaries have yet to be clearly defined between the local districts
and villages covering the reservoir area.

In terms of social organization, previous development projects have tried to organize

fishers into fishing cooperatives but without much success. However, the reinforcement of
fishers organizations or communal fishers institutions is a must to protect the common fishers
interests and thus ensure their social well-beings. Specific legal rights have to be devised to
allow and promote fishing communities to establish themselves into legal organizations or
association.

Legislation on settlement right and permanent land tenure is of great vital concern as
the reservoir is suspect to increasing rate of illegal immigrants coming into the reservoir and
destroying the environment by establishing themselves in non-authorized settlement areas in
search of living.

25
 Legislation of fishing right and licenses is another important issue as there are at
present great complaints from the local fishers of the problems associated with illegal and
outside fishers coming from other areas.

Another important issue is the formulation of control and enforcement measures and
sanctions for the conservation zones and protected areas, namely the Nam Ngum fish
sanctuary and other seasonal closed areas.

Development and management plans for the Nam Ngum reservoir, both at the macro-
and micro-level, have yet to be defined and appropriately devised according to the present
government policies and strategies. An urgent requirement is the need for the development of
a master plan for the Nam Ngum reservoir that would relate to the land use patterns and
management of fisheries activities of the adjacent communities and entities around the
reservoir.

b) Economic Aspects

Most of past failures of ineffective management and exploitation of the fisheries in

the Nam Ngum reservoir were due to the old centralized economic mechanism and revenue-
oriented practices induced by the local authorities, namely, controlled fish prices and
marketing, state sector subsidies, and taxation system. However, economic constraints still
remain even with the revised implementation of the free-market system. Monopolization of
fisheries implemented through the leasing system might be detrimental to the fisheries
resources, as well as to the fishers, if no appropriate measures are cautiously taken by the
concerned authorities, because of associated problems of over-exploitation of the fisheries
and depreciation of social welfare of the fishers. The behaviors of most intermediate fish
traders induced by the leasing system have not only led to continuous fishers low-income
from fish catch, but also caused problems of illegal fishing and by-passing or non-registered,
and therefore non-taxed, fish sale.

One of the main causes of ineffective management of the reservoir fisheries is

associated to the lack of adequate and regular administrative budget in order to ensure the
enforcement of control and regulatory functions of the fisheries authority or the fisheries
management project itself (NRMDP). Some parts of the revenue, earned by the provincial
authorities, from the annual leasing fees and taxation must be re-invested into the
management and improvement of the reservoir fisheries. Such fund would be invested for the
development of basic infrastructure and facilities of the fisheries project and also possibly for
specific local communities requiring essential government support. Future need of basic
research facilities had been identified by previous development projects that suggested
possible requirement for the establishment of a field research station for local reproduction
and restocking of indigenous fish (Mekong Secretariat, 1988). Regular funds are also
required for management and enforcement activities such as patrolling of fish sanctuaries and
fishing grounds, restocking programs, fishermen training, educational workshops, and other
administrative aspects. Financial responsibilities for the management and development of
fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir should be clearly defined and appropriately
implemented through specific budget plan.

26
 Another important economic issue is lack of appropriate rural development credit
schemes and investment in the development of infrastructure and facilities for the local
fishing and farming communities. Subsistence and landless fishers are in great needs of
credit with reasonable interest rate that would be ideally provided from the government
credit institutions such as the local “Agricultural Promotion Bank”. The main constraint
obstructing fishers to have access to such credit is often the lack of collateral. At present,
most of fishers are usually constrained to take credit from the local fish traders, in exchange
of fish sold at lower prices than at the fish landing site, to be able to purchase fishing gears
and necessary equipment. Such practice is probably one of the main causes of the continuous
fishers low-income from fish catch. Other common practice amongst the local fishers is the
formation of small groups composed of few members that would each deposit some
individual savings into the group fund in order to setup a revolving-credit fund. However, the
amount of group lending is not much that enough high to cover all fishing costs, and in
addition, such practice also induces the problem of shortage of liquid money for daily
household expenditures.

c) Social Aspects

One main constraint is the lack of detailed major plan and budget investment for the
development of basic social communal services such as health, education, access to credit,
etc. Appropriate development strategies, for both the long and short-term, should be devised
according to the potentials and prevailing resources of the communities. Priority should be to
focus first on the development of permanent villages.

The development needs of the local multiple-ethnic communities should be

cautiously identified, appropriately devised and included into the major reservoir
development plan in order of priority.

Poor and landless families in the watershed area of the reservoir are often engaged in
upland rice cultivation, cutting and burning the forest and also practicing illegal fishing.
Problem of illegal settlement also occurs especially in the conservation and protected zone as
in the area of the Nam Ngum fish sanctuary. Population migration is one main constraint that
induces problem of rapid deterioration of the environment and local resources.

d) Technical Aspects

The development of fishing communities was previously only directed toward the
improvement of fisheries such as improvement of fishing gears, fish collection, transport and
handling. However, a more integrated development approach has to be taken which should
also focus into other alternative rural activities as well. There is a lack on appropriate
technical extension and developmental works for other alternative production sectors such as
in agro-forestry, agriculture, irrigation, aquaculture, livestock, etc.

On the management aspects, there is a lack of experiences for the formulation of

fishery regulations, enforcement measures and penalty structure. The absence of an effective

27
and permanent information and monitoring system of the fisheries is also one main
constraint. Appropriate management schemes have yet to be defined for the fish marketing
sector such as leasing system, control and regulation of fish prices, taxation system. Post-
harvest procedures have to be also improved such as fish collection and handling, fish
processing and transport. Further studies have to be conducted about credit extension and
investment for the fisheries and aquaculture sectors.

2.5 Characteristics of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries

2.5.1 Fishing Craft

The type of fishing boat commonly used by the local fishers is the long planked canoe
with a flat bottom. It is locally made and assembled with three planks. The most common
size of fishing boat is between four to seven meters long. Its stability on water is satisfactory.
However, on windy days during the hard monsoon period, fishers are constrained to stay
ashore. There are two types of fishing boats used in the reservoir, namely, motorized and
paddle boat. However, motorized boats were identified to have a lower proportion than
paddle boats and consisted of only about one third or forth (Mekong Committee, 1984). The
common outboard motor being used for motorized fishing boats range from 5.5 to 12 HP and
has a long propeller-shaft about three to four meters long. It is usually called a “long-tail”
outboard motor. All of the outboard motors in use in the reservoir have to be imported and,
therefore, their cost is usually high. The average market price of an outboard motor of 5.5 HP
is about 100,000-150,000 Kip. Local fishers often face problem of high-cost of boat motor
maintenance, expensive motor spare-parts, and increasing prices of gasoline and lubricants.

2.5.2 Fishing Gears

Fishing gears used in the reservoir can be classified into two main groups, namely,
small-scale fishing gears consisting of fish traps, fish hooks, harpoons, cast nets; and large-
scale fishing gears consisting of gill nets, lift nets. However, the use of some illegal fishing
gears still is practiced in some fishing grounds of the reservoir. The most important fishing
gears are the mono-filament gill nets followed by fish hooks, traditional fish traps and lift
nets with light attraction.

a) Fish Traps

Local fish traps are mostly traditional fishing pots made from bamboo. The pots are
triangular in shape and are about 60 cm in height. The diameter of the pot mouth is about 12-
20 cm. The pots are usually baited with fish waste. Fishing pots are mainly used to catch the
catfish Mystus nemurus. However, other catfish species are also occasionally caught by this
method.

b) Fish Hooks

Hooks are used extensively in all areas of the lake. There are two methods of fishing
with fish hooks. The first is to use a bamboo stick, of about 50 centimeters long, with a hook

28
at the end. The second method is to attach fish hooks on long lines. The length of the line and
number of fish hooks used per line often vary. The most common practice is the line of about
80 meters long with approximately 60-70 hooks. Long-line fishing is one of the most
common types of fishing to be carried out in the reservoir. Fishing is done by angling or with
long lines attached to or between the trees. Angling is done using insects, larvae or trash fish
as bait. Most of fish caught by this method are mainly catfish. Main fish species caught are
Pristolepis fasciatus, Hampala macrolepidota, Mystus nemurus, Notopterus notopterus,
Channa micropeltes.

c) Harpoons

Spear fishing using harpoons is practiced all round the year. Fish are attracted at night
time with a light and are then speared. Harpoons are mostly made by the fishers themselves.
A common method is to carve a wooden arbalet with several large sticks attached and use
long sharp iron harpoon with a special lock on the extremity. The length of the harpoon is
about 50-60 centimeters long. Fishers use harpoons to spear large fish. Spear fishing also can
be done under water. Some fishers illegally use this method to catch large broodstock fish
during the nesting season in some spawning grounds. Most important fish species caught by
spear fishing are Osphronemus gouramy, Channa micropeltes, Channa striata and
Osteochilus melanopleura.

d) Cast Nets

Fishing using cast nets is mainly practiced in a limited small scale by the local
subsistence fishers in search of daily food either around the edge of the village or in some
fishing grounds where small fish species are abundant.

e) Gill Nets

Fishing by gill nets is probably the most important type of fishing gear used in the
reservoir. The nets are either set floating near the surface or bottom. The main practice is to
set the gill nets at the bottom. Fishers of the Xai Oudom village have developed a new
fishing method, acquired by the observation of snorkeling loggers, by using the help of air
pumps and tubes for diving-fishing, or in other words, setting bottom gill nets. Most of the
gill nets used by the local fishers are made with a top rope only, without float and sinkers.
The top rope is a thin nylon cord knotted into the top meshes of the net and is extended on
both sides for attachment to submerged tree trunks. However, the gill nets often drift away
and then entangle in the submerged trees. Gill nets are made of two type of fibres, namely,
mono-filament or nylon. The nylon nets have a minimum life-span of use of about one year
when the mono-filament nets have a lesser life-span of about three months. However, fishers
have more preferences for the mono-filament nets because of their greater catch efficiency.
The gill nets are made of various sizes, the smaller is approximately 2-3 meters wide and 50-
60 meters long. When the larger is of about 180 meters length and having between 30 to 50
mesh depth. The mesh sizes range from 3.5 to 14 centimeters. The most commonly used
mesh sizes are of 6, 8 and 10 centimeters. Bigger mesh sizes are also used at the confluence
of the rivers within the reservoir mainly for Morulius chrysophekadion and Puntius

29
gonionothus. Main fish species caught by floating and bottom set gill nets are, Hampala
macrolepidota, Puntioplites proctozysron, Morulius chrysophekadion, Osteochilus hasselti,
Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus, Puntius leiacanthus, Pristolepis fasciatus, Notopterus
notopterus, Puntius schwanefeldii, Puntius gonionuthus, Osteochilus melanopleura, etc.
However, two species - Morulius chrysophekadion and Mystus nemurus are only caught in
bottom set gill nets.

f) Lift Nets

Lift net fishing is mainly practiced during cold season from November to March. Fish
caught is mostly the abundant small clupeids (Corica sp.). Hand-lift net or scoop net is a
pyramid-shaped net mounted on a Y-shaped bamboo frame. The net has a surface of about
three square meters. Fishing by hand-lift net is practiced at night-time mostly during the
dark-moon nights period. The small fishes are attracted by the bright light of kerosene lamps
and caught by hand-lift nets. Several uncovered lamps are hung over the water surface on
submerged tree trunks or floating devices to form a big circle approximately 150 meters
apart. Then the fishers row from lamp to lamp, shielding each one at a time to focus the light
at one spot in the water, and start scooping fish concentrated in that spot. Use of
impermeable firecrackers is also a common practice to frighten the small fishes that swim in
a concentrated shoal into the enlightened spot on the water surface. The fisher scoops them
up at once using hand-lift nets. However, other types of small fish species are occasionally
caught as well such as Pristolepis fasciatus, Osteochilus hasselti, Puntius leiacanthus, etc.

g) Beach Seine

Use of beach seine still is practiced in some areas although it was prohibited. Seining
with a net of 10-15 meters length is carried out by local fishers mostly around islands and in
some creeks. The general practice is to encircle a patch of weeds with the net and then pull it
ashore. This method is quite harmful to fish juveniles if a small mesh size lesser than 8
centimeters is used in spawning grounds. Main fish species caught by this method are
Notopterus notopterus, Hampala macrolepidota, Puntioplites proctozysron, Puntius
leiacanthus, Pristolepis fasciatus, Puntius schwanefeldii, etc.

h) Dynamite Fishing

Fishing with dynamite though forbidden, is sometimes illegally practiced in some

fishing grounds during fish migration and spawning season. The targeted fish species are
some abundant broodstock and high-value fish such as Puntioplites proctozysron, Puntius
schwanefeldii, Kryptopterus cryptopterus.

2.5.3 Fishing Grounds

The best fishing grounds in the reservoir are the confluence of the Nam Ngum river
with the Nam Sane river which are an important seasonal fish migration route during
spawning season. Bernascek (1997) estimated that 80% of broodfish move from the reservoir
into the Nam Ngum river estuary during the period of July and August for breeding.

30
However, fishing still is practiced along the Nam Ngum estuary due to lack of enforcement
measures and not clear policies of the local authorities concerning illegal settlement of
immigrants. Fishing is practiced by fishers in the area of the Keng Noi village up to the Pak
Cha village or even until the Nam Phom estuary which is one well-known upstream tributary
of the Nam Ngum River. Fishing is also practiced in other secondary estuaries of the
reservoir. The fishing gears used are mostly gill nets, long lines, fish traps, harpoons, and
also in some cases, prohibited use of dynamite.

2.5.4 Fisheries Production

Fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir was initially documented in the early 1980’s by
a project study (Mekong Committee, 1984). The study used morpho-edaphic indices to
estimate yield levels at optimum exploitation rates, resulting in a rough estimation of a total
yield of about 1,027 tons per year. Annual fish production of the reservoir, during the period
from 1979 to 1983, was estimated as 1,472 tons or equivalent to an annual yield of 37
kilograms per hectare, increasing from an estimated 350 tons following the dam construction.

However, the conditions have in many respects changed since then mainly because of
rapid growth of the reservoir population associated with the deteriorating over-exploitation
of the fisheries resource. Singh (1990) estimated that catch rates in the Nam Ngum reservoir
had decreased from 50 kilograms per hectare in 1975 to about 20 kilograms per hectare in
1988 resulting in a total estimated fish production of some 740 tons (UNDP/FAO, 1985;
Singh, 1990). A previous survey of fish markets in the beginning of the 1980s, indicated that
around 480 tons of fish reached the Vientiane markets from the Nam Ngum reservoir through
the Government Food Supply Company, and of the total volume of fish sold freely in the
markets, about 21 per cent came from the Nam Ngum reservoir (Mekong Secretariat, 1993).
Obviously, reliable fish stock assessments are difficult to made due to the problem of under-
estimation and mis-reporting of the catch statistics often resulting because of the by-passing
catch and reluctance from the fish traders and fish dealer to cooperate in order to avoid
additional taxation surplus.

The Figure 2-3 shows the total fishery production of the Nam Ngum reservoir for the
period from 1982 to 1997. However, it should be considered that the total volume of fish
caught, beside the directly fish marketed by the fishers, also include fish caught from illegal
fishing and fish caught for subsistence consumption purposes. The total amount of fish catch
from illegal fishing would be, obviously, impossible to record as well as the volume of fish
directly consumed by the households. The total fish production shown in Figure 2-3 And also
in Table A-5 (Appendix A) is mainly based on fish sales reports recorded at the main fish
landings of the reservoir. Other non-registered sources of fish landings might make up an
even larger volume of total fish production from the reservoir. No data and information on
fish production of the reservoir was available for the period from 1971 to 1981 as they were
any record yet at that time.

The main fish stocks exploited are various cyprinids (Hampala macrolepidota,
Hampala dispar, Puntioplites proctozysron, Pristolepis fasciatus, Morulius
chrysophekadion, Osteochilus melanopleura, Osteochilus hasselti, Amblyrhynchichthys

31
truncatus, Puntius schwanefeldi), catfish and snakehead (Mystus nemurus, Channa
micropeltes), featherbacks (Notopterus notopterus, Notopterus chitala), Osphronemus
goramy, and small clupeids (Corica sp.).

900
800
Fish Production (Tons)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997
Years

Figure 2-3 Fishery Production of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1982-1997)

32
2.3. National Fisheries Development Policies

2.3.1 Present Fisheries Development Policies

The policy towards fisheries in the Lao PDR is guided by the “new economic
mechanism”, a market-oriented economic policy set in a framework of broad sectoral
programs within which particular projects may be carried out. Current national agricultural
and fisheries development policies center around the following priority programs:

a) food self-sufficiency and security,

b) protection and conservation of natural resources,
c) production and local processing of cash crops and livestock for export,
d) water resources development, and
e) rural development.

The development of fisheries mainly falls within the first program. According to
officials of the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), the average per caput intake of
animal protein in the Lao PDR is 20 kg per year, of which fish currently makes up 7-8 kg,
compared to 4-6 kg coming from pork, 2-3 kg from poultry, 1-3 kg from eggs and 2-4 kg from
cattle and buffalo combined. The proportion of protein coming from fish was estimated to be
more higher for the rural areas.

However, fisheries is also seen as having potential in relation to other components of

the national agricultural policy. The potential for increasing the use of some 739,000 ha of
inland fishery resources is claimed to be considerable, both as means of increasing farm
incomes to reduce the need for shifting cultivation and as a source of export earnings. The
fishery resource of the country was estimated to be confined to the Mekong river (200,000 ha),
its tributaries (54,000 ha), lakes and reservoirs (57,000 ha), fish ponds (9,000 ha), bundled
paddy fields (418,000 ha) and about 1,000 ha of wetland swamps (Phonvisay, 1994).

The first priority fishery programs are focused on aquaculture extension and mitigation
of fish yield decline in natural water bodies. A pressing requirement was identified, by the
officials of the DLF, to be the need for technical assistance in formulation of control
regulations for fish stock exploitation in both reservoirs and rivers.

Present fisheries development strategies and actions programs are built around the
three agro-ecological zones of the country, namely: southern, central and northern zones. The
development strategy of Lao PDR regarding fisheries has been to conserve the natural
resources and develop fish farming, by pursuing a better integration of fish breeding and
raising. Priority in short, medium and long-term is to be given to reduction of declining
harvest and development of fisheries in the rivers and reservoirs as well as to fish farming in
ponds and rice fields through the establishment of primarily breeding and aquaculture
facilities based on sustainable exploitation of both indigenous and selected suitable exotic fish
species. Collectively, these actions could allow the fisheries sub-sector to increase gradually
its production figures from the current estimates.

12
 In order to achieve the above mentioned development policy and strategies,
appropriate action programs were developed by the DLF which are program oriented and are
geared towards serving long-term and sustainable development of the sub-sector. Major
research and development priorities are set by taking into the following fisheries programs:

a) aquaculture and wetlands management,

b) reservoir fisheries management,
c) aquatic resources identification and research, and
d) post-harvest technology and regulations.

2.3.2 Reservoir Fisheries Development Policies

The reservoir fisheries is increasingly important in the country. It is clearly seen by the
authorities concerned that full participation of the grassroots communities that directly depend
on the fisheries and related aquaculture is fundamental to the success and sustainability of any
fisheries development programs. It is also recognized that reservoir fisheries management is
an important integral component of rural development with significant contribution to the
overall socio-economical development in the country. The development and improvement of
living conditions of the local communities is a pre-requisite for a rational and sustainable use
of the reservoir resources. Fisheries management should form the basis for all water resources
conservation and development, including hydropower generation, irrigation, wetland
management, land reclamation, management of other aquatic wildlife and tourism. However,
the volume of research and developmental works carried out in the reservoir fisheries sub-
sector does not yet reflect the development potentials and opportunities of the sub-sector in
question.

The priority research and development activities for the reservoir fisheries sub-sector
are set into five main areas, namely improvement of basic infrastructure, institutional
strengthening, adaptive and extension research, pilot development schemes, and development
of planning and research strategies. The main requirements, based on the precedent five
priority areas, for the development of national reservoir fisheries are, 1/ establishment and
strengthening of fish stations and hatcheries, 2/ development of managerial and technical
expertise, 3/ extension methodology for alternative aquaculture development, 4/ effective
coordination and development of appropriate technical support system, 5/ establishment of an
information system for reservoir fisheries.

Concerning the Nam Ngum reservoir, the government authorities (MAF) recognized
the reservoir as a unique national natural resource that has great potential for development and
also could serve as a good model of environment and resource conservation. The general
policy and strategies aim for the improvement of living conditions of the local population and
primarily focus on how to ensure self-sufficiency and food security of the local communities.
The development of fishing communities in the Nam Ngum reservoir has been recognized to
be fundamental to solve the present problem of environment degradation, and protection of
aquatic and fishery resources for the short and long-term. Pressing requirement to remediate
the present situation in the Nam Ngum reservoir has been identified as the re-establishment
and implementation of the existing fishery legislation, instructions and regulations in

13
coordination with all involved and concerned parties ranging from the local authorities up to
the central agencies.

14
2.4 Management System of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries

2.4.1. Historical Development

Some pre-impoundment studies were conducted prior to the initial construction of the
Nam Ngum dam. Pantulu (1969) noted that there was no important commercial fisheries
exploitation existing above or below the dam site on the Nam Ngum river prior
impoundment. Nevertheless, Pantulu (1969) initially suggested several management options
for the future exploitation of fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir as following:

1. The reservoir could be leased out to a private entrepreneur, on a highest basis,

who would be responsible for bringing in fishers, organizing fishing and
transporting the catch, but would have to enforce strictly the regulations
formulated by the reservoir authority.
2. The fishery authority could organize the exploitation of the reservoir by selecting
and licensing fishers, providing them with proper gear and craft, and marketing
the fish.
3. Another alternative would be for the authority to initially select the fishers and
organize a cooperative or cooperative of fishers to exploit the lake. This
cooperative, through loans obtained from banks or the fishery authority, would
invest in the purchase of nets, boats, transportation facilities, etc.

However, Pantulu (1969) also mentioned some problems and constraints that could be
associated and result from the above three options. The first option of leasing system was
predicted to lead to over fishing problems and degradation of the fisheries resource if no
effective governmental control would be enforced, and also would result in the exploitation
falling into highly profit minded people. The second option of establishment of fishing
license system seemed to be the most profitable option for the both side of fishers and
government authorities, however, the government would have to born all expenditures for the
maintenance of equipment and also arrange the procedures of marketing fish. In the third
option of establishment of fishing cooperative, the cooperative would have to reimburse the
loans and facilities provided by the authorities by paying a specified part of its profits.

The fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir began to gradually develop a few years after
the completion of the hydropower dam in 1971. On its creation, the reservoir became an
important source of fish, as food and income, for most of the population of the Vientiane
Province and neighboring areas.

In 1978, the Government of Netherlands under the auspices of the Mekong

Committee had funded a project called "Development and Management of Fisheries in the
Nam Ngum Reservoir".

The project supported:

1
• The development of the infrastructure facilities such as the project offices, the floating
fish landing platform, an ice plant, a machinery repair workshop, laboratory building, a
road from the dam site up to the project headquarters,
• The provision of an insulated van for the transport of fish to Vientiane, fishing nets and
outboard engines,
• The training of selected fishers in fishing techniques and maintenance craft and gear,
• The baseline survey on the living conditions of fishing communities,
• The biological research on the limnology and fish population of the Nam Ngum reservoir.

Six years after the end of the Netherlands project, in 1981, another project of the
Mekong Committee called the project for "Development of Fishermen Communities in the
Nam Ngum Reservoir", which was funded by the Swiss Government, began in January 1988.
The development objectives of the project were 1) to improve the living standards and
develop the fishing communities in the Nam Ngum basin, and 2) to encourage fishers to
participate in the exploitation of the resources of the reservoir at a sustainable level through
re-organization of fishing cooperatives. The project provided some basic facilities such as
two carrier boats, a three-tons capacity flake ice plant and one insulated truck for fish
collection and transportation of fish to the local markets at Thalat and Vientiane. However,
the project faced with many constraints due to complicated fish prices structure and
procedures complemented by un-competitiveness with the private sector. Most of the fish
catch by-passed the project to be sold to local fish traders at more attractive offered prices.

Since 1995 until present time, a new project funded by the Danish Government
through the Mekong River Commission is under its first phase of completion and focuses on
fish stock assessment and socio-economic survey of the fishing communities (Project for
Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Lower Mekong Basin). The Nam Ngum reservoir
being included as a component from Lao P.D.R. The general objective of this regional
project is to increase sustainable fish production from reservoirs in the Lower Mekong Basin
and to involve fishing communities around the reservoirs in the management of fisheries.
This will be achieved by strengthening the capacity of Government agencies to develop
appropriate fisheries management policies and mechanisms through which theses policies
can be implemented effectively. Major components comprise the collection of biological,
economic and social data, the training of Government personnel in fisheries monitoring and
stock assessment, and through pilot project demonstrations involving local fishing
communities. A second phase of the project was also recommended, concentrating on
implementation of models for reservoir fisheries management, developed during the first
phase of the project, using a community-based fisheries management approach.

A list of previous and present international assistance for fisheries development in the
Nam Ngum reservoir in the recent years is shown in Table 2-1.

Table 2-1 International Assistance for Fisheries Development in the Nam Ngum Reservoir

Project Organization Years Objectives

1. Development and Mekong 1978-83 Implementing specific pilot
Management of Fisheries Committee development project in the Nam

2
in Nam Ngum Reservoir (Netherlands) Ngum reservoir in order to evolve
basinwide strategy for management
and development of reservoir
fisheries
2. Development of Mekong 1988-90 Improvement of socio-economic
Fishermen Communities Committee condition of pilot fishing
in the Nam Ngum Basin (Switzerland) communities and sustainable
(Phase I) development of reservoir fisheries
3. Development of Mekong 1991-92
Fishermen Communities Committee (Same as above)
in the Nam Ngum Basin (Switzerland)
(Phase II)
4. Management of Mekong 1995-98 Sustainable high yield of reservoir
Reservoir Fisheries in the Committee fisheries under local community
Lower Mekong Basin (Denmark) agreement with government
(Phase I)
(Source: Interim Committee, 1992)

2.4.2 Development and Organization of Fishing Cooperatives

From 1979 to 1983, the government encouraged the creation of several villages into
fishing cooperatives. However, the cooperatives were not very successful because of poor
organization, lack of experience in cooperative setup, lack of services to support fishers such
as credit, fishing craft and gear and poor marketing system. Only eight villages, from a total
of 31 villages, participated in the establishment of seven fishing cooperatives (Mekong
Committee, 1984). The eight villages were located in the former Na Nam sub-district (Keo
Oudom District). In 1981, the Mekong Project (Development and Management of Fisheries
in the Nam Ngum Reservoir) conducted a survey in these eight villages and found that from a
total of 1340 full-time fishers only 443 (33%) fishers were participating in the fishing
cooperatives. However, it was also revealed by the same survey that they were in total 2351
active fishers accounting for 58% of the total population.

In 1987, the government undertook a new resettlement programs due to the large-
scale destruction of forests by the villagers around the Nam Ngum reservoir that were
practicing detrimental shifting cultivation. Villagers from the former cooperatives who were
mostly full-time fishers were therefore requested to resettle into new determined settlement
areas, which were initially planned to be established as new fishing cooperatives. The new
settlement areas, were the Xai Oudom village located in the Keo Oudom district and the
Phonsavath villages located in the Muang Hom district (now belonging to the Long Sane
district, Special Region Xaisomboune).

In 1988, a Mekong Committee’s Project for Development of Fishermen Communities

in the Nam Ngum Reservoir, funded by the Swiss Government, attempted to re-organize two
fishing villages into cooperatives. The villages were the Xai Oudom village (fishing
cooperative No 1) and the Phonsavath village (fishing cooperative No 2). Both villages were
tried to be developed as the main centers for fish collection in the reservoir in order to re-
organize fish collection, transportation and marketing of fish. However, both fishing

3
cooperatives were ceased in few years after the end of the project and do not longer exist at
the present time.

The lessons to be learned from the past failures of fishing cooperatives and previous
attempts of fishers organization in the Nam Ngum reservoir could be tentatively classified
into the following main issues:

a) Priority Strategies for Community Development

Most of previous strategies for community development had been mainly developed and
implemented by the local authorities with little prior consultation and early involvement of
the affected communities. One of the main constraints to community development was
related to the problem of consistent population re-settlement. Appropriate settlement program
for a more long-term has to be considered by the concerned authorities in order to prevent
problems associated with population growth and migration. Government support and
assistance should be first given to the permanent communities that are in real needs. Priority
development should be focused on the improvement of necessary community facilities and
services depending on the current requirements and conditions of each specific community.
One of the past failures to successful community development was related to erroneous
identification of the real potential and resources of the community. Not all communities have
potentials for the development of fisheries, and therefore, more considerations should be
addressed in the direction of developing other complementary development activities. An
alternative would be a more integrated and multi-disciplinary approach in the formulation of
development objectives with obligatory involvement of the affected or benefiting
communities.

b) Ability and Willingness for Fishers Participation

Previous experiences have shown that not all fishers and fishing communities are able or
willing to participate in fishing cooperatives or fishers organizations. The relatively low
number of fishers involved in the first fishing cooperatives was probably due to the required
criteria for enrollment. Only fishers who owned individual production means (motorized
boats and fishing gears) were able to participate in the cooperatives. This could be one
constraint restricting small-scale and subsistence fishers to participate in the fishing
cooperatives. Vital pre-requisite to organization of fishers is their own voluntary interest and
willingness to be organized. Other conditions for successful fishers participation also include
unity in common interest and cooperation between the different fishers groups. A sense of
leadership and responsibility amongst the fishers should also exist within the community.

c) Legal Framework for Organization of Fishers

Specific legal rights have to be formulated and formally introduced to allow and facilitate
fishers to organize themselves. The development and strengthening of fishers organization is
a must to ensure and protect their own interests and benefits. However, main incentive for
organizing fishing cooperatives should have been based on self-voluntary initiative of the
local fishers.

4
d) Strengthening and Self-sustaining of Fishing Cooperatives

One of the constraints to self-sustaining of fishing cooperatives was associated with the
failure to organize and manage the cooperative’s revolving fund. Complicated procedures
and lack of financial transparency within the administrative structure of the cooperatives had
led to fishers reluctance to participate in the fishing cooperatives. An attempt to solve this
problem was to give responsibilities for regular supervision and monitoring of the
cooperatives to the local authorities. However, a more effective approach would have to left
fishers who were the cooperative’s members to control and monitor their own organization
with the local and fishery authorities playing facilitating and supporting roles.

e) Fish Prices Setting and Taxation System

Main constraints, that had caused the fishing cooperatives to fail, were obviously
associated with the controlled fish prices and diverse taxation practices implied by the local
authorities. The controlled fish prices were set at government rates, which had led to un-
competitiveness of the government fishery company with the private sector. On top of that,
the implication of diverse taxation practices at both provincial and district levels also made
worst the financial situation of the cooperatives.

f) Support Services to Fishing Communities

Another constraint to fishing cooperatives was the lack of adequate government support
such as investment in community infrastructure or facilities and basic communal services
such as health and access to credit. One incentive to interest and participation of the local
villages in previous fishing cooperatives was related to the need in acquirement of cheap
fishery supply from the government company such as fuel and fishing nets.

2.4.3 Administrative Framework and Boundaries

Since the completion of the Nam Ngum dam in 1971, the reservoir was directly
managed by the authorities of the Vientiane Province as it was located in its administrative
area.The Food Supply Services of the Vientiane Province was the only agent responsible for
fish collection, handling, transport and distribution. The fisheries was organized separately
under different district authorities covering the lake. The Food Supply Services also provided
consumer goods and inputs to the fishermen at state sector prices. During that period, the
Government encouraged the establishment of seven fishing cooperatives in the former Na
Nam sub-district (Keo Oudom district, Vientiane Province).

In September 1982, the Nam Ngum Fisheries Company was established. It was in fact
a joining of the provincial services with a fisheries project (Interim Committee,1982). The
Nam Ngum Fisheries Project provided basic infrastructure facilities such as an ice factory,
workshop, supply shop and transport facilities. The fisheries company was responsible for
the complete fishery operation chain, fish production, collection and handling, transport and
distribution. The company also received the right to purchase input supply at subsidized

5
government prices. However, the situation did not improve much for the fishermen as the
fish buying prices were set at a government rate when the prices of most important
consumption goods and fishery supply were not stable. In top of that, were the problems of
diverse taxation systems that were additionally imposed by the local district authorities.

Since 1988, the Lao Government established the policy of a new economic
mechanism that relied on a more free-market system or trade liberalization. The provincial
authority had therefore opened a public auction to lease right of purchasing fish from the
Nam Ngum reservoir to the highest private bidder. A local private entrepreneur won the
leasing right and, since 1994 until present, has several times extended the annual contract.

Until 1994, The whole Nam Ngum reservoir was in the administrative zone of the
Vientiane province. Four districts covered the reservoir, namely, the district of Muang Hom,
Keo Oudom, Thoulakhom and Vang Vieng. At the present time, the whole reservoir falls into
the administrative boundaries of two respective provinces of Vientiane and Special Region
Xaisomboune. The Special Region of Xaisomboune was established in June 1994 by
dividing the old Vientiane Province into two parts. The Special Region having the same
administrative jurisdiction as a Province. In total, there are five districts and 30 villages that
cover the Nam Ngum reservoir as shown in Table A-1 (Appendix A).

In June 1995, the Lao Government has established a national project called the “Nam
Ngum Reservoir Fisheries Management Project” (NRFMP). The primary objective of the
project was directly focusing on the management of fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir and
the development of fishing communities. The project was initially under the supervision of
the authorities of Vientiane Province (Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Services).
However, in November 1996, the same project has been renamed into the “Nam Ngum
Reservoir Management and Development Project” (NRMDP). The main objectives of the
project have been revised and primarily focus on the overall management and development
of the Nam Ngum reservoir. The main project roles are as following: (a) implement long and
short-term strategic plans, policies, legislation, instructions, regulations, notices and
recommendations on the management and development of the Nam Ngum reservoir as
outlined by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF); (b) coordinate between the
different involved government agencies and local authorities of the Vientiane Province and
Special Region Xaisomboune for the elaboration and implementation of regulations,
decisions, instruction, recommendations and notices from the Department of Livestock and
Fisheries and the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; (c) survey, classify and define the
aquatic, wild life and ecological preservation areas, control and monitor fisheries in the Nam
Ngum basin and its estuaries; (d) elaborate and devise regulations for the management and
development of the Nam Ngum reservoir, experiment and promote alternative scientific and
technological knowledge to improve the development of fisheries and conservation of the
ecological environment; (e) implement international cooperation projects assigned by the
concerned departments and ministries in accordance with the government cooperation rules
and agreement principles.

The NRMD Project is under full legal function until present time and directly belong
to the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF). However, its technical direction is

6
ensured by the Department of Livestock and Fisheries (DLF) and under the responsibilities
of the Agriculture and Forestry Services of the Vientiane province in terms of administrative
aspects such as personnel, planning, budget and staff salaries. The project administrative
framework and linkages with the different government and local authorities is shown in
Table A-2 (Appendix A).

2.4.4 Human Settlement and Population

Prior to the inundation of the reservoir in 1971, there were 23 villages and about 751
households with a total population of 3,884 people located within the reservoir site (Interim
Committee, 1982). The largest part was resettled in around 10-20 kilometers south of the
dam site and along the Nam Sane river, about 15 kilometers from its confluence with the
Nam Ngum. The first evacuation took place in early 1967 and the last in 1971 when the
impoundment was started. Unfortunately, not enough studies were conducted prior and
during the dam project to assess its impacts on the socio-economic aspects of the original
communities. Resettlement programs were poorly organized and not enough living places
and land were made available at the first time. Since the creation of the reservoir, in 1971,
many people from other areas immigrated into the reservoir to take advantage of the fisheries
as well as of other local opportunities. The flow of immigrants during the first period of ten
years after the Nam Ngum impoundment is shown below in Table 2-2.

Table 2-2 Total Number of Immigrants into the Nam Ngum Reservoir from 1971 to 1980

Year Number of immigrants Percentage (%)

1971 654 8.65
1972 419 5.54
1973 406 5.37
1974 891 11.78
1975 1855 24.53
1976 1154 15.26
1977 495 6.55
1978 336 4.44
1979 474 6.27
1980 878 11.61
Total: 7562 100
(Source: Interim Committee, 1982)

The Table 2-2 shows the highest proportion of immigrants occurred during 1975 and
1976, (24.53% and 15.26%). This was probably due to the end of the civil war in 1975.

In 1981, the population increased to 9,561 people and 1,652 households living in 31
villages. It was estimated that about 48 per cent of the fishers were farmers before they
adopted fishing as an occupation (Interim Committee, 1982).

In 1997, the total population of the Nam Ngum reservoir was reported to be about
16,202 people living in five districts and 28 villages (NRMDP, 1997). The population of the

7
Nam Ngum reservoir can be classified into three main ethnic groups, namely, the Lao Loum
ethnic group (Lowland Lao), the Lao Soung ethnic group (Highland Lao) and the Lao
Theung ethnic group (Middle Lao). The Table 2-3 shows the total population of the Nam
Ngum reservoir for each district by ethnic group for the year of 1997.

Table 2-3 Total Population of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1997)

District Number Population Lao Lao Lao House- Families

of Loum Soung Theung holds
villages
1. Vang Vieng 9 6462 4800 0 1662 1012 1112
2. Thoulakhom 2 678 141 537 0 94 110
3. Keo Oudom 3 1506 1495 6 5 235 242
4. Phoune 2 608 285 0 323 107 123
5. Long Sane 12 6948 2072 4871 5 1087 1131
Total: 28 16202 8793 5414 1995 2535 2718
(Source: NRMDP, 1997)

From the Table 2-3 the Lao Loum ethnic group constituted the majority of the total
population (54.27%), followed by the Lao Soung ethnic group (33.42%) and the Lao Theung
ethnic group (12.31%).

In 1998, two more villages had been newly established meaning, therefore, a total of
30 villages are located around the Nam Ngum reservoir (see Table A-2 in Appendix A). No
information on the actual total of population for the year of 1998 was available, as the annual
population census was not yet finalized.

2.4.5 Fishing Regulations

The regulations of all fishing activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly based on
the regulation document No 567/AF issued by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
(MAF, 1995). The regulation document is composed of 39 articles, which are divided into
nine main parts as following:

Part 1 General principles on the management of fishing activities in the Nam

Ngum reservoir
Part 2 Rules for fishing activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 3 Delineation of wild life and environment reserves
Part 4 Protected fish species and reptiles in the Nam Ngum reservoir and Nam
Song estuary
Part 5 Restrictions
Part 6 Purchase and sale of fish in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 7 Fishing fees in the Nam Ngum reservoir
Part 8 Fines
Part 9 Implementation

8
 The main important fishing regulations are the establishment of gear restrictions,
protected fish species, closed areas and season, fishing license, fees and fines, and regulation
on leasing right. The restricted fishing gears are: dynamites, shot guns, poison, electro-
fishing devices, harpoons, spears, beach seine, drag nets and gears of all mesh size lower
than five centimeters. The protected fish species are: Pangasius gigas, Pangasius
sanitwongsei, Pangasius hyphothalmus, Probarbus jullieni, Wallagonia miostoma, and also
some types of aquatic animals such as the soft-shelled turtle (Amyda sp.). Fishing licenses are
to be issued only to the permanent fishers from the Nam Ngum project authorities (NRMDP).
A renewable annual fishing license will be only issued to the local population living and
having fisheries activities in the Nam Ngum reservoir. Occasional and recreational fishers
from other areas will receive only temporary authorization of fishing from the project
authorities. The temporary fishing authorization will be valid only for a limited time of
fishing and determined fishing grounds. However, the issuing of fishing licenses to the
fishers in the Nam Ngum reservoir is not a new practice. An initial attempt to establish
fishing license system was made once, by the Nam Ngum Fisheries Project (NRFMP) in May
1993, but was unfortunately discontinued. The main causes were due to the lack of
participation from the majority of fishers and the fact that the fishing licenses system was
only experimented in some selected fishing villages. The practice was to register the
motorized boats of the fishers and to setup an annual fee of some 500 Kip for the right of
fishing in the reservoir.

Although, the above fishing regulations have already been formally declared, their
effective implementation remains to be enforced. This could be done only with the support of
strong local institutions and full-participation from the fishers.

2.4.6 Fish Sanctuaries

The authorities had established one permanent and three temporary fish sanctuaries.
The fish sanctuaries are the four main rivers that are flowing into the Nam Ngum reservoir,
namely, the Nam Ngum river, Nam Song river, Nam Tou river and Nam Sane river. The
Nam Ngum estuary had been declared a permanent closed and conservation area for the
whole period of year, when the three other rivers are closed only during the fish spawning
season from May to July of each year. However, there is frequent infraction of these
regulations by the local fishers because lack of enforcement and sanction measures, and
insufficient staff and budget to patrol and monitor these areas. Another constraint is the
unclear distinction of local boundaries and area of responsibilities.

2.4.7 Fish Collection and Handling

Fish collection in the Nam Ngum reservoir is mainly done by village fish traders, who
play the role of middle traders, and receive some profits (5-10%) from their exclusive fish
sale to the fish dealer company or the local private bidder. There are, in total, 46 registered
fish traders in the Nam Ngum reservoir (NRMDP, 1998). A list of village fish traders in the
Nam Ngum reservoir is given in the Table A-3 (Appendix A). The most numerous fish
traders are from the Long Sane district (21 fish traders) and Keo Oudom district (17 fish
traders) that account for 45.65% and 36.95% of the total number of fish traders, respectively.

9
Fish collection is either directly made at the fishing villages or fishing grounds, depending on
the mutual arrangements between the fish traders and fishers. Beside collecting and
purchasing fish catch from fishers, the middle fish traders also play a significant role in
furnishing the fishers with needed fishing inputs such as fuel, fishing gears, boat spare parts
and also consumption goods. In addition, the middle fish traders also often provide credit to
fishers for buying fishing gears and equipment, mostly gill nets and fish hooks, or in some
case cash money. The fishers who received such credit have to exclusively sell their fish
catch to the moneylender or creditor who is the middle fish trader. Collection of fish catch in
most fishing villages is usually made in the morning period and then is either transported by
passenger or individual boats to the main landing sites. There are in total three authorized
fish landing sites in the Nam Ngum reservoir, namely, 1/ the main fish landing at the Nam
Ngum dam site (Keo Oudom district), 2/ fish landing site at the Tha Heua village (Vang
Vieng district), and 3/- fish landing site at the Na Pheui village (Thoulakhom district). The
whole fish catch has to be exclusively sold to the legal fish dealer company or its
representatives at the three fish landing sites. However, there are frequent cases when the
fishers by-pass their fish catch to illegal fish buyers either because of more attractive offered
fish prices or better convenience. In some cases, some fishers found more economically to
sell their fish catch to local buyers rather than transporting their fish catch to the distant
landing sites.

Concerning fish handling, most of fishers directly sell fresh their fish catch to the fish
traders without any initial preservation treatment. The fish catch is just assembled in
synthetic bags or bamboo baskets. Some crushed ice is only used by the fish traders that
could keep fresh the fish to some extent. Obviously, most of fish traders do not use yet any
containers or ice-boxes during fish collection. In most villages, ice has to be brought from the
main dam site either in form of ice blocks or ready crushed ice. At the landing sites, the fish
catch is categorized and separated by species, and only then, appropriately preserved with
crushed ice either in small containers or in wrapped up bamboo baskets before further
transportation by small trucks to the fish markets.

2.4.8 Fish Marketing, Prices and Taxation

The official regulations require that the fish prices must be negotiated and fixed based
on mutual agreement of the fishers with the fish dealer company taking into account the
fluctuation of the market fish prices, fishing seasons, fish categories and species. The Table
A-4 (Appendix A) gives the list of fish prices offered by the Nam Ngum Fish Dealer
Company in August 1998 for 18 commercial fish species and three types of processed fish
products. The fish products were mainly dried and fermented fish. The highest prices,
approximately US$ 1.25 per kilogram, were offered for Mystus wickii and Kryptopterus
apogon, and about US$ 1 per kilogram for Mystus nemurus and Wallagonia attu. The highest
price of fish product, approximately US$ 1 per kilogram, was offered for the small dried
Clupeids (Clupeichthys goniognathus). The fish prices system has been fully left to function
by the free market principles. However, the real situation is not much in favor of the fishers
side as middle fish traders have been also involved into the process and have therefore
greatly decreased the fishers bargaining power with the fish dealer. Consequently, specific
regulations have yet to be devised by the concerned authorities to appropriately control the
middle fish traders and other illegal fish market channels in order to protect the long term

10
benefit and interests of the fishers. The different interests of the three involved sectors have
to be cautiously secured, namely, the fishers as producers, the fish dealer and middle traders
as the service sector, and the fish market as final consumers. The ideal should be a fair
compromise between all those affected parties and stakeholders ranging from the fishers,
middle traders, fish dealer, consumers and up to the government authorities.

By the declared regulations, the Fish Dealer Company has full legal right to organize
the commercialization of fish from the Nam Ngum reservoir within the limits of the
Vientiane Province, Special Region Xaisomboune and Vientiane Prefecture. The fish sale
can be either made to the private or organizations sectors. The Fish Dealer Company has
eventually agreed and signed an annual leasing contract which mandates the company to pay
an annual levy of 16 million Kip (approximately US$ 4000) to be disbursed during each four
quarters of the year to the authorities of the Vientiane Province who is called the lessor and
the fish dealer company - the lessee. The lessehold is comprised of a floating fish landing
platform located at the main dam site where some facilities are available such as an access
road and electricity. The leasing contract is renewable for each year on the basis of the most
successful highest bidder and suspect to possible tariff revision by the concerned authorities
on prior mutual agreement. The lease-holder has also the responsibilities to fully comply with
the fishing regulations and other management rules and instructions as outlined by the
concerned authorities managing the Nam Ngum reservoir. The Fish Dealer Company also
has additional duty to participate in some form of donation for the restocking program of the
Nam Ngum reservoir, which is traditionally organized by the provincial authorities during
each year.

However, there are no other private bidders present to compete with the actual local
entrepreneur although the leasing contract has been publicly opened and renewed several
times since 1994. That could be explained by the fact that most of the Nam Ngum fish traders
and fishers became the inevitable permanent debtors of the Fish Dealer Company because of
the practice of credit for fishing gears and individual lending.

2.4.9 Problems and Constraints

The main problems and constraints hampering the effective management of the Nam
Ngum reservoir are several, and can be divided into four main aspects: legislation, economic,
social and technical aspects.

a) Legislation

Various conventional systems have been implemented in the management of the

fisheries in the past, but without much success. The management system has been shifted
from one to another, starting with the total centralized management system (Government
Food Supply Company), cooperatives (Nam Ngum Fisheries Projects), and finally leasing
system (Fish Dealer Company). The administration and management responsibilities of the
reservoir have been initially given to the local authorities (provinces, districts). However, no
clear distinction were made between the roles, functions and responsibilities of each involved
parties, namely, the central government authorities (fisheries authority), local authorities

11
(provinces, districts, villages), and the private sector (fish companies, fish traders).
Jurisdictional areas and boundaries have yet to be clearly defined between the local districts
and villages covering the reservoir area.

In terms of social organization, previous development projects have tried to organize

fishers into fishing cooperatives but without much success. However, the reinforcement of
fishers organizations or communal fishers institutions is a must to protect the common fishers
interests and thus ensure their social well-beings. Specific legal rights have to be devised to
allow and promote fishing communities to establish themselves into legal organizations or
association.

Legislation on settlement right and permanent land tenure is of great vital concern as
the reservoir is suspect to increasing rate of illegal immigrants coming into the reservoir and
destroying the environment by establishing themselves in non-authorized settlement areas in
search of living.

Legislation of fishing right and licenses is another important issue as there are at
present great complaints from the local fishers of the problems associated with illegal and
outside fishers coming from other areas.

Another important issue is the formulation of control and enforcement measures and
sanctions for the conservation zones and protected areas, namely the Nam Ngum fish
sanctuary and other seasonal closed areas.

Development and management plans for the Nam Ngum reservoir, both at the macro-
and micro-level, have yet to be defined and appropriately devised according to the present
government policies and strategies. An urgent requirement is the need for the development of
a master plan for the Nam Ngum reservoir that would relate to the land use patterns and
management of fisheries activities of the adjacent communities and entities around the
reservoir.

b) Economic Aspects

Most of past failures of ineffective management and exploitation of the fisheries in

the Nam Ngum reservoir were due to the old centralized economic mechanism and revenue-
oriented practices induced by the local authorities, namely, controlled fish prices and
marketing, state sector subsidies, and taxation system. However, economic constraints still
remain even with the revised implementation of the free-market system. Monopolization of
fisheries implemented through the leasing system might be detrimental to the fisheries
resources, as well as to the fishers, if no appropriate measures are cautiously taken by the
concerned authorities, because of associated problems of over-exploitation of the fisheries
and depreciation of social welfare of the fishers. The behaviors of most intermediate fish
traders induced by the leasing system have not only led to continuous fishers low-income
from fish catch, but also caused problems of illegal fishing and by-passing or non-registered,
and therefore non-taxed, fish sale.

12
 One of the main causes of ineffective management of the reservoir fisheries is
associated to the lack of adequate and regular administrative budget in order to ensure the
enforcement of control and regulatory functions of the fisheries authority or the fisheries
management project itself (NRMDP). Some parts of the revenue, earned by the provincial
authorities, from the annual leasing fees and taxation must be re-invested into the
management and improvement of the reservoir fisheries. Such fund would be invested for the
development of basic infrastructure and facilities of the fisheries project and also possibly for
specific local communities requiring essential government support. Future need of basic
research facilities had been identified by previous development projects that suggested
possible requirement for the establishment of a field research station for local reproduction
and restocking of indigenous fish (Mekong Secretariat, 1988). Regular funds are also
required for management and enforcement activities such as patrolling of fish sanctuaries and
fishing grounds, restocking programs, fishermen training, educational workshops, and other
administrative aspects. Financial responsibilities for the management and development of
fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir should be clearly defined and appropriately
implemented through specific budget plan.

Another important economic issue is lack of appropriate rural development credit

schemes and investment in the development of infrastructure and facilities for the local
fishing and farming communities. Subsistence and landless fishers are in great needs of credit
with reasonable interest rate that would be ideally provided from the government credit
institutions such as the local “Agricultural Promotion Bank”. The main constraint obstructing
fishers to have access to such credit is often the lack of collateral. At present, most of fishers
are usually constrained to take credit from the local fish traders, in exchange of fish sold at
lower prices than at the fish landing site, to be able to purchase fishing gears and necessary
equipment. Such practice is probably one of the main causes of the continuous fishers low-
income from fish catch. Other common practice amongst the local fishers is the formation of
small groups composed of few members that would each deposit some individual savings
into the group fund in order to setup a revolving-credit fund. However, the amount of group
lending is not much that enough high to cover all fishing costs, and in addition, such practice
also induces the problem of shortage of liquid money for daily household expenditures.

c) Social Aspects

One main constraint is the lack of detailed major plan and budget investment for the
development of basic social communal services such as health, education, access to credit,
etc. Appropriate development strategies, for both the long and short-term, should be devised
according to the potentials and prevailing resources of the communities. Priority should be to
focus first on the development of permanent villages.

The development needs of the local multiple-ethnic communities should be cautiously

identified, appropriately devised and included into the major reservoir development plan in
order of priority.

Poor and landless families in the watershed area of the reservoir are often engaged in
upland rice cultivation, cutting and burning the forest and also practicing illegal fishing.

13
Problem of illegal settlement also occurs especially in the conservation and protected zone as
in the area of the Nam Ngum fish sanctuary. Population migration is one main constraint that
induces problem of rapid deterioration of the environment and local resources.

d) Technical Aspects

The development of fishing communities was previously only directed toward the
improvement of fisheries such as improvement of fishing gears, fish collection, transport and
handling. However, a more integrated development approach has to be taken which should
also focus into other alternative rural activities as well. There is a lack on appropriate
technical extension and developmental works for other alternative production sectors such as
in agro-forestry, agriculture, irrigation, aquaculture, livestock, etc.

On the management aspects, there is a lack of experiences for the formulation of

fishery regulations, enforcement measures and penalty structure. The absence of an effective
and permanent information and monitoring system of the fisheries is also one main
constraint. Appropriate management schemes have yet to be defined for the fish marketing
sector such as leasing system, control and regulation of fish prices, taxation system. Post-
harvest procedures have to be also improved such as fish collection and handling, fish
processing and transport. Further studies have to be conducted about credit extension and
investment for the fisheries and aquaculture sectors.

2.5 Characteristics of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fisheries

2.5.1 Fishing Craft

The type of fishing boat commonly used by the local fishers is the long planked canoe
with a flat bottom. It is locally made and assembled with three planks. The most common
size of fishing boat is between four to seven meters long. Its stability on water is satisfactory.
However, on windy days during the hard monsoon period, fishers are constrained to stay
ashore. There are two types of fishing boats used in the reservoir, namely, motorized and
paddle boat. However, motorized boats were identified to have a lower proportion than
paddle boats and consisted of only about one third or forth (Mekong Committee, 1984). The
common outboard motor being used for motorized fishing boats range from 5.5 to 12 HP and
has a long propeller-shaft about three to four meters long. It is usually called a “long-tail”
outboard motor. All of the outboard motors in use in the reservoir have to be imported and,
therefore, their cost is usually high. The average market price of an outboard motor of 5.5 HP
is about 100,000-150,000 Kip. Local fishers often face problem of high-cost of boat motor
maintenance, expensive motor spare-parts, and increasing prices of gasoline and lubricants.

2.5.2 Fishing Gears

Fishing gears used in the reservoir can be classified into two main groups, namely,
small-scale fishing gears consisting of fish traps, fish hooks, harpoons, cast nets; and large-
scale fishing gears consisting of gill nets, lift nets. However, the use of some illegal fishing
gears still is practiced in some fishing grounds of the reservoir. The most important fishing

14
gears are the mono-filament gill nets followed by fish hooks, traditional fish traps and lift
nets with light attraction.

a) Fish Traps

Local fish traps are mostly traditional fishing pots made from bamboo. The pots are
triangular in shape and are about 60 cm in height. The diameter of the pot mouth is about 12-
20 cm. The pots are usually baited with fish waste. Fishing pots are mainly used to catch the
catfish Mystus nemurus. However, other catfish species are also occasionally caught by this
method.

b) Fish Hooks

Hooks are used extensively in all areas of the lake. There are two methods of fishing
with fish hooks. The first is to use a bamboo stick, of about 50 centimeters long, with a hook
at the end. The second method is to attach fish hooks on long lines. The length of the line and
number of fish hooks used per line often vary. The most common practice is the line of about
80 meters long with approximately 60-70 hooks. Long-line fishing is one of the most
common types of fishing to be carried out in the reservoir. Fishing is done by angling or with
long lines attached to or between the trees. Angling is done using insects, larvae or trash fish
as bait. Most of fish caught by this method are mainly catfish. Main fish species caught are
Pristolepis fasciatus, Hampala macrolepidota, Mystus nemurus, Notopterus notopterus,
Channa micropeltes.

c) Harpoons

Spear fishing using harpoons is practiced all round the year. Fish are attracted at night
time with a light and are then speared. Harpoons are mostly made by the fishers themselves.
A common method is to carve a wooden arbalet with several large sticks attached and use
long sharp iron harpoon with a special lock on the extremity. The length of the harpoon is
about 50-60 centimeters long. Fishers use harpoons to spear large fish. Spear fishing also can
be done under water. Some fishers illegally use this method to catch large broodstock fish
during the nesting season in some spawning grounds. Most important fish species caught by
spear fishing are Osphronemus gouramy, Channa micropeltes, Channa striata and
Osteochilus melanopleura.

d) Cast Nets

Fishing using cast nets is mainly practiced in a limited small scale by the local
subsistence fishers in search of daily food either around the edge of the village or in some
fishing grounds where small fish species are abundant.

e) Gill Nets

Fishing by gill nets is probably the most important type of fishing gear used in the
reservoir. The nets are either set floating near the surface or bottom. The main practice is to
set the gill nets at the bottom. Fishers of the Xai Oudom village have developed a new

15
fishing method, acquired by the observation of snorkeling loggers, by using the help of air
pumps and tubes for diving-fishing, or in other words, setting bottom gill nets. Most of the
gill nets used by the local fishers are made with a top rope only, without float and sinkers.
The top rope is a thin nylon cord knotted into the top meshes of the net and is extended on
both sides for attachment to submerged tree trunks. However, the gill nets often drift away
and then entangle in the submerged trees. Gill nets are made of two type of fibres, namely,
mono-filament or nylon. The nylon nets have a minimum life-span of use of about one year
when the mono-filament nets have a lesser life-span of about three months. However, fishers
have more preferences for the mono-filament nets because of their greater catch efficiency.
The gill nets are made of various sizes, the smaller is approximately 2-3 meters wide and 50-
60 meters long. When the larger is of about 180 meters length and having between 30 to 50
mesh depth. The mesh sizes range from 3.5 to 14 centimeters. The most commonly used
mesh sizes are of 6, 8 and 10 centimeters. Bigger mesh sizes are also used at the confluence
of the rivers within the reservoir mainly for Morulius chrysophekadion and Puntius
gonionothus. Main fish species caught by floating and bottom set gill nets are, Hampala
macrolepidota, Puntioplites proctozysron, Morulius chrysophekadion, Osteochilus hasselti,
Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus, Puntius leiacanthus, Pristolepis fasciatus, Notopterus
notopterus, Puntius schwanefeldii, Puntius gonionuthus, Osteochilus melanopleura, etc.
However, two species - Morulius chrysophekadion and Mystus nemurus are only caught in
bottom set gill nets.

f) Lift Nets

Lift net fishing is mainly practiced during cold season from November to March. Fish
caught is mostly the abundant small clupeids (Corica sp.). Hand-lift net or scoop net is a
pyramid-shaped net mounted on a Y-shaped bamboo frame. The net has a surface of about
three square meters. Fishing by hand-lift net is practiced at night-time mostly during the
dark-moon nights period. The small fishes are attracted by the bright light of kerosene lamps
and caught by hand-lift nets. Several uncovered lamps are hung over the water surface on
submerged tree trunks or floating devices to form a big circle approximately 150 meters
apart. Then the fishers row from lamp to lamp, shielding each one at a time to focus the light
at one spot in the water, and start scooping fish concentrated in that spot. Use of impermeable
firecrackers is also a common practice to frighten the small fishes that swim in a
concentrated shoal into the enlightened spot on the water surface. The fisher scoops them up
at once using hand-lift nets. However, other types of small fish species are occasionally
caught as well such as Pristolepis fasciatus, Osteochilus hasselti, Puntius leiacanthus, etc.

g) Beach Seine

Use of beach seine still is practiced in some areas although it was prohibited. Seining
with a net of 10-15 meters length is carried out by local fishers mostly around islands and in
some creeks. The general practice is to encircle a patch of weeds with the net and then pull it
ashore. This method is quite harmful to fish juveniles if a small mesh size lesser than 8
centimeters is used in spawning grounds. Main fish species caught by this method are
Notopterus notopterus, Hampala macrolepidota, Puntioplites proctozysron, Puntius
leiacanthus, Pristolepis fasciatus, Puntius schwanefeldii, etc.

16
h) Dynamite Fishing

Fishing with dynamite though forbidden, is sometimes illegally practiced in some

fishing grounds during fish migration and spawning season. The targeted fish species are
some abundant broodstock and high-value fish such as Puntioplites proctozysron, Puntius
schwanefeldii, Kryptopterus cryptopterus.

2.5.3 Fishing Grounds

The best fishing grounds in the reservoir are the confluence of the Nam Ngum river
with the Nam Sane river which are an important seasonal fish migration route during
spawning season. Bernascek (1997) estimated that 80% of broodfish move from the reservoir
into the Nam Ngum river estuary during the period of July and August for breeding.
However, fishing still is practiced along the Nam Ngum estuary due to lack of enforcement
measures and not clear policies of the local authorities concerning illegal settlement of
immigrants. Fishing is practiced by fishers in the area of the Keng Noi village up to the Pak
Cha village or even until the Nam Phom estuary which is one well-known upstream tributary
of the Nam Ngum River. Fishing is also practiced in other secondary estuaries of the
reservoir. The fishing gears used are mostly gill nets, long lines, fish traps, harpoons, and
also in some cases, prohibited use of dynamite.

2.5.4 Fisheries Production

Fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir was initially documented in the early 1980’s by
a project study (Mekong Committee, 1984). The study used morpho-edaphic indices to
estimate yield levels at optimum exploitation rates, resulting in a rough estimation of a total
yield of about 1,027 tons per year. Annual fish production of the reservoir, during the period
from 1979 to 1983, was estimated as 1,472 tons or equivalent to an annual yield of 37
kilograms per hectare, increasing from an estimated 350 tons following the dam construction.

However, the conditions have in many respects changed since then mainly because of
rapid growth of the reservoir population associated with the deteriorating over-exploitation of
the fisheries resource. Singh (1990) estimated that catch rates in the Nam Ngum reservoir
had decreased from 50 kilograms per hectare in 1975 to about 20 kilograms per hectare in
1988 resulting in a total estimated fish production of some 740 tons (UNDP/FAO, 1985;
Singh, 1990). A previous survey of fish markets in the beginning of the 1980s, indicated that
around 480 tons of fish reached the Vientiane markets from the Nam Ngum reservoir through
the Government Food Supply Company, and of the total volume of fish sold freely in the
markets, about 21 per cent came from the Nam Ngum reservoir (Mekong Secretariat, 1993).
Obviously, reliable fish stock assessments are difficult to made due to the problem of under-
estimation and mis-reporting of the catch statistics often resulting because of the by-passing
catch and reluctance from the fish traders and fish dealer to cooperate in order to avoid
additional taxation surplus.

17
 The Figure 2-3 shows the total fishery production of the Nam Ngum reservoir for the
period from 1982 to 1997. However, it should be considered that the total volume of fish
caught, beside the directly fish marketed by the fishers, also include fish caught from illegal
fishing and fish caught for subsistence consumption purposes. The total amount of fish catch
from illegal fishing would be, obviously, impossible to record as well as the volume of fish
directly consumed by the households. The total fish production shown in Figure 2-3 And also
in Table A-5 (Appendix A) is mainly based on fish sales reports recorded at the main fish
landings of the reservoir. Other non-registered sources of fish landings might make up an
even larger volume of total fish production from the reservoir. No data and information on
fish production of the reservoir was available for the period from 1971 to 1981 as they were
any record yet at that time.

The main fish stocks exploited are various cyprinids (Hampala macrolepidota,
Hampala dispar, Puntioplites proctozysron, Pristolepis fasciatus, Morulius chrysophekadion,
Osteochilus melanopleura, Osteochilus hasselti, Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus, Puntius
schwanefeldi), catfish and snakehead (Mystus nemurus, Channa micropeltes), featherbacks
(Notopterus notopterus, Notopterus chitala), Osphronemus goramy, and small clupeids
(Corica sp.).

900
800
Fish Production (Tons)

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

Years

Figure 2-3 Fishery Production of the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1982-1997)

18
 3. Methodology

3.1 Study Area

The study was carried out in two villages located near the most important fishing
grounds of the Nam Ngum reservoir or adjacent to the confluence between the Nam Ngum
and Nam Sane rivers. The two villages were: Phonsavath village which belongs to the Long
Sane district (Special Region Xaisomboune) and Xai Oudom village which belongs to the
Keo Oudom district (Vientiane province). Most of fishers from both villages fish in the
fishing grounds of the Nam Ngum estuary although it has been closed and declared as the
main fish sanctuary and conservation area for the Nam Ngum reservoir. By jurisdiction, the
fish sanctuary falls into the administrative boundaries of the Long Sane district which in turn
belongs to the province authorities of the Special Region Xaisomboune. The two villages are
adjacent fishing communities sharing more or less the same fishing ground. The figure A-8
(Appendix B) shows the location of the villages surveyed.

3.2 Sample Design

Two villages were selected for the study: the first village (Phonsavath) represented a
mixed community which was composed of two ethnic groups (Lao Loum and Lao Soung)
and the second village (Xai Oudom) represented an uniform community which was
composed of a single ethnic group (Lao Loum). Both villages were representatives of main
fishing communities of the Nam Ngum reservoir. The sample size was selected based on a
total population of 1,804 people for 95% confidence level (Arkin and Colton, Tables for
Statisticians). A sample size of 150 fishers households was assumed to be adequate for the
study. In details, 100 fishers households (50 Lao Loum households and 50 Lao Soung
households) were surveyed for the Phonsavath village and another 50 Lao Loum fishers
households for the Xai Oudom village.

The Fishers households to be interviewed were selected based on the unit structure of
the villages. Both villages were actually composed of several units or groups of households.
However, not all units were inhabited by fishers. Only the fishers units were selected for the
survey. The criteria to select fishers or household heads to be interviewed was focused on
fishing being either a full-time or part-time occupation and the belonging ethnic group.
However, subsistence and occasional fishers were also included in the survey. A preliminary
list of fishers to be interviewed was prepared with the village head and chief of each unit.
The households survey in the Phonsavath village was conducted in 8 units (of 13 units),
when the households survey in the Xai Oudom village was conducted in all its 9 units. The
lower unit coverage in the Phonsavath village was associated with fishers absence due to the
fishing season as most local fishers temporary migrated to fishing camps.

3.3 Data Collection Techniques

Data for the present study was collected from May to September 1998. The Figure 3-
1 shows the flow chart and general procedures of the study methodology. Preliminary

33
collection and review of available secondary data related to the study was done in order to
identify the required primary data to be further collected in the field survey. A tentative set of
questionnaires for the village and household levels was initially devised and pre-tested
during reconnaissance field visits to the target villages. The questionnaires were accordingly
revised and practiced with the field assistants.

Practical method of Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems (Pido et al.,

1996) was used in relevant part of the field survey. A combination of different formal and
informal interviews was conducted using additional matrices, checklist and structured
questionnaires (Appendix B). Matrices and checklist were used to collect data and
information during the interviews with the village heads. Informal interviews or group
discussion were conducted with village key informants, namely, elders, experienced fishers,
committee members, former fishing cooperative members, fish traders. More formal
interviews were mainly conducted with fishery officers of the Nam Ngum Fisheries Project
(NRMDP).

3.3.1. Collection of Secondary Data

Relevant secondary data and information from various official sources were collected
to support the study such as project documents, annual reports, fisheries statistics, official
regulation documents, topographical and administrative maps, grey literature, journal
articles, etc. The secondary data to be collected were divided into three main categories such
as bio-physical, socio-economic , and institutional categories.

Most of reports and documents on management of Nam Ngum reservoir fisheries

were gathered from the documentation center of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) and
from its counterpart Project for Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Lower Mekong
Basin. Fisheries statistics and regulation documents were mainly obtained from the Nam
Ngum Reservoir Management and Development Project (NRMDP) and the Department of
Livestock and Fisheries (DLF), Lao PDR. Maps were acquired from the Department of
Cartography, Lao PDR. Relevant books, grey literature and journal articles were mainly
consulted from the AIT library.

3.3.2. Collection of Primary Data

Primary data were collected from field survey using both methods of formal and
informal interviews with household heads and key informants and structured questionnaires.
Informal group discussion with different key informants as well as field observations and
field visits were also conducted during the fieldwork. A set of preliminary questionnaires
was prepared each for the village and household levels (Appendix B). The first set of
developed questionnaires were also tested in the field during reconnaissance survey and
accordingly revised.
COLLECTION/REVIEW
OF SECONDARY DATA
Sources:
MRC, PMRF, NRMDP,DLF

34
 COLLECTION OF
PRIMARY DATA

RAPID APPRAISAL OF FISHERIES

MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
(RAFMS)

Key Informant Interviews

Reconnaissance Surveys/Field Visits
Village Questionnaires/Checklist
Informal Group Discussions

FISHERS HOUSEHOLDS
SURVEY

Anonymous Questionnaires
Household Head Interviews

DATA PROCESSING
AND ANALYSIS

Database ACCESS
Statistical Package SPSS

Figure 3-1 Flow Diagram of the Study Methodology

3.3.3 Rapid Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems

35
 Practical methods of rapid appraisal of fisheries management systems or RAFMS
(Pido et al., 1996) were used to develop various guidelines for conducting interviews with
key informants, such as government and fishery officers, district and village authorities.

Information on socio-economic aspects of the fishing communities were collected at

the village level such as the general bio-physical environment, socio-cultural profile, local
organization structure and functioning, land use, production system, fishery activities, living
conditions of the community, community facilities and services, etc.

The procedures of RAFMS used during the field activities followed general steps as
following:

1. Preparatory activities
2. Reconnaissance survey
3. Field data collection
4. Preliminary analysis of data
5. Organization of initial results
6. Data validation
7. Final report writing

Matrices and checklist were also used to collect relevant variables and parameters of
the main six group of attributes, namely, (1) bio-physical and technical attributes, (2) market
attributes, (3) fishers, stakeholders and community attributes, (4) fishers, community,
institutional and organization arrangements, (5) external institutional and organizational
arrangements, and (6) exogenous factors.

3.3.4 Fishers Household Survey

In total, 150 fishers households were surveyed using a set of questionnaires

pertaining to fisheries activities. The questionnaire was developed to assess the household
structure, education level, main and secondary types of activities, ownership and types of
land use, ownership of livestock, ownership of fishing gears, household activities related to
fisheries, household income and expenditures, and attitudes of the fishers in regard to
management issues of fisheries related to the study. The questionnaire was translated into
Lao and pre-tested during a reconnaissance survey in the target village. The questionnaire
was accordingly revised and preliminary practiced with the field assistants before to start the
field survey. Individual interviews were mainly conducted with the heads of the sample
households using the set of prepared questionnaires. However, in case of absence, the
household heads were replaced by their spouses or any members of the family having
sufficient knowledge of the household activities. A brief introduction to explain the purpose
and objectives of the interview was first done to ease the interviewee. The household
interviews were anonymously conducted as the fishers are usually reluctant to give details on
fishing gears assets and fish catch. The household income earnings from fishing were
estimated using the monthly average fish catch of the household and at-village-gate average
fish buying prices.

36
3.4 Data Processing and Analysis

Raw field data were entered into a database using the database software Access and
analyzed by the standard software package SPPS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).
Common statistical tools such as percentage, mean, frequencies and standard deviation were
extensively used for the data analysis.

37
 4. Results

4.1. Socio-economic Background of the Study Area

4.1.1. Demography

a) Phonsavath village

The Phonsavath village was established in 1984 and has, at the present time, a total
population of 1,063 people, with 544 men (51.18%) and 519 women (48.82%). The village is
composed of two main ethnic groups, namely, Lao Loum and Lao Soung. In the Table 4-1 is
shown the population structure, number of households and families of the Phonsavath village
for each ethnic group.

Table 4-1 Population by Ethnicity of the Phonsavath Village (1998)

Ethnic group Population Households Families

1. Lao Loum 590 91 96
2. Lao Soung 473 74 79
Total: 1063 165 175

The Lao Loum ethnic group represented the major proportion of the total population
(55.50%), when the Lao Soung ethnic group accounted for 44.50% of the total population. The
village is divided into 13 units, each unit is composed of several neighboring households and
has one unit head that is under function of the village heads.

The majority of Lao Loum respondents came from the Luang Phrabang province
(34%), Thalat village (12%), Xieng Khouang province (10%), Vientiane prefecture (8%), and
Thoulakhom district (6%). Evacuees from the former fishermen cooperatives and old residents
only accounted for four per cent and six per cent, respectively.

The majority of Lao Soung respondents came from the Xieng Khouang province
(50%), Phou Houat village (22%), Keng Noi village (12%), and from the former fishermen
cooperative No 3 (8%).

b) Xai Oudom village

The Xai Oudom village has a total population of 741 people, with 368 men (49.66%)
and 373 women (50.34%). The village is a compact community only composed of Lao Loum.
The majority of the villagers were former fishermen that resettled to the present village after
the collapse of previous fishermen cooperatives. There were initially about 21 fishermen
families during the first year of establishment of the village in 1987. At present, the village has
in total 124 households and families. The village is divided into 9 units.

The respondents who came from the former fishermen cooperative villages composed
the highest proportion of the majority (36%) followed by the respondents from the Vientiane

33
prefecture (16%), Vang Vieng district (14%), Phou Khao Kham village (6%), Savannakhet
province (6%), Borikhamxai province (4%), Thalat village (4%), and old residents (4%).

The Table 4-2 shows the average years of residency of all respondents for both
Phonsavath and Xai Oudom villages. It was found that the Lao Loum respondents from both
villages had greater average years of residency than the Lao Soung (12.38% and 11.66%). The
total average years for all respondents was found to be between the range from 11 to 15 years
(31.33%). The minimum years of residency were two years when the highest was 41 years.
The total average years of residency for all respondents were approximately 11 years.

Table 4-2 Average Years of Residency of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Range Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
(years) n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<5 4 8 6 12 4 8 14 9.34
6-10 19 38 21 42 17 34 57 38
11-15 13 26 14 28 20 40 47 31.33
16-20 10 20 9 18 4 8 23 15.33
>20 4 8 0 0 5 10 9 6
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
Mean 12.38 10.12 11.66 11.38
SD 6.56 4.50 5.83 5.63
Min 4 2 2 2
Max 41 18 31 41
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation, Min = minimum, Max =
maximum.

4.1.2. Community Services and Facilities

a) Phonsavath village

By the consequences of increasing population, the village has been partly divided into
a new adjacent village (Phonsa-ad village). The Phonsavath village is considered as a strategic
development community by the province and district authorities. Special district
representatives and volunteers are directly positioned in the area in the neighboring village of
Phonsa-ad. Their functions are primarily focused on all development fields such as health,
education, agriculture, irrigation, forestry, etc. On the top of that, specific attention are given
to social security issue as the community is located in a sensitive strategic area where
resettlement problem and basic improvement of living conditions of the multiple-ethnic local
population are of main concern.

The village has some communal services and facilities such as an electricity generator
that provides electricity for lighting at night approximately 4-5 hours, primary and secondary
schools, two drugstores, one small local market, several retailer-shops, one main landing port,

34
one battery recharging shop, one fuel service shop. Hygienic potable water is of main concern
in the community as water wells are difficult to dig because of the high landscape and lack of
underground water source. Water for domestic use is mainly from the reservoir and possible
contamination may occur in the future if no serious measures are taken.

b) Xai Oudom village

The village has received some funds from a previous fisheries development project to
build some basic facilities such as a medical dispensary, an office quarter, a primary school
and one communal well (Development of Fishermen Communities Project, 1990). Some
foreign development agencies had contributed support fund for education purpose that has
been used to build a new secondary school in the village. Another development project has
equipped the medical dispensary with a solar-cell electricity generator. It can be seen that most
of funds for the development of the community are mainly in form of external donation or
aids. The village rarely receives any development funds either from the province or district
authorities as such funds are extremely scarce. However, the village received some donation in
form of rice from the district social welfare authorities to help the villagers during one difficult
season. The village committee had therefore used that donation to sale it to the villagers at low
prices and collects some money for the establishment of some revolving funds. By this
practice, the village committee could collect a substantial amount of five million Kip. That
fund was locally called by the village committee as the “rice account” and was mainly used for
communal purposes. Beside of such fund, some monthly fees are also being collected by the
village authority from the fish traders (1500 Kip/month) and from passenger boat owners
(2000 Kip/month) in order to supplement the communal fund.

In terms of social services, the village has one permanent medical practitioner, one
trained veterinarian, primary and secondary level teachers and some village volunteers in
some development fields such as health and education. One private rice mill is functioning in
the village during harvest seasons. There is not yet developed market as the community is of
medium size, but only some small retailer-shops. There is no substantial problem of potable
water in the community as enough water wells are available. However, some parts of the small
hamlet called “Ban Noi” still use water from the reservoir for domestic purpose. By
topography, the village is divided into two, small and large, hamlets.

4.1.3. Means of Communication

a) Phonsavath village

The village is located on the eastern edge of the reservoir and is connected by
navigation route with two main landing sites. The first connected landing site is the Tha Heua
village where there is a communication road to the Long Sane district, municipality of the
Special Region Xaisomboune (equivalent to the province level). The second is the main
landing at the Nam Ngum dam site. There are many passenger boats traveling to both
directions several times per day. The village is also directly connected to the Long Sane
district (Xieng Mee village) by an off-road, but only practicable during the dry season.

b) Xai Oudom village

35
 The village is located on the central edge of the reservoir and because of its isolated
location, the only way of communication with outside can only be made through local
passenger boats as there are any communication roads. The village has in total six passenger
boats from which only four run approximately twice per week. There is only one daily round-
trip from the village to the main dam site and backward. The passenger boat usually left the
village at around 11 a.m. after that the collection and purchase of fish catch was made by the
local fish traders from the fishermen. The boat with the wholesale of fish usually reaches the
main landing at the dam site around noon where the fish traders sell the whole fish catch to the
fish dealer company. The passenger boat then returns back to the village at around 1 p.m. with
different purchase orders for the villagers which are mainly composed of rice, food, fish gears,
boat spare parts, recharged batteries, crushed or block ice and fuel.

4.1.4 Local Institution and Organizations

a) Phonsavath village

The village authority is composed of a permanent village head supported by two

deputy. One deputy is the representative of the Lao Soung or Hmong ethnic group as the
village is mainly composed of two ethnic groups (Lao Loum and Lao Soung). There is also a
village committee, which is composed of village elders and tribal patriarchs. The village
committee has the primary function to advice and support the village heads beside of the
province and district authorities.

The main important and influent mass organizations present in the community are the
party members’ organization, youth organization, women and labor federations, and traders
association. On cultural aspects, there is one Buddhist temple that offices in the village.
Neither fishermen association nor fishing groups is present in the village after the collapse of
the former fishermen cooperative (Cooperative No 2).

Most fishermen often rely on the village heads and committee to solve any of their
individual problems or conflicts. The most frequent type of fishermen conflict occurring in the
village is stealing of fishing nets and other gears together with the fish catch. Arbitrary role is
often conducted by the village head himself or, in case of his absence, by his deputy or
committee’s members. The problem-solving is mainly based on mutual reconciliation or
negotiation of the both parties and rarely result in severe penalization. The violator is only
fined of a small sanction fee of only 5,000 Kip and has to return stolen fishing gears and catch
or its equivalent in amount. A recording of facts is made by the village head accordingly.
However, in case of complexity, an official registration of act is done by the village head and
then further addressed to the district representatives or to the judicial authorities of the
respective district or province. The later case rarely occurs as the conflict could be
contiguously solved by the village heads.

b) Xai Oudom village

The village authority is composed of one permanent village head complemented by

two deputy and supported by the village committee which was elected among the village

36
elders and honorary village members. The most important mass organizations present in the
village are the party members organization, youth organization, women and labor federations.
On social aspects, there are also two Buddhist temples that office in the community and play
great role in the improvement of social cohesion.

The decision-making and procedures to solve fishermen problems and conflicts are
well organized in the village. The village heads have long coordination experiences with the
fisheries authorities and they are also facilitated by experienced fishermen that almost came
from former fishermen cooperatives. A local “negotiation unit”, formed of seven members,
was established to solve any kind of community conflicts and has total legal arbitrary function.
The procedures of solving fishermen conflicts are almost similar with that of the Phonsavath
village. However, not many local fishermen conflicts occurred in the village, except one case
of illegal fish trader from the village that by-passed fish sale from the legal fish dealer
company. The conflict has been judiciously solved through effective coordination of the
village heads with the fishery and local authorities.

Regular village meetings are organized by the village authority at least once for each
month or every fifteenth day of the month. The meeting date has been intentionally chosen
because most of local fishermen do not go fishing in that day due to some religious tradition.
The full-moon period of the month is traditionally respected as a ritual Buddhist day and
killing of any kind of animals in that day is therefore forbidden. The main issues of the village
meeting are mainly concerned with the community day-life problems and important
communal events. Common issues of great concern are often related to farming, fishing and,
in particularly, fish cage culture.

4.1.5 Priority Community Development

a) Phonsavath village

Two important development programs are being implemented in the village by the
district authorities. The first priority program is the construction of irrigation facilities (small
irrigation reservoirs) for cultivated lands in three streamlet areas, namely, Houei Saga, Houei
Pakang, and Houei Phan. The second is an agricultural development program that received
credit support from the agricultural promotion bank of the Long Sane district. The credit is
being used to promote livestock raising (pigs) and cultivation of economic fruits such as
watermelon, oranges, rambutan, lemon, banana, etc. in the area of Houei Sen Tao.

The priority development plans of the community, as outlined by the village authority,
were mainly setup for the promotion of agriculture development to reduce traditional shifting
cultivation practices. The main targets are to construct an irrigation canal for approximately 50
hectares of cultivated lands from the reservoir of Houei Phan and to promote the cultivation of
subsidiary crops such as vegetables and economic fruits. Regarding fishery, the village heads
suggested to further classify and select local fishermen willing to practice fishing as main and
secondary occupations and register them with the fisheries authority for fishing licenses.
Future plans also include negotiations with concerned authorities or local institutions to obtain
credit support for fishermen.

37
b) Xai Oudom village

Recent development programs implemented in the village were mainly concerned with
the improvement of communal facilities such as construction of schools and equipment of
medical dispensary through foreign development agencies. Any agricultural development
projects are being implemented in the village area at the moment. Only one recent group
formation of fish cage farmers was established in effort to obtain credit support from the
provincial Agricultural Promotion Bank via the fisheries project (NRMDP). However,
potentials for other promising activities, such as cattle raising, cultivation of banana trees, and
some local women handicraft, exist in the village and were identified as possible future
development targets by the village authority.

4.1.6 Land Use and Production

a) Phonsavath village

The total area for human habitat, or the community itself, is about 50 ha. The detailed
total area of exploited land is as follows: 100 ha of forest, 156 ha of cultivable land, 50 ha of
grazing lands, 32.94 ha of lowland paddy fields, 81.22 ha of upland paddy fields, and 26.28 ha
of homegarden. The total rice production for the previous year of 1997 consisted of 59.56 tons
of lowland rice (average yield 1.80 t/ha) and 78.83 tons of upland rice (average yield 0.97
t/ha). Other agricultural products are mainly secondary crops, homegarden products and fruit
trees.

b) Xai Oudom village

Although the village has not yet clearly demarcated boundaries, it has some recorded
areas of exploited lands as follows: 25 ha of forest reserve, 35 ha of re-planted forest, 200 ha
of grazing lands, 2.50 ha of lowland paddy fields (not utilized), 65 ha of upland paddy fields,
12 ha of garden (4.90 ha of banana and 7.10 ha starching roots and others), and 0.60 ha of fish
ponds. The villagers have agreed to divide the cultivated land into two main areas, namely the
pasture area and the cultivation area. the first area is adjacent to the village and total in some
200 ha of grazing lands, when the second, cultivation area, is farther next from the pasture
lands and also located along the shoreline of a small mountain valley locally called by the
villagers as “Phou Ka Lor”. Most of villagers practice upland paddy cultivation and some
small plantation complemented with traditional home gardening. No reliable record of the
total agricultural production was available. Only some estimation of a low average yield for
upland rice was recorded to be about 500 kg/ha. Low upland paddy yield was associated by
the problem of abounding rodents, while the non-usage of lowland paddy fields were due to
drought constraints and lack of irrigation. Other main agricultural products were identified as
banana, starching roots, sugar cane, kapok, homegarden vegetables, etc.

4.1.7 Livestock

a) Phonsavath village

38
 The village has considerable number of cattle herds as well as other types of livestock
as recorded as follows: 476 heads of cows, 113 heads of buffaloes, 456 heads of pigs, and
3504 heads of poultry. The large number of raised pigs is associated with the fact that pork is
one main component of staple food for the Lao Soung ethnic group living in the village.

b) Xai Oudom village

The village has good potentials for cattle raising provided that during the drought
season it can even use the resulting drawdown area along the lakeshore as pasture niches. The
village has in total 350 heads of cows, 85 heads of buffaloes, 35 heads of pigs, and 1500 heads
of poultry.

4.1.8 Aquaculture

a) Phonsavath village

Aquaculture, or more precisely fish culture, still is in the beginning formative stage for
the area. However, there were some attempts of few villagers to culture fish in ponds. In total,
only two families tried out to dig fish ponds. Two earthen ponds were dig up, size of 20 x 30
m and 20 x 50 m with approximately 1-1.50 m depth. The fish seed were bought from the
Houei Thon fish station and was mainly composed of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and
silver barb (Puntius gonionothus). The total harvest consisted of some 100-200 kg per year.

One villager, being the deputy village head himself, has attended a training in fish cage
culture at the AIT - Aquaculture Outreach Program that was organized by the Nam Ngum
Fisheries Project (NRMDP) under support from the Mekong River Commission (MRC) in
1997. However, the village location is not much suitable for fish cage culture as there is
constraint of strong waves and safety problem.

b) Xai Oudom village

There are two types of fish culture practiced in the village, namely, fish pond culture
and fish cage culture. The latter having more possibilities for further development as some
villagers have already received certain successful results. Nevertheless, trials of fish culture in
ponds should be envisaged as another alternative if suitable promises appeared.

Fish pond culture, in the Xai Oudom village, has been initially pioneered by one
affluent local villager having some individual savings and voluntarily interested to invest in
fish culture. In total, five earthen fish ponds, of a total area of about 0.60 ha, were directly
excavated by an excavating tractor hired for that purpose. The invested ponds construction
cost accounted as much as 1.20 million Kip. The ponds were located across a small local
streamlet flowing down into a shoreline creek locally known as Sok Kapou. The fish species
stocked were mainly fast-growing carps and tilapia brought by credit from the fish dealer
company. However, the farmer faced unpredictable dry up of the streamlet and the newly dug
fish ponds could not retain any water despite the wasteful efforts of the farmer to pump in
water directly from the nearby creek. At present, the farmer was restrained to re-stock fish in
cages along the lakeshore.

39
 Fish cage culture was initially practiced only by one villager at the first time and now
people engaged in this activities accounted for about 18 families. The main cultured fish
species is the well known local indigenous catfish Channa micropeltes of which seed is
available from some natural spawning grounds of the reservoir. However, other fish species
are also cultured as well such as tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), grass carps
(Ctenopharyngodon idella), mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), and snakehead (Channa striata). Fish
seed of exotic species was brought from fish hatcheries via the fish dealer and some parts from
a neighboring village (Don Na Laow). Fish seed of catfishes and tilapia was available from
some local spawning grounds. Local reproduction or artificial breeding of Channa micropeltes
is not yet practiced and have to be envisaged for further research by the concerned fishery
authority. Some fish farmers have tried to conserve some broodstock fish in order to reproduce
them, but without much success because of the fish being a highly wild and stressful species.

At present, a group of fish cage farmers was setup which is composed of 11 members
having at least one year of fish cage culture experience. The group was established in order to
apply for credit support from the provincial Agricultural Promotion Bank. Technical
supervision was done and already approved by the Nam Ngum fisheries project (NRMDP).
During the last year, in 1997, another similar group was successfully established and was
originally formed of nine members who received a total credit of 5.30 million Kip with 20%
of interest from the Agricultural Promotion Bank. The fish cage culture farmers were able to
reimburse the credit only after one culture season of about eight-month length. The Food
Conversion Ratio (FCR) was estimated to be approximately 4:1 for Channa micropeltes and
2:0.50-0.60 for tilapia. Only, one villager has been previously sent for training in fish cage
culture at the AIT - Aquaculture Outreach Program under the initiative of an MRC Project.
The local farmers expressed their interest to also participate in such kind of training if the
opportunities were available.

4.1.9 Fisheries

a) Phonsavath village

Reliable statistics of the total number of fishermen and fishing gears of the Phonsavath
village was difficult to obtain as no fishermen census or detailed survey were yet conducted
relating this matter. The fisheries authority had officially registered, in 1997, a total number of
some 217 fishermen for the whole Long Sane district (NRMDP, 1998). However, the village
heads officially registered, in July 1998, a total of 77 local fishermen of which 30 were full-
time fishermen and 47 were part-time fishermen. The relatively small number of fishermen is
probably associated with the main reason that most of fishermen tend to avoid paying
additional fees and are reluctant to register for fishing licenses. The evidently high number of
non-registered subsistence and occasional fishermen has also to be considered in order to have
an accurate figure of the real situation. Nevertheless, an initial socio-economic survey of the
local fishermen communities was being conducted by an MRC project (PMRF), but
unfortunately not yet completed, that gave to the student some rough estimation of the overall
figure of the number of fishermen and fishing gears. From the total number of 13 village units,
data and information were only available for eight units, meaning therefore that five units
were missing. The records for the eight units were as following: the number of fishermen was

40
in total 73 fishermen, of which 34 were full-time fishermen and 39 were part-time fishermen.
The total number of fishing gears by types is as following: 47 motorized boats, 12 paddle
boats, 144 gillnets, 235 fish traps. Not enough reliable data were recorded for the number of
fish hooks and lines, cast nets, lift nets and kerosene lamps for light attraction fishing. The
number of registered fish traders was in total eight people, from which six traders were
directly purchasing fish at the village and the other two traders at the Keng Noi village.

The fishing grounds of the fishermen from Phonsavath cover a relatively wide area
starting from the surroundings of the village until the Ban Khet Sam village up to the Nam
Ngum estuary itself. The names of local fishing grounds where Phonsavath fishermen usually
go fishing are outlined as following: Sok Na Mone, Houei Pane, Houei Mude, Houei Khan
Dai, Khet Sam, Khet Haa, Keng Noi, Houei Sanen, Houei Sou, Nam Gao, Kaeng Phang,
Poung Pide, Houei Nor, Houei Duea, Poung Sata, Don Seua, Pak Cha.

Some fishermen from the Phonsavath village have the habit to left the village during
the different fishing season and stay in temporary camps near their fishing grounds. Some also
cultivate their paddy fields and homegarden at the Keng Noi village and neighboring areas.
Some fishermen have even reported to migrate up sometimes to the Pak Cha village during
abundant fishing season. One main problem for the village authorities is such seasonal
fishermen movement or migration that complicates their administrative and regulatory
function.

The fish species caught by the villagers are mainly cyprinids, catfishes, featherbacks,
and small clupeids are listed as following: Hampala macrolepidota, Hampala dispar,
Puntioplites proctozysron, Pristolepis fasciatus, Morulius chrysophekadion, Osteochilus
melanopleura, Osteochilus hasselti, Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus, Puntius schwanefeldi,
Mystus nemurus, Channa micropeltes, Notopterus notopterus, Notopterus chitala,
Osphronemus goramy, and Corica sp.

Fish processing products are traditionally made for household consumption such as
fermented fish, dried fish, and salted fish. However, drying of small Clupeids (Pa Keo) for
sale was also observed.

b) Xai Oudom village

Complete data and information on fishermen number and fishing gears for the Xai
Oudom village is better organized and well registered. The village has in total 352 fishermen,
of which 121 are full-time fishermen, 112 part-time fishermen, and 119 occasional fishermen
(NRMDP, 1998). The total number of fishing gears by types is are following: 97 motorized
boats, 56 paddle boats, 1396 gill nets, 22 cast nets, 251 fishing traps, 3626 fish hooks, and 78
kerosene lamps for light attraction fishing. The registered local fish traders are in total five
people from which four traders directly purchase fish at the village and only one fish trader at
the Keng Noi village.

Small subsistence fishermen from the Xai Oudom village usually practice fishing
within the village fishing grounds and their surroundings. However, the increasing pressure of
commercial fishery has led the fishermen to go fishing in an even larger covering area starting

41
from the Nam Tae estuary until the Nam Ngum river. The mainly frequented fishing grounds
by the Xai Oudom fishermen are as following: Keng Phou Vieng, Don E-me, Kok Bok, Khet
Haa, Hoo Nam Peub, Nam Tae, Keng Noi, Houei Sanen, Houei Sou, Nam Gao, Keng Phang,
Poung Pide, Houei Nor, Houei Deua, Poung Sata, Don Seua, Pak Cha.

Fish caught by the Xai Oudom fishermen are almost of the same species as of the
Phonsavath, except Clupeids which are being more caught by the former.

Processing of fish is mainly made for household consumption purposes in form of

traditional fermented fish (Pa Dek and Pa Som), salted fish (Pa Euab), and dried fish (Pa
Haeng). One home-made processed fish product (Pa Som) was observed to have a quite high
demand from the external markets, and therefore adequately attractive prices, but the villagers
could not be able to freely sale it outside their own local market. The fish dealer company,
claiming its legal leasing right, forced the villagers to sale such product via the company
which was purchasing it at only cheap prices if compared with the prevailing market prices.
Another important fish product is certainly the dried small Clupeids (Pa Keo Haeng) which is
abundantly caught and sale directly to the fish company.

42
4.2 Fishermen Household Survey

4.2.1 Ethnic Identification

The Lao Loum traditionally live in sedentary villages along the lakeshore and mostly
practice either fishing or rice farming as a main occupation. Secondary activities also include
home gardening, raising of livestock, making of handicraft, trading and other minor activities
as source of additional income. Few of them practice shifting cultivation. The main staple food
items are sticky rice (glutinous rice) and fermented fish. Most Lao Loum families live in
individual houses built on piles, raised from 1.5-2 m above the ground because of frequent
monsoons and possible flood. Roofing may be of split wooden shingles, corrugated galvanized
metal, split bamboo or grass thatch, in approximately decreasing order of preference. Poorer
families’ houses will be walled with split bamboo. The very poorest have bamboo house posts,
rather than sawed timber. In the society men and women have close equal status. There is
mutual division of labor where men usually are in charge of laborious household tasks such as
go fishing when women are responsible for household maintenance, cooking and bringing up
children and also doing minor homework as additional family income like weaving or making
some fish products for sale. Most of Lao Loum practice Buddhism as a religion.

The Lao Soung or also called Hmong hilltribe are mostly a traditional semi-migratory
people. They were originally migrating from the northern highlands of the country mainly
from the province of Xieng Khouang. Lao Loum people traditionally practice shifting
cultivation or slash-and-burn activities such as clearing of forest on the mountain steeps for
upland rice farming. Most of them have gradually switched to the more attractive fishing
activities. The main dietary staple food is non-glutinous rice and pork. Houses are mainly built
on ground floors. Patriarchal clans are an important structural element of Hmong culture. Men
usually have greater social status and power than women. Lao Soung people traditionally
practice spirit cult as a religion.

4.2.2. Household Composition

Among the total 150 households interviewed, most of families were headed by men.
The Table 4-3 shows the average household of the respondents size for each ethnic group. The
household average size varied between 1 to 15 members, with an average household size
consisting of approximately six members. The lowest value was found for the Lao Loum of
the Xai Oudom village (6.10); the medium value was found for the Lao Loum (6.14) and the
highest value for the Lao Soung (6.40) of the Phonsavath village. Household size ranged from
more than 1 up to 11 in all ethnic groups. The small values of standard deviation indicated a
relatively narrow distribution of the average household size in all cases.

43
Table 4-3 Average Household Size of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Ethnic group n f % Mean Min Max SD

a) Phonsavath:
Lao Loum 50 50 100 6.14 2 15 2.71
Lao Soung 50 50 100 6.40 4 11 2.19
b) Xai Oudom:
Lao Loum 50 50 100 6.10 1 15 2.63
Total: 150 150 100 6.21 1 15 2.51
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, Min = Minimum, Max = Maximum,
SD = Standard Deviation.

4.2.3. Age Structure

The Table 4-4 provides the age structure of the respondents by ethnicity in the study
area. The higher proportion of population was found in the age group of 31 to 50 for the Lao
Loum of the Xai Oudom village, between 41 to 50 for the Lao Loum and 31 to 40 for the Lao
Soung of the Phonsavath village. The youngest respondent was a Lao Loum fisherman from
the Xai Oudom village (less than 20 years) and the more numerous older (61 to 70 years) were
the Lao Soung respondents from the Phonsavath village. The highest age of respondents for all
ethnic groups was between the range from 61 to 70 years. The total age average for all
respondents was found between the range from 41 to 50 years (28.67%).

Table 4-4 Age Structure of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Age Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<20 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.67
21-30 10 20 9 18 7 14 26 17.33
31-40 8 16 19 38 15 30 42 28
41-50 17 34 11 22 15 30 43 28.67
51-60 12 24 7 14 10 20 29 19.33
61-70 3 6 4 8 2 4 9 6
>70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

4.2.4. Educational Status

The Table 4-5 gives the general figure on educational status of the respondents by
ethnicity. More or less proportion of illiteracy was found in all ethnic groups, but the most
highest proportion of illiterates (10%) was found among the Lao Soung respondents of the
Phonsavath village. The highest proportion of higher education (10%) was found among the

44
Lao Loum respondents of the Xai Oudom village. The majority of respondents received up to
primary education (52.67%).

Table 4-5 Educational Status of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Age Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Education Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
level n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Illiterate 1 2 5 10 4 8 10 6.67
Primary 32 64 20 40 27 54 79 52.67
Secondary 16 32 25 50 14 28 55 36.66
Higher 1 2 0 0 5 10 6 4
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

4.2.5. Occupational Structure

The Table 4-6 represents the occupational structure of all respondents by ethnicity. The
Lao Loum respondents, from the Phonsavath and Xai Oudom villages, had the highest
proportion of full-time fishermen (68% and 72%). While the Lao Soung respondents had the
highest proportion of part-time fishermen (60%). However, the main proportion of all
respondents was found to be composed of full-time fishermen (60%).

Table 4-6 Occupational Structure of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Occupation Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Full-time fishermen 34 68 20 40 36 72 90 60
Part-time fishermen 16 32 30 60 14 28 60 40
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100

a) Phonsavath village

The majority of Lao Loum respondents practiced full-time fishing as the main
occupation (68%). The rest of other Lao Loum respondents (32%) were involved in other
main occupations as listed as following: lowland cultivation (14%), fish trading (6%), upland
cultivation (4%), gardening (2%), retail-trading (2%) and other minor works. Supplementary
household activities of the Lao Loum respondents were as following: livestock raising (58%),
part-time fishing (32%), gardening (14%), retail-trading (12%), upland cultivation (10%),
lowland cultivation (6%), and other minor labour works.

The majority of Lao Soung respondents practiced upland cultivation as the main
occupation (48%). The rest of other Lao Soung respondents (52%) were involved in other

45
main occupations as listed as following: full-time fishing (40%), lowland cultivation (8%) and
retail-trading (4%). Supplementary household activities of the Lao Soung respondents were as
following: part-time fishing (60%), livestock raising (54%), upland cultivation (34%),
gardening (14%).

b) Xai Oudom village

The majority of respondents practiced full-time fishing as the main occupation (72%).
The rest of other respondents (28%) were involved in other main occupations as listed as
following: boat drivers (6%), teachers (6%), upland cultivation (4%), lowland cultivation
(2%), trading (2%), raising livestock (2%) and other minor works.
Supplementary secondary activities were, in order of priority, composed of gardening
(40%), livestock raising (40%), part-time fishing (28%), upland cultivation (8%), retail-trading
(4%), and minor labour work (4%).

4.2.6 Pattern of Household Income

Table 4-7 gives the average of annual household income of the respondents for each
ethnic group. The highest average household income per year (US$ 1184.34) was found for
the Lao Loum households of the Xai Oudom village. The Lao Soung households of the
Phonsavath village were found to have the lowest average household income per year (US$
741.99). The range of the average household income per year for all ethnic groups was
between a minimum of US$ 153 to a maximum of US$ 2212.50.

Table 4-7 Average of Annual Household Income of the Respondents by Ethnicity (US$)

Ethnic group Mean Minimum Maximum SD

a) Phonsavath:
Lao Loum 823.82 270 2300 422.21
Lao Soung 741.99 153 1807.50 482.25
b) Xai Oudom:
Lao Loum 1184.34 240 2212.50 550.89
SD = Standard Deviation

Table 4-8 summarizes the range of class income for all households. The Lao Soung
households of the Phonsavath village had the highest proportion (42%) of low household
income per year (less than US$ 500). The highest proportion (12%) of high household income
per year (more than US$ 2000) was found among the Lao Loum households of the Xai Oudom
village. The level of average household income per year between US$ 501 to US$ 1000 was
found for the majority (36.67%) of all ethnic groups.

46
 All average household income per year (US$) range as below:

Less than 500 = 24.67% of total number of sampling households

Between 501 to 1000 = 36.67% of total number of sampling households
Between 1001 to 1500 = 22.67% of total number of sampling households
between 1501 to 2000 = 10.66% of total number of sampling households
More than 2000 = 5.33% of total number of sampling households

Table 4-8 Household Class Income of the Respondents by Ethnicity (US$)

Class of Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

income Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<500 10 20 21 42 6 12 37 24.67
501-1000 26 52 16 32 13 26 55 36.67
1001-1500 11 22 7 14 16 32 34 22.67
1501-2000 1 2 6 12 9 18 16 10.66
>2000 2 4 0 0 6 12 8 5.33
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency

The Table A-6 (Appendix A) gives the average of annual household income of the
respondents for each ethnic group. The main source of household income for all respondents
was mainly from fish sale (87.52%) and consisted of a total average of about US$ 803 per
year. Other main sources of household income, in order of priority, were from livestock sale
(4.74%), trading (3.82%), and crop sale (1.34%).

The main sources of household income for the respondents of the Xai Oudom village
came from fish sale (91.15%), sale of livestock (2.99%), fish sale from cage culture (1.60%),
services (1.32%), and salary (1.14%).

The main sources of household income for the Lao Loum respondents of the
Phonsavath village came from fish sale (80.31%), livestock sale (8.66%), trading (7.16%), and
crop sale (18.05%).

The main sources of household income for the Lao Soung respondents of the
Phonsavath village came from fish sale (89.73%), trading (5.66%), livestock (3.20%), and
crop sale (1.41%).

The respondents of Xai Oudom village had the highest average of annual household
income (US$ 1,184.34), followed by the Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village
(US$ 823.82), and the Lao Soung respondents of the same village (US$ 741.99). By the
average level of annual household income, the different respondent groups can be ranked as
following:

47
 Lao Loum (Xai Oudom) > Lao Loum (Phonsavath) > Lao Soung (Phonsavath)

The Figure 4-1, Figure 4-2, and Figure 4-3 show the different sources and proportion
of household income of the respondents by ethnic group.

4.2.7 Pattern of household expenditures

The Table A-7 (Appendix A) shows the average of annual household expenditures of
the respondents for each ethnic group. The main types of household expenditures for all
respondents were found to be expenditures for buying rice (34.88%), followed by food
(22.51%), fuel (21.09%), fishing gears (9.54%), clothes (4.16%), medicine (3.58%), livestock
(2.74%), miscellaneous expenditures (1.30%), and agriculture (1.30%).

The average proportion of annual household expenditures for the respondents of the
Xai Oudom village was as following: rice (38.51%), fuel (25.91%), food (16.19%), fishing
gears (11.07%), clothes (3.16%), miscellaneous expenditures (1.59%), livestock (1.48%), and
agriculture (0.06%).

The average proportion of annual household expenditures for the Lao Loum
respondents of the Phonsavath village was as following: rice (32.21%), food (27.97%), fuel
(16.01%), fishing gears (8.88%), livestock (5.15%), clothes (4.56%), medicine (3.96%),
miscellaneous expenditures (0.96%), and agriculture (0.29%).

The average proportion of annual household expenditures for the Lao Soung
respondents of the Phonsavath village was as following: rice (32.62%), food (25.46%), fuel
(19.96%), fishing gears (7.99%), medicine (5.50%), clothes (5.19%), livestock (1.71%),
miscellaneous expenditures (1.25%), and agriculture (0.31%).

The total average of household expenditures for all respondents was about US$ 768
per year. The respondents of the Xai Oudom village had the highest average of household
expenditures (US$ 936.76), followed by the Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village
(US$ 752.04), and the Lao Soung respondents of the same village (US$ 614.18).

The Figure 4-4 shows the types and proportion of household expenditures for all
respondents. The Figure 4-5 shows the comparison of annual household expenditures of the
respondents for each ethnic group.

By the average level of annual household expenditures, the different respondent groups
could be ranked as following:

Lao Loum (Xai Oudom) > Lao Loum (Phonsavath) > Lao Soung (Phonsavath)

48
 Service Salary Crop sale Handicraft
1.14% 0.70% T rade
Fish culture 1.32% 0.48%
0.34%
1.60%
Wage
Livestock
0.29%
2.99%

Fish sale
91.15%

Figure 4-1 Proportion of Household Income of Xai Oudom Respondents (Lao Loum)

Crop sale
T rade Handicraft
2.21%
7.21% 0.73%
Livestock Plantation
8.72% 0.22%

Fish sale
80.90%

Figure 4-2 Proportion of Household Income of Phonsavath Respondents (Lao Loum)

Crop sale
Livestock Handicraft
1.39%
3.17% 0.80%
T rade
Plantation
5.60%
0.24%

Fish sale
88.80%

Figure 4-3 Proportion of Household Income of Phonsavath Respondents (Lao Soung)

49
 Fuel
Food
21.09%
22.51%
Rice
Fishing gears
34.88%
9.54%

Clothes
Agriculture
4.16%
0.20%
Medicine
Miscellaneous Livestock 3.58%
1.30% 2.74%

Figure 4-4 Proportion and Types of Household Expenditures of the Respondents

400

350

300
Expenditures (US$)

250

200
Lao Loum (Xai Oudom)
Lao Loum (Phonsavath)
150
Lao Soung (Phonsavath)

100

50

0
Fishing gears

Miscellaneous
Agriculture
Fuel

Medicine
Food

Clothes
Rice

Livestock

Figure 4-5 Average of Annual Household Expenditures of the Respondents by Ethnicity

50
4.2.8 Pattern of Land Use and Production

The Table 4-9 shows the pattern of land use of the respondent households for each
ethnic group. The Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village had the highest percentage
of number of people engaged in land cultivation (90%), followed by the Lao Loum
respondents of the same village (44%), and Lao Loum respondents of the Xai Oudom village
(40%), respectively. The overall picture indicated that the majority of respondents were
engaged in the cultivation of the following types of land: upland paddy fields (34.66%), home-
garden (24%), lowland paddy fields (10.66%), and plantation (2.66%).

Table 4-9 Pattern of Land Use of the Respondent Households by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Types of land use Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
None 28 56 5 10 30 60 63 42
Lowland paddy fields 10 20 4 8 2 4 16 10.66
Upland paddy fields 9 18 39 78 4 8 52 34.66
Home-garden 9 18 11 22 16 32 36 24
Plantation 1 2 3 6 0 0 4 2.66
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

The Table 4-10 represents the pattern of land ownership of the respondent households
for each ethnic group. The majority of Lao Loum respondents of the Xai Oudom village was
found to have the highest percentage of landless households (60%), followed by the Lao Loum
respondents of the Phonsavath village (56%), and Lao Soung respondents of the same village
(10%). The total proportion of landless households was 42%, meaning therefore that in total,
58% of respondent households were engaged in land cultivation. All of the land users only had
temporary right of land use as any establishment of land titles were yet organized by the
respective authorities.

Table 4-10 Pattern of Land Ownership of the Respondent Households by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Types of land ownership Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
None 28 56 5 10 30 60 63 42
Temporary use 22 44 45 90 20 40 87 58
Legally own 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

The Table 4-11 summarizes the average years of land use of the respondent households
for each ethnic group. The Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village had the highest

51
average of years of land use (5.62), followed by the Lao Loum respondents of the same village
(1.92), and the respondents of the Xai Oudom village (1.44). The total average years of land
use for all respondent was approximately of three years (2.99), while the majority of land
cultivators (36.67%) was found between the range from one to five years.

Table 4-11 Average Years of Land Use of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Range Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

(years) Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
0 28 56 5 10 30 60 63 42
1-5 17 34 22 44 16 32 55 36.67
6-10 3 6 17 34 3 6 23 15.33
>10 2 4 6 12 1 2 9 6
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
Mean 1.92 5.62 1.44 2.99
SD 3.04 3.81 2.76 3.20
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation.

The Table 4-12 shows the main types of agricultural products produced by the
respondent households for each ethnic group.

The majority of Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village was mainly
producing lowland rice (18%), upland rice (18%), home-garden vegetables (16%), fruits (4%),
and planting some economic trees (4%).

The majority of Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village was producing
upland rice (74%), cassava (18%), vegetables (14%), planting economic trees (6%), lowland
rice (4%), and banana (4%).

The majority of Xai Oudom respondents was mainly producing cassava (22%),
vegetables (10%), upland rice (8%), banana (6%), lowland rice (4%), fruits (4%), and planting
economic trees (2%).

The types of planted economic trees observed were teak and kapok. The types of fruits
were oranges, lemon, pineapple, watermelon, rambutan, tamarin, etc.

52
Table 4-12 Types of Agricultural Products Cultivated by the Respondent Households

Types of Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

agricultural
product Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Lowland rice 9 18 1 4 2 4 12 8
Upland rice 9 18 37 74 4 8 50 33.33
Vegetables 8 16 7 14 5 10 20 13.33
Cassava 1 2 9 18 11 22 21 14
Banana 0 0 2 4 3 6 5 3.33
Fruit trees 2 4 0 0 2 4 4 2.66
Economic trees 2 4 3 6 1 2 6 4
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation.

4.2.9 Ownership Pattern of Livestock

The Table 4-13 shows the ownership pattern of raised livestock of the respondent
households for each ethnic group. The respondent households of the Xai Oudom village had
the highest average of number of cows (3.14), buffaloes (1.54), and poultry (19.22). While the
Lao Soung respondent households of the Phonsavath village had the highest average number
of pigs (1.76). The overall figure represents a total average number of cows (1.56), buffaloes
(0.74), pigs (1.18), and poultry (14.91). An evident reason of the higher number of cattle in the
Xai Oudom village can be concluded because of more opportunities in pasture land, when the
higher number of raised pigs by the Lao Soung households can be explained by the fact that
pork is usually one main component of staple food for the Lao Soung ethnic group.

4.2.10 Ownership Pattern of Fishing Gears

The Table 4-14 gives the overall figure of used fishing gears of the respondent
households for each ethnic group.

The respondents of the Xai Oudom village had the highest number of motorized boats
(54), followed by the Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village (47), and the Lao
Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village (43). A relatively small number of paddle boats
was owned by the respondent households of both ethnic groups of the Phonsavath village (7),
and Xai Oudom village (5).

The Phonsavath village had the highest proportion of gill net owners from both ethnic
groups (84% for each ethnic group). When the respondents of the Xai Oudom village had a
smaller, but still substantial, proportion (76%). The most numerous gill net owners were found
between the range from six to ten gill nets which accounted for 39.33% of the total number of
all respondents.

The respondents of the Xai Oudom village had the highest proportion of fish hook
owners (40%), followed by the Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village (36%), and

53
the Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village (10%). The most numerous fish hook
owners were found between the range from 1 to 200 hooks which accounted for 15.33% of the
total number of all respondents.

The Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village had the highest proportion of
fish trap owners (24%), followed by the Lao Soung respondent of the same village (22%), and
the respondents of the Xai Oudom village (8%). The most numerous fish trap owners were
found between the range from 21 to 40 traps which accounted for 11.33% of the total number
of all respondents.

The respondents of the Xai Oudom village had the highest proportion of lamps owners
(26%), followed by the Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village (10%). The Lao
Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village did not use any lamps at all, which obviously
indicated that they were not engaged in night fishing for the small Clupeids. The most
numerous lamp owners were found between the range from 6 to 10 lamps which accounted for
7.33% of the total number of all respondents.

The total average number of fishing gears by types for all respondent households is as
following: motor boats (0.96), paddle boats (0.38), gill nets (8.76), fish hooks (75.60), fish
traps (5.49), and kerosene lamps (0.83).

54
Table 4-13 Livestock Ownership Pattern of Respondent Households by Ethnicity

Livestock Range Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

(heads) Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Cows 0 47 94 40 80 30 60 117 78
1-5 2 4 6 12 8 16 16 10.67
6-10 1 2 2 4 10 20 13 8.67
11-15 0 0 2 4 1 2 3 2
16-20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
>20 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.66
Mean 0.30 1.26 3.14 1.56
SD 1.45 3.11 6.40 3.65
Buffaloes 0 43 86 46 92 47 94 136 90.67
1-5 6 12 4 8 0 0 10 6.67
6-10 1 2 0 0 1 2 2 1.33
11-15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16-20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
>20 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 1.33
Mean 0.36 0.32 1.54 0.74
SD 1.16 1.09 7.01 3.08
Pigs 0 29 58 35 70 49 98 113 75.33
1-5 17 34 7 14 1 2 25 16.67
6-10 2 4 8 16 0 0 10 6.66
11-15 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0.67
16-20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
>20 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0.67
Mean 1.70 1.76 0.10 1.18
SD 4.48 3.48 0.71 2.89
Poultry 0 23 46 28 56 23 46 74 49.33
1-50 24 48 22 44 24 48 70 46.66
51-100 2 4 0 0 1 2 3 2
101-150 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.67
151-200 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0.67
>200 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.67
Mean 16.56 8.96 19.22 14.91
SD 31.55 13.95 37.28 27.59
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation.

55
Table 4-14 Fishing Gears Ownership Pattern of Respondent Households by Ethnicity

Fishing gears Range Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

(No) Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Motor boats 0 3 6 7 14 5 10 15 10
1 47 94 43 86 36 72 126 84
2 0 0 0 0 9 18 9 6
Mean 0.94 0.86 1.08 0.96
SD 0.24 0.35 0.53 0.37
Paddle boats 0 44 88 43 86 45 90 132 88
1 5 10 7 14 5 10 17 11.33
2 1 2 0 0 0 0 1 0.67
Mean 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.38
SD 0.40 0.35 0.30 0.35
Gill nets 0 8 16 8 16 12 24 28 18.67
1-5 9 18 13 26 5 10 27 18
6-10 18 36 24 48 17 34 59 39.33
11-15 11 22 2 4 2 4 15 10
16-20 4 8 3 6 9 18 16 10.67
>20 0 0 0 0 5 10 5 3.33
Mean 8.64 6.70 10.94 8.76
SD 5.95 5.39 10.28 7.20
Fish hooks 0 32 64 45 90 30 60 107 71.34
1-200 12 24 2 4 9 18 23 15.33
201-400 4 8 3 6 7 14 14 9.33
401-600 2 4 0 0 3 6 5 3.33
>601 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.67
Mean 79.80 22 125 75.60
SD 143.62 73.65 192.53 136.6
Fish traps 0 38 76 39 78 46 92 123 82
1-20 2 4 3 6 2 4 7 4.67
21-40 9 18 6 12 2 4 17 11.33
>40 1 2 2 4 0 0 3 2
Mean 8.00 6.98 1.50 5.49
SD 15.52 14.58 5.89 11.99
Kerosene 0 0 0 45 90 37 74 82 54.67
lamps 1-5 0 0 2 4 3 6 5 3.33
6-10 0 0 3 6 8 16 11 7.33
>11 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 1.33
Mean 0 0.40 2.10 0.83
SD 0 1.44 3.83 1.75
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation.

56
 The Table 4-15 gives the general figure of types of fishing gears ownership of the
respondents for each ethnic group. It was found that most of fishing gears were self-owned by
the fishermen for all ethnic groups and consisted of more than 50 per cent in all cases.
However, the Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village had the highest proportion of
number of fishermen who taken fishing gears by credit from the fish traders (48%). The
overall figure represents that fishing gears were self-owned by the majority of all respondents
(58%), while the another part of respondents (42%) taken their fishing gears by credit from
fish traders.

Table 4-15 Types of Fishing Gears Ownership of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Types of Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

fishing gears Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
ownership n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Self-owned fishing gears 26 52 32 64 29 58 87 58
Taken by credit from 24 48 18 36 21 42 63 42
fish traders
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

4.2.11 Pattern of Fishing Activities

The Table 4-16 shows the average years of fishing experience of the respondents for
each ethnic group of both villages. The highest average of fishing years experience was found
for the Lao Loum respondents of the Xai Oudom and Phonsavath villages and approximately
consisted of 14 and 13 years (average 13.96 and 12.76), respectively. The Lao Soung
respondents had a lower average of fishing experience of approximately nine years (average
9.28). The total average years of fishing experience for all respondents was 12 years. The
highest proportion of fishing years was found between the range of six to ten years (34.67%).
The minimum years of fishing was one year while the maximum was up to 30 years.

57
Table 4-16 Average Years of Fishing Experience of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Range Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
(years) n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<5 5 10 12 24 10 20 27 18
6-10 21 42 21 42 10 20 52 34.67
11-15 10 20 14 28 10 20 34 22.67
16-20 5 10 3 6 6 12 14 9.33
>20 9 18 0 0 14 28 23 15.33
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
Mean 12.76 9.28 13.96 12
SD 7.16 5.29 8.01 6.82
Min 4 1 2 1
Max 30 20 28 30
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation, Min = minimum, Max =
maximum.

4.3 Fishermen Attitudes and Comments

Various types of views and comments were found from the interviews with the
fishermen household heads. They were requested to express their opinions and comments on
five groups of general management issues related to: a) establishment of fishermen
association, b) fishing regulations, c) conservation of fisheries resources, d) fish collection and
fish prices, and e) village management zone and fishing boundaries.

4.3.1 Establishment of Fishermen Organization

The Table 4-17 indicates positive attitudes of the fishermen toward the establishment
of a fishermen association for both ethnic groups of Phonsavath village, Lao Loum and Lao
Soung, accounting for 86% and 76% respectively. The majority of Lao Loum respondents of
Xai Oudom village (86%) had a negative attitude toward a fishermen association, that could
be explained because of their long experiences with previous failure of fishermen cooperatives
from which they came from. Most of the Phonsavath respondents were interested to participate
into a fishermen association. The Lao Loum respondents had a positive proportion of 64%,
and the Lao Soung had a positive proportion of 60%. Their willingness to participate into a
fishermen association is mostly explained by the need of an organization that could provide
them credit support to purchase fishing gears, protect their common interests and they also
could learn and exchange fishing experiences from each other. Inversely, the majority of Xai
Oudom respondents (96%) had a negative attitude and were not interested to participate into a
fishermen association. The Xai Oudom village had a previous experience of local fishermen
cooperative that almost collapsed during some years ago.

The Table 4-17 also gives the figure of major percentages of preferences for the
establishment level, structure and classification of the fishermen association. The majority

58
(61.33%) of all respondents, from both villages, had more preference for the establishment of
a fishermen association at the village level. The majority of all respondents (32.67% and
50.67%) suggested no division of the fishermen association into fishing units and no
classification by criteria (types of fishing gears and types of fishermen). The criteria of types
of fishermen, hereabove mentioned, means full-time, part-time or occasional fishermen.

4.3.2 Fishing Regulations

The Table 4-18 gives the general figure of fishermen attitudes toward fishing
regulations. The majority of all respondents (93.33%) were well aware of the present fishing
regulations proved by their relatively regular attendance and participation in village meetings
concerning issues on fishing regulations. However, some Lao Loum respondents of the
Phonsavath village were found to be not aware of the current fishing regulations and
composed the highest proportion of unaware fishermen (12%). This could be explained
because of their consistent migration out from the village during the fishing season resulting in
their absence at the time of village meetings.

59
Table 4-17 Attitudes toward the Establishment of Fishermen Association

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Group of attitudes Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %

Establishment of fishermen
association:
Positive attitude 43 86 38 76 7 14 88 58.67
Negative attitude 7 14 12 24 43 86 62 41.33

Interested to participate 32 64 30 60 2 4 64 42.67

Not interested 18 36 20 40 48 96 86 57.33

Preferences for establishment

of fishermen association:
Village level 33 66 41 82 18 36 92 61.34
District level 7 14 5 10 2 4 14 9.33
Province level 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Reservoir level 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
No comment 10 20 4 8 30 60 44 29.33

Preferred structure of
fishermen association:
Division into fishing units 20 40 30 60 7 14 57 38
No division 20 40 16 32 13 26 49 32.67
No comment 10 20 4 8 30 60 44 29.33

Classification of fishing unit:

By type of fishing gears 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
By type of fishermen 11 22 12 24 7 14 30 20
No criteria 29 58 34 68 13 26 76 50.67
No comment 10 20 4 8 30 60 44 29.33

n = total number of samples, f = frequency

Concerning the issue on the establishment of a fishing license system, 84.67% of the
majority of all respondents declared that they would agree to comply with this regulation if
other fishermen would also agree. Or in other words, they would comply with the regulation
on fishing licenses provided if there would be unanimous support of the overall fishermen
majority. However, some Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village, who composed
the highest proportion (22%) of group 1, declared to be in total agreement with the regulation
on fishing licenses.

60
 All of the respondents of both ethnic groups were in an unanimous agreement, without
exception, to totally comply with the regulation of closed fishing season. This indicated a full
awareness of the respondent in relation to the issue of urgent need for the improvement and
conservation of the local fisheries resources.

Table 4-18 Fishermen Attitudes toward Fishing Regulations

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Group of attitudes Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %

Aware of the fishing 44 88 48 96 48 96 140 93.33

regulations
Not aware of the fishing 6 12 2 4 2 4 10 6.67
regulations

Fishing license
Group 1 11 22 4 8 2 4 17 11.33
Group 2 37 74 42 84 48 96 127 84.67
Group 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Group 4 2 4 4 8 0 0 6 4

Closed fishing season

Group 1 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
Group 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Group 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Group 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

n = total number of samples, f = frequency

Group 1 - totally agree to comply with the regulation

Group 2 - agree to comply with the regulation if other fishermen also agree
Group 3 - do not agree to comply with the regulation
Group 4 – uncertain

4.3.3 Conservation of Fisheries Resources

a) Respondents observations on fish catches

The Table 4-19 gives the overall figure of the general observations on fish catches by
the respondents of each ethnic group. The majority of all respondents (98.67%) claimed that
their fish catches have considerably decreased if compared with the past five years. Only an
insignificant proportion of respondents declared the fish catches to stay at the same level. The
latter case is probably associated with the different types of fishing gears used and their
multiple levels of different impacts.

61
Table 4-19 Respondents Observations on Fish Catches

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Group of attitudes Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %

Observation on fish catches:

Decrease of fish catches 50 100 48 96 50 100 148 98.67
Same level of fish catches 0 0 2 4 0 0 2 1.33

n = total number of samples, f = frequency

b) Views and comments on fish catches

The Table 4-20 summarizes the different views and comments of the respondents on
the issue of fish catches. Major causes of fish catch decrease and suggested solutions, by the
respondents of each ethnic group, are ranked in the Table 4-20 in respective order of priority.

Major causes of fish catch decrease were found as following: 1/ the use of
impermeable firecrackers (extensively used during light-attraction fishing of small Clupeids)
which is often associated with the use of dynamites (for occasionally attracted fish of larger
species e.g. Kryptopterus apogon), 2/ the use of shot guns and spear fishing of broodstock fish
during the nesting season, 3/ intensive commercial fishing, 4/ use of small mesh-size fishing
nets, 5/ fish migration to other fishing grounds.

Main suggestions of the respondents for solving the problems of fish catch decrease
were as following: 1/ control the number of fishermen, 2/ enforce regulation of closed season,
3/ patrolling of fish sanctuaries, 4/ collecting program of entangled gill nets, 5/ promote
alternative employment activities, 6/ establish resettlement program for illegal immigrants, 7/
establish fish restocking program.

4.3.4 Fish Collection and Fish Prices

The Table 4-21 shows the general attitudes of the respondents toward the most
preferred systems of fish collection and fish prices for each ethnic group.

The majority of all respondents (79.33%) were in favour of the fish dealer company
(leasing system), while only some minorities favoured other options of fish collection systems,
namely, individual sales (4%), government agency (3.33%),.joint venture (2%), and fishermen
cooperatives (1.33%).

Slightly more than half of the majority of all respondents (57.33%) declared the fish
prices to be relatively low and required appropriate improvement in current fish prices to be
able to cover with the increasing prices of fishing gears, fuel and main consumption goods.

62
Table 4-20 Respondents Views and Comments on Fish Catches

Fishermen views f %

a) Xai Oudom: (Lao Loum respondents)

1. Cause of fish catch decrease:

a. use of impermeable firecrackers and dynamite 44 88
b. commercial fishing 19 38
c. use of shot guns and spear fishing of broodstock fish 18 36

2. Suggestion to solve problem of fish catch decrease:

a. control the number of fishermen 39 78
b. enforce regulations during closed season 19 38
c. patrolling of fish sanctuaries 10 20

b) Phonsavath: (Lao Loum respondents)

1. Cause of fish catch decrease:

a. use of impermeable firecrackers and dynamite 24 48
b. use of shot guns and spear fishing of broodstock fish 12 24
c. use of small mesh size fishing nets 9 18

2. Suggestion to solve problem of fish catch decrease:

a. control the number of fishermen 15 30
b. collecting program of entangled gill nets 10 20
c. promote alternative employment activities 9 18

d) Phonsavath: (Lao Soung respondents)

1. Cause of fish catch decrease:

a. use of impermeable firecrackers and dynamite 31 62
b. use of shot guns and spear fishing of broodstock fish 8 16
c. fish migration to other fishing grounds 7 14

2. Suggestion to solve problem of fish catch decrease:

a. control number of fishermen 29 58
b. establish resettlement program for illegal immigrants 14 28
c. establish fish restocking program 11 22

f = frequency (number of respondents)

63
Table 4-21 Fishermen Attitudes toward Fish Collection and Fish Prices

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Group of attitudes Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %

Fish collection system:

Favor fish dealer company 42 84 37 74 40 80 119 79.33
Favor fishermen cooperative 1 2 0 0 1 2 2 1.33
Favor joint venture 0 0 0 0 3 6 3 2
Favor government agency 1 2 0 0 4 8 5 3.33
Favor individual sale 1 2 3 6 2 4 6 4
No comment 5 10 10 20 0 0 15 10

Fish prices system:

Appropriate (high) 0 0 0 0 2 4 2 1.33
Acceptable (medium) 20 40 27 54 15 30 62 41.33
Unfair (low) 30 60 23 46 33 66 86 57.33

n = total number of samples, f = frequency

4.3.5 Village Management Zone and Fishing Boundaries

The Table 4-22 represents the general attitudes of the respondents for each ethnic
group toward the establishment of a village management zone and preferred types of
stratification of the fishing boundaries of the Nam Ngum reservoir.

The majority of all respondents (78.67%) agreed toward the establishment and
legislation of village management zone and fishing boundaries. However, a significant
proportion of the same majority (21.33%) still were reluctant and disagreed toward such
establishment. Their negative attitudes could be explained because of reluctance toward
limited, and therefore reduced, fishing boundaries that would result from the establishment of
village management zones.

The majority of all respondents (42%) was in favour of a stratification of the reservoir
fishing boundaries at the district level, while 38.67% were in favour of the village level, and
only 19.33% were in favour of an open-access system.

64
Table 4-22 Fishermen Attitudes toward Village Management Zone and Stratification

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Group of attitudes Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %

Establishment and legislation

of village management zone
and fishing boundaries:
Agree 36 72 37 74 45 90 118 78.67
Disagree 14 28 13 26 5 10 32 21.33

Preferred stratification level of

fishing boundaries:
Village level 11 22 27 54 20 40 58 38.67
District level 28 56 20 40 15 30 63 42
Open access 11 22 3 6 15 30 29 19.33

n = total number of samples, f = frequency

65
 5. Discussion

Fisheries in the Nam Ngum is an open-access type of fisheries. Therefore, the

problems that inevitably occur in the reservoir are over-fishing and degradation of fishery
resources or the fish stock itself. Various attempts have been carried out in order to manage
fisheries of the Nam Ngum Reservoir in such a way that could be optimized the exploitation
of fisheries resources. Traditional fisheries regulations have been implemented such as closed
season, closed areas, and gear restrictions. The large surface area of the reservoir and
scattered landing points as well as fishing villages make effective fisheries management
difficult. The multiple-species and multiple-gear fisheries increases the complexity in
fisheries management planning. Many families fish regularly using mainly traditional fishing
gears such as gill nets, hooks and lines, fish traps and hand-lift nets with light-attraction.
However, fish catches are decreasing because proper fish stock management is not practiced,
nor are conservation rules enforced in the reservoir. Illegal fishing still is practiced in some
fishing grounds of the reservoir due to lack of effective monitoring and patrolling. There is
also a lack of institutional capacity from the side of the local fisheries authority and the
government itself could not afford the high enforcement costs. The institutional structure of
the local authorities involved in the management of the fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir
is rather complex and follows a hierarchical scheme. Several local authorities are involved in
managing the Nam Ngum reservoir both at the provincial and district levels. Development
plans for the establishment of credit, licensing and taxation systems still are in the
experimental and formative stage. A leasing system is established for commercialization of
fish from the reservoir, giving certain revenue to the local provincial authorities and
government.

The Phonsavath village was identified as a multiple-ethnic community composed of

two ethnic groups, namely the Lao Loum ethnic group (lowlanders) and the Lao Soung
ethnic group (Hmong hill tribes or highlanders). While the Xai Oudom village was a more
compact community only composed of the Lao Loum ethnic group who were mainly full-
time fishers. Different community structures and arrangements were organized for solving
problems related to fisheries issues and fishers conflicts in the two villages. The village heads
and committees of both villages played an intermediate negotiator-role for solving such
problems. However, it was observed that the district authorities were also greatly involved in
the problem-solving of fishers issues in the Phonsavath village as much fishers conflicts and
problems were occurring in this village probably due to the greater size of local population
and adjacent neighbors. The Xai Oudom village had more unanimous arrangements and
better participation from the community as the majority of local residents were mostly
experienced fishers from former fishing cooperatives. Village meetings about fisheries issues
were regularly organized in this village. The village also had a long-term relationship and
cooperation with the fishery authorities or the Nam Ngum Fisheries Project itself (NRMDP).
Fishers conflicts were observed to be scarce in this village probably due to a relatively
smaller population size of the community. Main constraints to community development of
both villages were mainly lack of communication means and basic infrastructure facilities.
The priority development plan of the Phonsavath village was mainly focusing into the
extension of irrigation system and agriculture, while the authorities of the Xai Oudom village
were mainly focusing into the development of fish cage culture and raising of cattle. The

71
Phonsavath village had better support for agricultural credit from the district authorities that
were mainly used for the construction of irrigation facilities and raising of small-livestock.
When the authorities of the Xai Oudom village were still seeking for credit from the
provincial Agricultural Promotion Bank in order to support a group of farmers practicing fish
cage culture. No specific development plans related to fisheries issues of fishers were
suggested yet by the village authorities. The only one main concern was in relation to fishing
regulations and enforcement problems.

The occupational structure of the Lao Loum respondents of both villages was almost
the same, except for the Lao Soung respondents of the Phonsavath village who were more
occupied in other activities and mainly practiced fishing as a secondary occupation. The
majority of Lao Loum respondents of the Xai Oudom village (72%) were full-time fishers,
followed by the Lao Loum respondents (68%), and the Lao Soung respondents (40%) of the
Phonsavath village. The Lao Soung respondents were in majority engaged in upland
cultivation (48%) as the main occupation, while the Lao Loum respondents of both villages
were mainly engaged in full-time fishing. This could be explained by the reason that the Lao
Soung ethnic group usually practices upland or shifting cultivation by tradition. The Lao
Soung ethnic group also has been recently established in the reservoir area. They were
originally from the highlands in Xieng Khouang, an adjacent northern province, and have
settled along the Nam Ngum river as well as along the Nam Sane river (Interim Committee,
1982). The average years of residency for the Lao Soung respondents was only about ten
years. The Lao Soung majority was found between six to ten years and only a maximum up
to 18 years of residency. When the Lao Loum groups had more higher average years of
residency slightly more than ten years and a maximum of 30 to 40 years of residency. This
was explained by the fact that some Lao Loum respondents were original residents of the
inundated villages prior to resettle in the present villages. The average of fishing years
experience of the Lao Soung respondents was found to be slightly lower than the Lao Loum
respondents and was about an average of nine years of fishing experience when the Lao
Loum respondents had an average of more than ten years and even a significant number of
Lao Loum respondents (32%) have practiced fishing in the reservoir for more than 20 years.

The respondents of the Xai Oudom village had the highest percentage of people
involved in full-time fishing (72%) and the highest average of fishing experiences
(approximately 14 years), they also were found to be better equipped with various fishing
gears ranging from motorized boats, gill nets, fish hooks and lines, and also practiced light-
attraction fishing using hand-lift nets in an extensive scale. At the second place, come the
Lao Loum respondents of the Phonsavath village whose the majority consisted 68% of full-
time fishers (68%). They also were well equipped with fishing gears at a medium level if
compared with the former group of respondents. The last group, Lao Soung respondents of
the Phonsavath village, had a lower proportion of full-time fishers (40%) and were equipped
with proper fishing gears at a lower level than the two other groups. However, it was found
that most of the Lao Soung respondents had self-owned fishing gears (64%) and only a small
proportion (36%) had taken fishing gears by credit from fish traders, while, the majority of
Lao Loum respondents of both villages were observed to have a lower proportion of self-
owners of fishing gears (about 50%) and higher proportion of people who had taken credit
for fishing gears from fish traders (slightly more than 40%). The figure indicates that the Lao
Loum groups more relied on credit for fishing gears from the fish traders which explains

72
their higher level of equipment in fishing gears and more opportunities for fishing, while, the
Lao Soung group had more relied on their own self- possessed fishing equipment and were
probably restrained by either lack of fishing experiences or were occupied by other activities
which driven their attention away from fishing.

The majority of all respondents (58.67%) had a positive attitude in relation to the
establishment of a fishers association, however, only a minority of respondents (42.67%) was
interested to participate in such organization. This would reveal an absence of fishers group
cohesion and cooperation within the communities, resulting from the collapse and failures of
former fishing cooperatives and also probably induced by the substituted leasing system and
extensive open commercial fisheries. Nevertheless, the most favoured structure of fishers
association were suggested to be established at the village level and appropriately divided
into fishing units under equal conditions for all types of fishers not depending on the types of
used fishing gears. Although, there is not much incentives for the establishment of fishers
associations, but the attitudes of the majority of respondents indicated that they still were in
need of a kind of fishers organization that would ensure and protect their legal rights and
common interests.

Significant proportion of respondents (84.67%) was in agreement to comply with the

establishment of a fishing license system provided if the regulation would receive unanimous
support from the majority of fishers. This attitude is well explained by a previous
discontinued attempt of the Nam Ngum Fisheries Project (NRFMP) to establish a licensing
system in 1993. The project has conducted a trial for the issuing of fishing licenses in some
fishing villages without prior preliminary consensus, which has resulted in a relatively low
level of participation and cooperation from the fishers. Nevertheless, another current trial for
the re-establishment of a licensing system is being implemented by the fisheries authorities
(NRMDP). However, most of respondents have claimed that they would not conform to such
regulation prior solving the problem of illegal fishers and intruders.

All of the respondents unanimously agreed to comply with the regulation of closed
fishing season without any exception. This obviously indicates that an urgent common need
is required by the local communities for the improvement and conservation of the fishery
resources. This positive attitude is also explained by the reason that both villages would
directly benefit from the regulation of closed season as their villages are located near the
most important fish sanctuary and fishing grounds of the reservoir. The majority of
respondents (98.67%) have claimed their fish catches to decrease, and therefore, suggested
immediate action by the concerned authorities. The main suggestions were guided in order to
stop illegal harmful fishing practices and solve problems of illegal immigrants as well as
illegal fishers.

Despite the majority of respondents (57.33%) have complained of low fish prices, but
they still were in favour of the actual leasing system. The proportion of respondents who
were in favour of the fish dealer company accounted for 79.33% of the majority. However,
most of respondents suggested the fish dealer to improve the fish prices according to the
prevailing market prices and increasing prices of fishery inputs, such as fishing gears, fuel,

73
spare parts, and main consumption goods such as rice which were increasing in prices due to
the local currency inflation.

Although the majority of respondents (54%) had elementary level of education, up to

the primary level, they almost had a relatively satisfactory awareness of the current fishing
regulations. Attendance by the majority of respondents in village meetings about fishing
regulations issues was relatively high (93.33%). This evidently means that regulations on
fishing and related issues are of great concern for the participants as they considerably
influenced their direct interests and daily-life. The majority of all respondents from both
villages (78.67%) agreed toward the establishment and legislation of village management
zone, however, with preference for a district-level partitioning of the reservoir fishing
boundaries. The greater preference for district-level fishing boundaries is due to the fact that
such partitioning would allow larger area for fishing grounds and better control and
monitoring could be more effectively undertaken by the district authorities. In fact, a
partition of fishing grounds for the districts has already been organized, but the territorial
boundaries were not yet legalized. That has caused great confusion whereas which concrete
fishing ground and limits belong to what district. Effective control and monitoring were
therefore difficult to undertake. Most of respondents greatly complained of intruders or
outside fishers because of associated problems of stealing of fishing gears, mainly fishing
nets, together with the fish catch and some observation of illegal fishing.

74
 6. Conclusion

1. The results revealed the existence of different traditional institutional structures and
organizations involved in the management of fisheries in the two villages as well as
different fishers behaviors and fishing practices.

2. The majority of all respondents from both villages (79%) agreed toward the
establishment and legislation of village management zone, however, with preference for a
district-level partitioning of the reservoir fishing boundaries.

3. The majority of all respondents (93%) were well aware of the current fishing regulations.
Significant proportion of respondents (85%) was in agreement to comply with the
establishment of a fishing license system provided if the regulation would receive
unanimous support from the majority of fishers. All of the respondents unanimously
agreed to comply with the regulation of closed fishing season without any exception.

4. The majority of all respondents (59%) had a positive attitude in relation to the
establishment of a fishers association, however, only a minority of respondents (43%)
was interested to participate in such organization. Nevertheless, the most favoured
structure of fishers association were suggested to be established at the village level and
appropriately divided into fishing units under equal conditions for all types of fishers not
depending on the types of used fishing gears.

5. Main pre-requisites for the development of a community-based fisheries management

system in the study area still were not yet developed such as interests and willingness for
the establishment of fishers associations, voluntary and responsible fishers compliance
with fishing regulations, clearly defined administrative and fishing boundaries, and
enforcement of fishing regulations. The establishment of a licensing system still was in
the formative stage.

75
 7. Recommendation

1. Establishment of village management zones would be only effective if the administrative

and fishing boundaries of each respective district and village would be clearly defined
and unanimously approved by the majority of fishers under authoritative legislation.

2. The establishment of fishing licenses system is fundamental for effective monitoring and
control of the fisheries in the Nam Ngum reservoir. However, the problem of illegal
fishers as well as immigrants was identified as a main constraint hampering the
implementation of such program. Therefore, the concerned local authorities should make
clear of their positions such as policies and strategies. Appropriate unanimous action
plans and measures have to be early implemented in order to remediate the present
situation.

3. An approach of integrated management framework for the management and conservation

of the reservoir fishing grounds should be considered. Possible integration and
involvement of several adjacent fishing communities into the management of common
fishing grounds and conservation areas should be promoted for more effective
management and conservation of the common fishery resources such as at the Nam
Ngum fish sanctuary and other closed or conservation areas as well.

4. Possible establishment and development of fishers associations should be further

envisaged and appropriately motivated according to the specific potentials and local
conditions of each respective community. Legal rights for fishers organizations to give
them legitimate authorization to organize should be accordingly devised and formally
introduced.

5. Further investigation should be made for possible stratification of reservoir fishing

boundaries at the district level based on common agreement of the majority of fishers
with the fishery and local authorities.

6. Immediate and long-term priority development plans should be appropriately devised for
each specific fishermen community taking into account an early involvement of all
identified key stakeholders during the decision-making process.

7. Further development programs for communication and awareness building should be

promoted for better identification of local needs and problems and improvement of
relationship and mutual cooperation between all involved parties.

8. Establishment and development of an institutional monitoring and information network

of fisheries should be setup with direct involvement and collaboration of local fishing
communities and the local fish traders involved.

76
 References

Aguero, M.N. and Lockwood, B.A. 1986. Resource Management is People Management. In:
Mac Lean, J.L. et al. (eds.). pp. 345-347. The First Asian Fisheries Forum. Asian
Fisheries Society, Manila, Philippines.

Ahmed, M. 1995. Co-Management of Inland Fisheries Resources: The Bangladesh

Experience. Paper presented at the Workshop on Fisheries Management in Rural
Reservoirs held in Ubon Ratchatani, Thailand, 20-24 February 1995. Organized by the
Department of Fisheries, Thailand and The Mekong Secretariat.

AIT, 1994. Partners in Development: The Promotion of Sustainable Aquaculture. Asian

Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand.

Ali, M.L. 1989. Survey and Data Collection in Rural Fishing Communities for Fisheries
Resources Management in Bangladesh. In: Aguero et al. (eds.). Inland Fisheries
Management in Bangladesh, pp. 61-70. Department of Fisheries, Bangladesh Center
for Advanced Studies, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management.

Amarasinghe, U.S. 1988. The Role of Fishermen in Implementing Management Strategies in

the Reservoirs of Srilanka. In: Reservoir Fishery Management and Development in
Asia. pp.158-163. Paper presented at a Workshop held in Kathmandu, Nepal, 23-28
November 1987. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Ont., Canada.

Anderson, L.G. 1986. The Economics of Fisheries Management. London, United Kingdom,
John Hopkins University Press.

Arkin, H. and Colton, R.R. Table for Statisticians. College outline series, second edition, pp.
143-152. College of the City of New York, Barnes and Noble Books.

Aziz, A.H. et al. 1996. Regional Stewardship for Sustainable Fisheries and Food Security.
Journal of the Bay of Bengal Programme, Bay of Bengal News,Vol. II, 3: 10-17.

Bernacsek, G.M., 1997. Large Dam Fisheries of the Lower Mekong Countries: Review and
Assessment. Main report prepared for the Mekong River Commission, Project on
Management of Reservoir Fisheries in the Mekong Basin, MKG/R. 97023, Vol.1.
Mekong River Commission, Bangkok, Thailand.

Bernacsek, G.M., 1997. Fisheries Development Prospectus for Selected Reservoirs in The
Lower Mekong Basin. A report prepared for the Mekong River Commission
Secretariat, MKG/R. 97033. 29 pp. Mekong River Commission, Bangkok, Thailand.

Boonchuwong, P. 1996. Awareness Building and Participatory Approaches in Ongoing Pilot

Projects for Community-based Fisheries Management in Thailand. Proceedings of the

77
 Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management Based on Southeast Asian
Experiences, SEAFDEC TD/RP/40, pp. 210-217. Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center. Thailand.

Campbell, J. 1996. Participatory and Integrated Policy: a Field Guide for Policy
Formulation in Small-scale Fisheries. Integrated Marine Management Ltd. Exeter,
United Kingdom. 110 pp.

Cunningham, P.D. 1998. Extending a Co-management Network to Save the Mekong’s

Giants. Mekong Fisheries Network Newsletter, Catch and Culture, Vol. 3, 3: 6-7 pp.
Mekong River Commission. Bangkok, Thailand.

De Silva, S.S. (ed.), 1988. Reservoir Fishery Management and Development in Asia:
Proceedings of a Workshop held in Kathmandu, Nepal, 23-28 November 1987.
International Development Research Center, Ottawa, Ont., IDRC 1988: 246pp.

De Silva, S.S. (ed.), 1992. Reservoir Fisheries of Asia: Proceedings of the 2nd Asian
Reservoir Fisheries Workshop held in Hangzhou, People’s Republic of China, 15-19
October 1990. International Development Research Center, Ottawa, Ont., IDRC
1992: 280 pp.

De Silva, S.S. and Amarasinghe U.S. 1996. Reservoir Fisheries in Asia. Reprint from
Perspectives in Asian Fisheries. De Silva S.S. (ed.), Asian Fisheries Society, Manila,
Philippines, 1996: 189-216 pp.

Edwards, P. and Demaine, H. Rural Aquaculture: Overview and Framework for Country
Reviews. In press. Chapter 4, A System Framework for Rural Aquaculture.
Agricultural and Aquatic Systems Program; School of Environment, Resources and
Development; Asian Institute of Technology, and FAO, Rome. 40 pp.

FAO, 1996. Precautionary Approach to Capture Fisheries and Species Introductions. In:
FAO Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries No 2, Rome, FAO 1996: 54 pp.

Interim Committe, 1982. Socio-Economic Survey of Nam Ngum Fisheries. Interim

Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin, MKG/R.
353/INF.

Interim Committte, 1984. Development and Management of Fisheries in Nam Ngum

Reservoir, Lao PDR. Interim Committee for Coordination of Investigations of the
Lower Mekong Basin.

Interim Committe, 1992. Fisheries in The Lower Mekong Basin: Review of the Fisheries
Sector in the Lower Mekong Basin. Interim Committee for Coordination of
Investigations of the Lower Mekong Basin.

78
Jacob, K.H. 1995. Socio-Economic Aspects of Reservoir Management: The Nam Ngum
Fishermen Communities Project Experience. In: Workshop on Fisheries Management
in Rural Reservoirs, Dept. of Fisheries, Thailand, 20-24 February 1995: 11pp.

Jacobs, J.W. 1994. Toward Sustainability in Lower Mekong River Basin Development. Water
International, 19 (1994), pp. 43-51.

Mekong Secretariat, 1990. Mid-term Evaluation Report: Development of Fishermen

Communities in The Nam Ngum Basin, May 1990. Project evaluation report prepared
for the Mekong Secretariat by The Asian Institute of Technology. 1990: 32 pp.

Mekong Secretariat, 1996. Summary Reports of The Workshop on The Impact of Reservoir
Development on Aquatic Resources and The First Meeting of The Regional
Coordination Committee on The Management of Reservoir Fisheries in The Mekong
Basin Project. 12-14 December 1996, Bangkok, Thailand. MKG/R. 97031, 1997: 62
pp.

Miah, M. A. Q. 1993. Applied Statistics. Asian Institute of Technology, Division of Human

Settlements Development, Bangkok, Thailand, 384 pp.

Michael, K. 1995. Fisheries Biology, Assessment and Management. Fishing News Books,
341 pp.

Nickerson, D.J. 1996. Natural Partners for Coastal Fisheries Management: Community-
based Fisheries Management and Integrated Coastal Management. In: Proceedings
of the Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management Based on Southeast
Asian Experiences. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, SEAFDEC
TD/RP/40 February 1997: pp. 289-294 (348).

Panayotu, T. (ed.), 1985. Small-scale Fisheries in Asia: Socio-Economic Analysis and

Policy. International Development Research Center, Ottawa, Ont., IDRC 1985: 283
pp.

Pantulu, V.R. 1969a. Fisheries Management in Tropical Reservoirs with Particular

Reference to the Nam Ngum Multipurpose Project. UN Economic Commission for
Asia and The Far East, WRD/MKG/INF/L.348: 16pp. Mekong River Commission.

Pauly, D. 1989. Fisheries Resources Management in Southeast Asia: Why Bother?. In: Chua,
T.E. and Pauly, D. (eds.) Coastal Area Management in Southeast Asia: Policies,
Management Strategies and Case Studies. International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management, ICLARM Conf. Proc. 19, Manila, Philippines.

Phonvisay, S. 1994. Inland Fisheries Development Strategies in Lao P.D.R. with Special
Emphasis on the Mekong Basin. Department of Livestock and Fisheries, Vientiane,
Lao PDR.

79
Pido, M.D., Pomeroy, R.S., Carlos, M.B., Garces, L.R. 1996. A Handbook for Rapid
Appraisal of Fisheries Management Systems. International Center for Living Aquatic
Resources Management. Makati, Philippines, ICLARM 1996:85 pp.

Pomeroy, R.S. and Williams, M.J., 1994. Fisheries Co-management and Small-scale
Fisheries: a Policy Brief. International Center for Living Aquatic Resources
Management, ICLARM 1994: 15pp.

Pomeroy, R.S. Revitalizing Community Based Resource Management Systems in Southeast

Asia Through Co-Management. Workshop paper, International Center for Living
Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Philippines.

Rahman, M.A. 1997. Mobilization of Fishing Communities and Villagers for Eradication of
Ghost Nets for Improved Management of Nam Ngum Reservoir Fishery. Paper
presented in the Workshop on Aquatic Resources Research and Establishment of the
National Aquatic Resources Institute held in Vientiane, Lao PDR, 19-21 March 1997,
Department of Livestock and Fisheries, 1997: 10 pp.

Roy, R. 1995. Encouraging Fisherfolk to Manage their Fisheries: How Communication and
Awareness Building Can Help. Journal of the Bay of Bengal Programme, Bay of
Bengal News, Vol. II, No 1, pp. 4-8, Madras, India.

SEAFDEC, 1997. Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management

Based on Southeast Asian Experiences. Workshop held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19-
22 November 1996, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, SEAFDEC
TD/RP/40 February 1997:348 pp.

Tokrisna, R. 1996. Economic Concept of Community-Based Management for Coastal

Fisheries. In: Proceedings of The Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries
Management Based on Southeast Asian Experiences, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19-22
November 1996, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, SEAFDEC
TD/RP/40 February 1997: pp. 169-175 (348).

Townsley, P. 1996. Rapid Rural Appraisal, Participatory Rural Appraisal and Aquaculture.
FAO Fish. Tech. Paper No 358, Rome, FAO, 1996: 109 pp.

Yamamoto, T. 1993. A Fishing Right to Cooperation as a Basis for Community Based

Fisheries Management. A Shortened Title: Fishing Right and Community Based
Management. Paper presented at the International Conference on Fisheries
Economics sponsored by the Center for Fisheries Economics of the Foundation for
Research Economics and Business Administration, Norway, May 26-28, 15 pp.

Yamamoto, T. 1996. Consideration for Implementation of Community-Based Fisheries

Management. Paper presented at a National Workshop on Community Based
Fisheries Management held in Phuket, Thailand, February 14-16, 1996: 6 pp.

80
Yamamoto, T. 1996. Community-Based Fisheries Management System Under a Limited
Entry. In: Proceedings of The Regional Workshop on Coastal Fisheries Management
Based on Southeast Asian Experiences, Chiang Mai, Thailand, 19-22 November
1996, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, SEAFDEC TD/RP/40
February 1997: pp. 267-278 (348).

81
Appendix A

Table A-1 List of Present Villages in the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1998)

No Village District Province Year of establishment

1. Na Mone Long Sane Xaisomboune 1977
2. Don Seua ,, ,, NA
3. Don Samphan ,, ,, NA
4. Phonsavath ,, ,, 1984
5. Phonsa-ad ,, ,, 1998
6. San Pa Tong ,, ,, NA
7. Pak Tou ,, ,, 1980
8. Houei Gnang ,, ,, NA
9. Houei Sou ,, ,, 1980
10. Houei Sen Tao ,, ,, NA
11. Houei Sa Gae ,, ,, NA
12. Don Hom ,, ,, NA
13. Tha Heua ,, ,, NA
14. Na Gnao Phoune ,, 1982
15. Nam Tae ,, ,, 1981
16. Houei Poung Keo Oudom Vientiane NA
17. Mai ,, ,, NA
18. Xai Oudom ,, ,, 1987
19. Seng Savang ,, ,, 1998
20. Phou Kao Nang Neua Thoulakhom ,, NA
21. Phou Kao Nang Tai ,, ,, NA
22. Tha Heua Neua Vang Vieng ,, 1970
23. Tha Heua Tai ,, ,, 1977
24. Houei Mor Neua ,, ,, 1966
25. Houei Mor Tai ,, ,, 1966
26. Houei Pa Mome ,, ,, 1968
27. Hoeui Xi ,, ,, 1971
28. Nam Phao ,, ,, 1972
29. Nam Pad ,, ,, 1974
30. Pha Koup ,, ,, 1974
* NA = Not Available (Source: NRMDP, 1998)

83
Table A-3 List of Fish Traders in the Nam Ngum Reservoir (1998)

No Name of fish Village District Fish collection

trader area
1. Mr. Lam Xai Oudom Keo Oudom Keng Noi
2. Mrs. Ae Xai Oudom Keo Oudom Xai Oudom
3. Mrs. Souk Xai Oudom Keo Oudom Xai Oudom
4. Mrs. Done Xai Oudom Keo Oudom Xai Oudom
5. Mr. Phaeng Xai Oudom Keo Oudom Xai Oudom
6. Mr. Bai Sengsavang Keo Oudom Sok Pa Keo
7. Mr. Kot Sengsavang Keo Oudom Sok Pa Keo
8. Mr. Don Sengsavang Keo Oudom Sok Pa Keo
9. Mr. Done Sengsavang Keo Oudom Khet 1
10. Mr. Kaen Houei Poung Keo Oudom Houei Poung
11. Mrs. Bee Houei Poung Keo Oudom Houei Poung
12. Mrs. Vong Houei Poung Keo Oudom Houei Poung
13. Mr. Pia Mai Keo Oudom Mai
14. Mrs. Pin Mai Keo Oudom Mai
15. Mr. Phone Thalat Keo Oudom Keng Noi
16. Mr. Phone Phon Phaeng Keo Oudom Khet 1
17. Mr. Saya Don Liang Goua Keo Oudom Don Liang Goua
18. Mr. Samoa Don Samphan Long Sane Keng Noi
19. Mr. Neng Noa Don Samphan Long Sane Keng Noi
20. Mr. Xieng Mee Don Samphan Long Sane Keng Noi
21. Mr. Van Sanpatong Long Sane Sanpatong
22. Mr. Souli Sanpatong Long Sane Sanpatong
23. Mr. Bouddee Phonsavath Long Sane Keng Noi
24. Mr. Bounta Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
25. Mr. Mai Kong Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
26. Mr. Xieng Sak Phonsavath Long Sane Keng Noi
27. Mr. Keut Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
28. Mr. Xieng Oun Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
29. Mr. Phet Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
30. Mr. Kaen Chan Phonsavath Long Sane Phonsavath
31. Mr. Heu Lo Don Seua Long Sane Don Seua
32. Mr. Dong Kao Don Seua Long Sane Don Seua
33. Mr. Bia Yang Don Seua Long Sane Khet 5
34. Mr. Ju Yang Don Seua Long Sane Keng Noi
35. Mr. Bee Mua Don Seua Long Sane Keng Noi
36. Mr. Ya Don Seua Long Sane Keng Noi
37. Mr. Kik Khet 3 Long Sane Khet 3
38. Mr. Lia Yang Khet 3 Long Sane Khet 3
39. Mr. Ma Tha Heua Tai Vang Vieng Pa Phak Bong
40. Mr. Sone Tha Heua Tai Vang Vieng Pa Phak Bong
41. Mr. Tou Tha Heua Tai Vang Vieng Pa Phak Bong
42. Mrs. Bai Pha Koup Vang Vieng Pha Koup
43. Mrs. Lin Phou En Thoulakhom Khet 5
44. Mr. Keo Phou En Thoulakhom Khet 5
45. Mrs. Tham Nam Tae Phoune Nam Tae
46. Mr. Keo Nam Tae Phoune Nam Tae
(Source: NRMDP, 1998)

84
Table A-4 List of Fish Prices offered by the Nam Ngum Fish Dealer Company
(August 1998)

No Fish species or product Lao name Buying price Selling price

(Kip/kg) (Kip/kg)
1. Puntioplites proctozysron Pa Sakang 2000 2500
2. Hampala macrolepidota Pa Soud 1700 2000
3. Morulius chrysophekadion Pa Phia 3000 3200
4. Amblyrhynchichthys truncatus Pa Tapo 1700 2000
5. Kryptopterus cryptopterus Pa Pik Kai 2000 2200
6. Channa micropeltes Pa Do 3500 3700
7. Puntius leiacanthus Pa Bee 1200 1400
8. Mystus nemurus Pa Kot 4000 4200
9. Mystus wyckii Pa Kheung 5000 6000
10. Wallagonia miostoma Pa Khoune 3000 4000
11. Wallagonia attu Pa Khao 4000 5500
12. Osphronemus goramy Pa Men 3500 4000
13. Cirrhinus molitorella Pa Keng 2200 2500
14. Tilapia niloticus Pa Nin 3500 3700
15. Osteochilus melanopleura Pa Nok Khao 3000 3200
16. Puntius gonionothus Pa Pak 2000 2700
17. Kryptopterus apogon Pa Nang 5000 6000
18. Clupeichthys gonionatha Pa Keo 500 700
19. Dried fish Pa Haeng 4000 4200
20. Dried Clupeids (Corica) Pa Keo Haeng 2000 2200
21. Fermented fish Pa Som 1200 1400
Note: US$ 1 = 4000 Kip (Source: NRMDP, 1998)

85
Table A-5 Fishery Production of Nam Ngum Reservoir (1982-97)

Year Total fish production Fish collector

(kg)
1982 133,094 Nam Ngum Fisheries Project
1983 646,100 ,,
1984 651,800 ,,
1985 818,800 ,,
1986 603,000 ,,
1987 665,000 ,,
1988 485,000 Vientiane Province
1989 251,000 ,,
1990 204,000 ,,
1991 183,000 ,,
1992 216,000 ,,
1993 288,000 ,,
1994 360,000 ,,
1995 818,000 Fish Dealer Company
1996 533,599 ,,
1997 777,483 ,,
(Source: NRMDP, 1998)

86
Table A-6 Average Years of Residency of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Range Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
(years) n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<5 4 8 6 12 4 8 14 9.34
6-10 19 38 21 42 17 34 57 38
11-15 13 26 14 28 20 40 47 31.33
16-20 10 20 9 18 4 8 23 15.33
>20 4 8 0 0 5 10 9 6
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
Mean 12.38 10.12 11.66 11.38
SD 6.56 4.50 5.83 5.63
Min 4 2 2 2
Max 41 18 31 41
n = total number of samples, f = frequency, SD = Standard Deviation, Min = minimum,
Max = maximum.

Table A-7 Age Structure of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Age Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
(years) n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<20 0 0 0 0 1 2 1 0.67
21-30 10 20 9 18 7 14 26 17.33
31-40 8 16 19 38 15 30 42 28
41-50 17 34 11 22 15 30 43 28.67
51-60 12 24 7 14 10 20 29 19.33
61-70 3 6 4 8 2 4 9 6
>70 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.
Table A-8 Educational Status of the Respondents by Ethnicity

Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Education Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
Level n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
Illiterate 1 2 5 10 4 8 10 6.67
Primary 32 64 20 40 27 54 79 52.67
Secondary 16 32 25 50 14 28 55 36.66
Higher 1 2 0 0 5 10 6 4
Total: 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency.

Table A-9 Household Class Income of the Respondents by Ethnicity (US$)

Class of Phonsavath Xai Oudom Total

Income Lao Loum Lao Soung Lao Loum n = 150
n = 50 n = 50 n = 50
f % f % f % f %
<500 10 20 21 42 6 12 37 24.67
501-1000 26 52 16 32 13 26 55 36.67
1001-1500 11 22 7 14 16 32 34 22.67
1501-2000 1 2 6 12 9 18 16 10.66
>2000 2 4 0 0 6 12 8 5.33
Total 50 100 50 100 50 100 150 100
n = total number of samples, f = frequency