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BIO2 1st Month Lesson 1 6 Converted 38pages
BIO2 1st Month Lesson 1 6 Converted 38pages
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General Biology 2
Quarter 1 - Module 1
GENETICS
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
(Lesson 1-6)
1
Earth Science- Grade 12
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 1 - Module 1: Genetics
First Edition, 2020
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General Biology 2
Quarter 1 - Module 1:
Genetics
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Table of Contents
First Quarter
Lesson 1: Genetic Engineering
What I Need to Know.................................................................................................... 13
What’s I Know: Definition of Terms .......................................................................... 13
What New......................................................................................................................... .13
What is It: Leaning Concepts………………………………………………………14-15
5
. What I know: Definition of Terms 27
What’s New 31
What’s More 33
What I’ve Learned: 33-34
Lesson 6: Development of EvolutionaryThought
6
Lesson 9: Systematics Based on Evolutionary Relationships:
Tree of Life and Systematics
What I Need to Know.................................................................................................... 47
What I Know: Definition of Terms ............................................................................. 47
References.................................................................................................................................................. 56
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Module 1
Genetics
What This Module is About
This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics that will help you
answer the questions pertaining to our very own, planet earth.
9
8. Explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein
sequences, homology, and embryology) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12)
9. Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of evolution.
(STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-13)
10. Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of
DNA sequences are used in classifying living things. STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-14
11. Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15)
12. Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships.
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16)
10
How to Learn from this Module
To achieve the learning competencies cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.
II
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Lesson
1 Genetic Engineering
What I need to know
Learning Competency
The learners should be able to outline the steps involved in genetic
engineering (STEM_BIO11/12-III a-b-6)
What I know
Definition of Terms:
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
13
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
❖
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or
other nucleic acid molecules in order to modify an organism or population of organisms.
❖
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the modification or
manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity and reproduction. As such, the
term embraced both artificial selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques,
among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning, and
gene manipulation.
https://www.britannica.com/science/genetic-engineering
❖
Classical plant breeding uses deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related
individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are
crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/plant_breeding.htm#:~:text=Classical%20plant%20breeding%20uses%20deliberate,i
nto%20a%20new%20genetic%20background.
❖
Genetic engineering is the process of using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology to alter the
genetic makeup of an organism. Traditionally, humans have manipulated genomes indirectly
by controlling breeding and selecting offspring with desired traits. Genetic engineering
involves the direct manipulation of one or more genes. Most often, a gene from another
species is added to an organism's genome to give it a desired phenotype.
https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Genetic
Engineering#:~:text=Genetic%20engineering%20is%20the%20process,selecting%20offspring%20with%20desired%20traits.
Genetic engineering involves the use of molecular techniques to modify the traits of a
target organism. The modification of traits may involve:
1. introduction of new traits into an organism
2. enhancement of a present trait by increasing the expression of the desired gene
3. enhancement of a present trait by disrupting the inhibition of the desired genes’ expression.
A general outline of recombinant DNA may be given as follows:
1. cutting or cleavage of DNA by restriction enzymes (REs)
2. selection of an appropriate vector or vehicle which would propagate the recombinant DNA (
eg. circular plasmid in bacteria with a foreign gene of interest)
3. ligation (join together) of the gene of interest (eg. from animal) with the vector (cut bacterial
plasmid)
4. transfer of the recombinant plasmid into a host cell (that would carry out replication to
make huge copies of the recombined plasmid)
5. selection process to screen which cells actually contain the gene of interest
6. sequencing of the gene to find out the primary structure of the protein
Ways in which these plasmids may be introduced into host organisms:
❖
Biolistics. In this technique, a “gene gun” is used to fire DNA-coated pellets on plant tissues.
Cells that survive the bombardment, and are able to take up the expression plasmid coated
pellets and acquire the ability to express the designed protein.
14
❖
Plasmid insertion by Heat Shock Treatment. Heat Shock Treatment is a process used to
transfer plasmid DNA into bacteria. The target cells are pre-treated before the procedure to
increase the pore sizes of their plasma membranes. This pretreatment (usually with CaCl2) is
said to make the cells “competent” for accepting the plasmid DNA. After the cells are made
competent, they are incubated with the desired plasmid at about 4°C for about 30min. The
plasmids concentrate near the cells during this time. Afterwards, a “Heat Shock” is done on
the plasmid-cell solution by incubating it at 42°C for 1 minute then back to 4°C for 2 minutes.
The rapid rise and drop of temperature is believed to increase and decrease the pore sizes in
the membrane. The plasmid DNA near the membrane surface are taken into the cells by this
process. The cells that took up the plasmids acquire new traits and are said to be
“transformed”.
❖
Electroporation. This technique follows a similar methodology as Heat Shock Treatment, but,
the expansion of the membrane pores is done through an electric “shock”. This method is
commonly used for insertion of genes into mammalian cells.
Some methods are:
• Selection of plasmid DNA containing cells
• Selection of transformed cells with the desired gene
• PCR detection of plasmid DNA
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)
What’s more
Poster Making:
Create a poster on the steps and other methods involved in recombinant DNA.
POST QUIZ:
1. Determine which technologies are most appropriate for which cell types.
15
What’s I can do
PERFORMANCE TASK:
PROS CONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2. What is your opinion on Genetic Engineering? Note: Support your opinion with facts and include
the issue of biosafety.
RECOMMENDED READINGS:
1. https://www.ck12.org/book/human-biology-genetics/section/10.1/
2. https://www.ck12.org/c/biology/biotechnology/lesson/Biotechn
ology-BIO/?referrer=concept_details
3. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/intro-to-
biotech-tutorial/a/intro-to-biotechnology
16
Lesson
Discuss the Applications of
2 Recombinant DNA
Learning Competency:
The learners should be able to discuss the applications of Recombinant
DNA Technology (STEM_BIO11/12-III a-b-7)
What I know
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
PRESENTATION OF RECOMBINANT DNA
There are many different traits that can be introduced to organisms to change their properties. The
following table shows examples of modified traits using cloned genes and their applications:
New Strand 1:
5’ A T GCGATGAGGATATGACCCGATAGATAGAGGTATCTAGAGAT 3’ (Coding strand) (old)
3’ CGCTACTCCTATACTGGGCTATCTATCTCCATAGATC-5’ (Reverse Primer) (new)
New Strand 2:
5’ GCGATGAGGATATGACCCGATAGATAGAGGTATCTAG-3’ (Forward Primer) (new)
3’ T A CGCTACTCCTATACTGGGCTATCTATCTCCATAGATCTCTA 5’ (Non-coding strand) (old)
❖
Step 4: Repeat step 1 to 3 for N number of cycles (N is usually 35)
PCR Results
The expected product of PCR amplification will depend on the sequences / position at which the
primer sequences bind. If the forward primer starts binding at nucleotide 3 (coming from the 5’ end)
of
a 43bp long gene, and the reverse primer binds at a position complementary to nucleotide 39 of
the coding strand, then a 37bp product is expected per cycle of PCR.
PCR Applications
❖
PCR may be used to detect the presence of a desired gene in an organism. Depending on the
primer design, the expected product may represent only a specific region of the gene or the
entire gene itself. The first case is useful for detection of the gene, or the detection of
organisms with that specific gene within a sample. The second case is useful for the
amplification of the entire gene for eventual expression in other organisms. The direct
amplification/copying of a full gene is part of the process for “cloning” that gene.
2. Cloning and Expression
❖
Some genes provide economically, and industrially important products (e.g. insulin-coding
genes; genes for collagen degradation). In some cases, scientists would want to put these
genes into organisms for the expression of their products. One example would be the
insertion of an insulin- coding gene from the human genome into bacteria. This allows the
“transformed” bacteria to now produce human insulin as a product.
❖
Certain types of bacteria are capable of this process since they are able to take genes within
their cell membranes for eventual expression. The genes are normally in the form of small,
circular DNA structures called plasmids.
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
20
What’s I’ve learned
POST QUIZ:
1. Discuss how PCR may be used for the detection of disease-causing pathogens in a population
during the COVID Pandemic.
For example: it may be used to check if a patient has a COVID virus infection.
2. Discuss how the cloning and expression of certain genes allows for massive production of the
desired product.
For Example: the cloning and expression of insulin in bacteria allows for the
mass production of this necessary protein for use by diabetic patients.
RECOMMENDED READINGS:
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science
2.0/section/3.18/primary/lesson/recombinant-dna-ms-ls
2. https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse_biology_book_class_xii/section/14.1/
3. https://www.ck12.org/section/dna-technology/
21
Lesson
History of Life on Earth
Learning Competency
The learners describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally accepted
dates and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8)
What I know
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY:
22
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
https://clarkscience8.weebly.com/geologic-time-scale.html
23
B. Periods under the Paleozoic era - Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, Permian
C. Periods under the Mesozoic era - Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
D. Periods under the Cenozoic era - Tertiary and Quaternary
CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION is the belief that there was a sudden, apparent explosion of diversity in life
forms about 545 million years ago. The explosion created the complexity of multi-celled organisms in
a relatively short time frame of 5 to 10 million years. This explosion also created most of the major
extant animal groups today.
Knowing the age of a fossil can help a scientist establish its position in the geologic time scale and
find its relationship with the other fossils. There are two ways to measure the age of a fossil: relative
dating and absolute dating.
1. RELATIVE DATING
• Based upon the study of layer of rocks
• Does not tell the exact age: only compare fossils as older or younger, depends on their
position in rock layer
24
• Fossils in the uppermost rock layer/ strata are younger while those in the lowermost
deposition are oldest
• Law of Superposition: if a layer of rock is undisturbed, the fossils found on upper layers are
younger than those found in lower layers of rocks
• However, because the Earth is active, rocks move and may disturb the layer making this
process not highly accurate
Rules of Relative Dating
(From: http://staff.harrisonburg.k12.va.us/~esutliff/forms/Relative_Dating_1334236393.ppt)
A. LAW OF SUPERPOSITION: Sedimentary layers are deposited in a specific time- youngest rocks on
top, oldest rocks at the bottom
B. LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally- tilting, folding or
breaking happened recently
2. ABSOLUTE DATING
• Determines the actual age of the fossil
• Through radiometric dating, using radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and potassium-40
• Considers the half-life or the time it takes for half of the atoms of the radioactive element to
decay
• The decay products of radioactive isotopes is stable atoms.
RECOMMENDED READINGS
1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-
2.0/section/4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-high-school/section/10.7/
26
Lesson
Mechanisms that Produce
4 Change in Populations
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from
generation to generation (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)
What I know
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE:
27
What’s new
https://www.dogalize.com/2016/12/dog-breeds/
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-concept-of-race-is-a-lie/
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
❖
Hardy–Weinberg law The law that states that in an infinitely large, interbreeding population in
which mating is random and in which there is no selection, migration, or mutation, gene and
genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to generation. In practice these
conditions are rarely strictly present, but unless any departure is a marked one, there is no
statistically significant movement away from equilibrium. Consider a single pair of alleles, A and
a, present in a diploid population with frequencies of p and q respectively. Three genotypes are
possible, AA, Aa, and aa, and these will be present with frequencies of p2, 2pq,
and q2 respectively.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/biology-and-genetics/genetics-and-genetic-
engineering/hardy-weinberg-
law#:~:text=Hardy%E2%80%93Weinberg%20law%20The%20law,generation%2C%20with%20no%20overlap%20b
etween
❖
The five conditions that must be met for genetic equilibrium to occur include:
28
❖
The Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate the
genetic variation of a population at equilibrium. he equation is an expression of the principle
known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which states that the amount of genetic variation in a
population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of disturbing
factors.
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
where p is the frequency of the "A" allele and q is the frequency of the "a" allele in the population. In
the equation, p2 represents the frequency of the homozygous genotype AA, q2 represents the
frequency of the homozygous genotype aa, and 2pq represents the frequency of the heterozygous
genotype Aa. In addition, the sum of the allele frequencies for all the alleles at the locus must be 1,
so p + q = 1. If the p and q allele frequencies are known, then the frequencies of the three genotypes
may be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.
https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/hardy-weinberg-equation-299/#:~:text=Science%20at%20Scitable-
,Hardy%2DWeinberg%20equation,In%201908%2C%20G.%20H.&text=If%20the%20p%20and%20q,using%20the%20Hardy%
2DWeinberg%20equation.
❖
Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow are the mechanisms that cause changes in
allele frequencies over time. When one or more of these forces are acting in a population,
the population violates the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, and evolution occurs.
❖
Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain genotypes are more likely than
individuals with other genotypes to survive and reproduce, and thus to pass on their alleles
to the next generation. As Charles Darwin (1859) argued in On the Origin of Species, if the
following conditions are met, natural selection must occur:
❖
Mutation. Although mutation is the original source of all genetic variation, mutation rate for
most organisms is pretty low. So, the impact of brand-new mutations on allele frequencies
from one generation to the next is usually not large. (However, natural selection acting on
the results of a mutation can be a powerful mechanism of
evolution!)
❖
Natural selection. Finally, the most famous mechanism of evolution! Natural selection occurs
when one allele (or combination of alleles of different genes) makes an organism more or
less fit, that is, able to survive and reproduce in a given environment. If an allele reduces
fitness, its frequency will tend to drop from one generation to the next. We will look in detail
at different forms of natural selection that occur in populations.
29
❖
Gene flow. Gene flow involves the movement of genes into or out of a population, due to
either the movement of individual organisms or their gametes (eggs and sperm, e.g.,
through pollen dispersal by a plant). Organisms and gametes that enter a population may
have new alleles, or may bring in existing alleles but in different proportions than those
already in the population. Gene flow can be a strong agent of evolution.
❖
Non-infinite population size (genetic drift). Genetic drift involves changes in allele frequency
due to chance events – literally, "sampling error" in selecting alleles for the next generation.
Drift can occur in any population of non-infinite size, but it has a stronger effect on small
populations. We will look in detail at genetic drift and the effects of population size.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-mechanisms-of-evolution
30
Lesson Evolution and Origin of
Biodiversity: Patterns of Descent with
5 Modification
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to
produce the organismal diversity observed today.
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-10
What I know
1. Species 6. Allopatric
2. Classification 7. Sympatric
3. Interbreeding 8. Parapatric
4. Isolating mechanism
5. Zygote
What’s new
31
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
❖
Species, in biology, classification comprising related organisms that share common
characteristics and are capable of interbreeding.
https://www.britannica.com/science/species-taxon
❖
Ernst Mayer’s definition: “Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are
reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
32
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
Example: Gartner snakes live in the same region One lives in water
One lives in land
POST QUIZ:
MECHANISMS EXAMPLES
1. Geographic Isolation 1.
2.
3.
2. Temporal or Seasonal Isolation 1.
2.
33
3
3. Behavioral Isolation 1.
2.
3
4. Mechanical Isolation 1.
2.
3
5. Gametic Isolation 1.
2.
3
Recommended Readings:
1. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/tree-of-life/a/species-speciation
34
Lesson
Development of Evolutionary
6 Thought
Learning Competency
The learners shall be able to trace the development of evolutionary thought. STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-
11
What I know
1. Taxonomy 6. Family
2. Kingdom 7. Genus
3. Phylum 8. Species
4. Class 9.Natural Selection
5. Order 10. Artificial Selection
What’s new
PRE-ACTIVITY: Research
35
4.
5.
What’s is it
INTRODUCTION:
❖
Scientific classification is a method by which biologists organize living things into groups. It is
also called taxonomy. Groups of organisms in taxonomy are called taxa (singular, taxon). You
may already be familiar with commonly used taxa, such as the kingdom and species.
❖
Why do biologists classify organisms? The major reason is to make sense of the incredible
diversity of life on Earth. Scientists have identified millions of different species of organisms.
Among animals, the most diverse group of organisms is the insects.
Linnaean System of Classification
❖
The most influential early classification system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. In fact,
all modern classification systems have their roots in Linnaeus’ system. Linnaeus was a
Swedish botanist who lived during the 1700s. He is known as the “father of taxonomy.”
Linnaeus tried to describe and classify the entire known natural world. In 1735, he published
his classification system in a work called Systema Naturae (“System of Nature”).
❖
The taxa are below:
o Kingdom - This is the highest taxon in Linnaean taxonomy, representing major divisions
of organisms. Kingdoms of organisms include the plant and animal kingdoms.
o Phylum (plural, phyla) - This taxon is a division of a kingdom. Phyla in the animal
kingdom include chordates (animals with an internal skeleton) and arthropods
(animals with an external skeleton).
o Class - This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes in the chordate phylum include
mammals and birds.
o Order - This taxon is a division of a class. Orders in the mammal class include rodents
and primates.
o Family - This taxon is a division of an order. Families in the primate order include
hominids (apes and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons).
o Genus - This taxon is a division of a family. Genera in the hominid family include Homo
o Species - This taxon is below the genus and the lowest taxon in Linnaeus’ system.
Species in the Pan genus include Pan troglodytes(common chimpanzees) and Pan
paniscus (pygmy chimpanzees).
https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse_biology_book_class_xi/section/1.3/
36
❖
Thomas Malthus was an English economist. He wrote a popular essay called “On Population.”
He argued that human populations have the potential to grow faster than the resources
they need. When populations get too big, disease and famine occur. These calamities
control population size by killing off the weakest people.
❖
Catastrophism was a theory developed by Georges Cuvier based on paleontological evidence in
the Paris Basin. Cuvier was there when he observed something peculiar about the fossil record.
Instead of finding a continuous succession of fossils, Cuvier noticed several gaps where all
evidence of life would disappear and then abruptly reappear again after a notable amount of
time. Cuvier recognized these gaps in the fossil succession as mass extinction events.
❖
This led Cuvier to develop a theory called catastrophism. Catastrophism states that natural
history has been punctuated by catastrophic events that altered that way life developed and
rocks were deposited.
❖
In geology, gradualism is a theory developed by James Hutton according to which profound
changes to the Earth
❖
This theory inspired an evolution theory in paleontology, also called gradualism, according to
which the species appeared by the gradual transformation of ancestral species.
❖
According to this theory, the population of a species is transformed slowly and progressively into
a new species by the accumulation of micro-evolutionary changes in the genetic heritage.
❖
The law of use and disuse, which states that when certain organs become specially developed as
a result of some environmental need, then that state of development is hereditary and can
be passed on to progeny.
Evolution of Darwin’s Theory
❖
It took Darwin years to form his theory of evolution by natural selection. His reasoning went
like this:
1. Like Lamarck, Darwin assumed that species can change over time. The fossils he
found helped convince him of that.
2. From Lyell, Darwin saw that Earth and its life were very old. Thus, there had been
enough time for evolution to produce the great diversity of life Darwin had observed.
3. From Malthus, Darwin knew that populations could grow faster than their
resources. This “overproduction of offspring” led to a “struggle for existence,” in Darwin’s
words.
4. From artificial selection, Darwin knew that some offspring have variations that
occur by chance, and that can be inherited. In nature, offspring with certain variations might
be more likely to survive the “struggle for existence” and reproduce. If so, they would pass
their favorable variations to their offspring.
5. Darwin coined the term fitness to refer to an organism’s relative ability to survive
and produce fertile offspring. Nature selects the variations that are most useful. Therefore,
he called this type of selection natural selection.
6. Darwin knew artificial selection could change domestic species over time. He
inferred that natural selection could also change species over time. In fact, he thought that if
a species changed enough, it might evolve into a new species.
37
What’s more
ACTIVITY:
POST QUIZ:
38