Measurement CP

Forest Measurement
Lecture Notes
Diploma in Forestry 2nd Year
Prepared by
Chiranjibi Khanal
Latinath Namuna Seconadry School
Darchula
2077
Unit-1: Introduction to forest mensuration
Forest Mensuration, Dasometrics or Dendrometrics, deals with the quantification of forests,
trees, and forest products. We can distinguish in it techniques for direct or indirect measurement,
estimation procedures using statistical relationships, and methods of prediction where the variable
time takes part.
Measurement (Direct, Estimation Prediction (Over

Indirect) (Statistical) Time)
Logs (Products) Length, diameter Volume functions
Cubiccation (Volume) Sawn timber
Log rules conversion
Defect, Quality Stacked wood
Trees DBH, height, bark Volume functions

Cubication Taper functions
Stem analysis Bark functions
Product assortment
Stands Stand tables Height-DBH Site quality
DBH distributions Growth
Volume functions Mortality
Inventories
1.1 Definition and scope of forest mensuration

Forest
 An area set aside for the production of timber and other forest product.
 A plant community predominantly of trees and other woody vegetation usually with a
closed canopy (Glossary).
 Forests are the lands of more than 0.5 ha with a tree canopy cover of more than 10%
which are not primarily under agricultural or urban land use (FAO, 2000).
Mensuration
 It is derived from Latin word mensura which means measure. It means measurement of
length, mass and time etc.
 It is an art and science of locating, measuring and calculating the length of lines, areas of
planes, and volumes of solids
 It is that branch of mathematics which is concerned with the determination of lengths,
areas and volumes.
Forest Mensuration
 Forest Mensuration deals with the determination of the volume of logs, trees, and stands,
and with the study of increment and yield (Graves, 1906).
 Forest Mensuration is that branch of forestry which deals with the determination of
Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 1

dimensions (eg. Diameter, height, volume etc), form, age and increment of single trees,
stands or whole woods, either standing or after felling ( Chaturvedi and Khanna, 1986)
Objectives
Forest mensuration provides quantitative information regarding forest resources that will allow
making reasonable decisions on its density, use and management.
Forest mensuration serves the following objects
 Basis for sale
 Basis for management
 Measurement for research
 Measurement for planning
Scope
 It is the branch of forestry which provides foundations of measurement principles
applicable to any forest management problems (figure 1)
 Has a wide scope.
 Involves all stakeholders i.e. Labors, buyers, sellers, contractors, planners,
managers/foresters and researchers.
 Applicable to any forest measurement problems of wildlife management, watershed
management, insect and disease incidence, recreation, tourism and in fact, many of the
mensurational aspects of multiple use forestry.
 Forest Mensuration is the application of measurement principles to obtain quantifiable
information for forest management decision making.
 The application of statistical theory and use of electronic computer for data processing
have brought about revolutionary changes in forest measurement problems.
 Forest mensuration should make full use of these tools but its principles must be based
on sound biological knowledge.
Measurement theory Manager’s information needs Errors
What is in the forest now? Forest Mensuration Forest change
Tools
Individual trees Stands and forests Stands and forests Individual trees
Sampling Monitoring change
Figure 1: Scope of forest mensuration

• Job/use: Thousands of people are engaged in forestry business. They work as labors, technician,
business men and researcher.
• Prediction of future crops: Future yield prediction can be done by using the forest menstruation
• Wide area: Biodiversity, eco-tourism, watershed management, carbon sequestration are the
valuable use of forest mensuration.
The scope of forest mensuration can be categorized into forestry and outside forestry
Forestry: The Forest management needs data which can be acquired from the application of forest
mensuration. Without data planning is difficult which depends up on the forest mensuration. Forest
utilization also depends up on the data taken from the forest mensuration. Silvicultural operations
depends up on the data taken from the forest mensuration. Protection of the forest depends up on the
data taken from the forest mensuration. The research method and research work depends up on the
forest mensuration. The statistics can be acquired from the application of forest mensuration. The
furniture maker, contractor, the forest labor needs the knowledge and skill of forest mensuration.
Non forestry: The statician, engineer, farmer, business man, player needs the knowledge of forest
mensuration.
Importance of Forest Mensuration

It is the keystone foundation of forestry.
 What Silvicultural treatment will result in best regeneration and growth?
 What species is most suitable for reforestation?
 Is there sufficient timber to supply a forest industry and for an economical harvesting
operation?
 What is the value of the timber and land?
 What is the recreational potential?
 What is the wildlife potential?
 What is the status of biodiversity on the area?
 What is the status of the forest as a carbon sink?
 What is in the forest now?
 How is the forest changing?
 What can we do to manage the forest properly?
 How can it be assessed?
 And for what purpose?
It helps to answer all these questions and concepts involved in forest management.
 “You can’t efficiently make, manage, or study anything you don’t locate and
measure”.
 Forest mensuration is the application of measurement principles to obtain quantifiable
information for forest management decision making.

Scale of Measurement
 Nominal Scale: determination of equality (numbering and counting). Eg. Numbering
of forest types in a stand map.
 Ordinal scale: determination of greater or less (ranking) eg. Timber and log grading.
 Interval scale: determination of the equality of intervals or of differences (numerical
magnitude of qty, arbitrary origin) eg. Fahrenheit temp., soil moisture etc.
 Ratio scale: determination of equality of ratios (numerical magnitude of qty, absolute
origin) eg. Length of objects, volumes, etc.
Unit of measurement
12 inch = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
66 feet or 22 yards = 1 chain = 100 links
8 furlongs or 1760 yard = 1 mile = 1.609 km
10 chains or 220 yards = 1 furlong
1 ha = 100 m x 100 m
1 acre = 0.40468 acres
1 nautical mile = 1852 m
1.2 Bias, Accuracy and Precision

Bias
 It refers to the systematic errors that may result from faulty measurement procedures,
instrumental errors, flaws in the sampling procedure, errors in the computations,
mistakes in recording, and so on. For example, measurements of 100 ft units with a
tape only 99 ft long will be biased.
Common sources of bias

 Flaw in measurement instrument or tool, e. g. survey tape 50 cm short;
 Flaw in the method of selecting a sample, e. g. some observers always count the
boundary trees while others always exclude it;
 Flaw in the technique of estimating a parameter, e. g. stand volume: using a volume
function or model in a forest without prior check of its suitability for application in that
forest; inappropriate assumptions about the formulae and
 Subjectivity of operators etc.
How to minimize bias

The only practical way to minimize measurement bias is by:
 Continual check of instruments and assumptions
 Meticulous training
 Care in the use of instruments and application of methods
Accuracy
 It is the closeness of a measurement to the true value.
 It is the success of estimating the true value of a quantity.
 It refers to the size of the deviation of a simple estimate from the true population

Accuracy depends on:
 Precise instruments,
 Precise methods and
 Good planning.
Precision
 It means the degree of agreement in a series of measurements.
 It is the closeness of a measurement to the average value.
 It refers to the deviation of sample values about their mean.
It is the degree of perfection used in the instruments, the methods and the observations. The
use of precise instruments simplifies the work, save time and provides economy. For example,
if you measure ground distance having true value 25m repeatedly by a chain and obtain values
like 21, 21.1, 21.3, 21.2, 20.9, 20.8… The measurement can be said precise because the values
21, 21.1, 21.3… are closer. But they are not accurate because they are
different from 25m. A biased estimate may be precise, but it can not be accurate. So accuracy
and precision are not synonymous or interchangeable terms. The failure to attain an accurate
result may be due to the presence of bias, the lack of precision, or both.
Relationship among Accuracy (A), Bias (B) and Precision (P). A² = B² + P²
Figure-2: Precision, Bias and Accuracy. The target’s bull’s eye is analogous to the unknown
true population parameter and the holes represent parameter estimates based on different
samples. The goal is accuracy, which is the precise, unbiased target.
Accuracy in Forest Mensuration

Though mensuration is the branch of mathematics, forest mensuration does not attempt
to secure absolute accuracy.
Forest mensuration aims at reasonable or relative accuracy, i.e. maximum accuracy
which is profitable and possible to obtain in practice. For the following reasons, foresters
are compelled to be content with relative accuracy.

(a) Characteristics of trees
(b) Varying methods and conditions of felling and conversion
(c) Instruments and conditions in which they are used
(d) Personal bias of the estimator
(e) Biological character of the forest
(f) The use to which the measurements are to be put
(g) Cost
Some Key questions

Short questions
1. What are the major measuring dimensions of plant in the forest?

2. Which is the most important and easy dimension to measure the trees?
Long questions
1. What is forest mensuration and what are the objectives of forest mensuration?
2. How do the accuracy, precision and bias affect the forest measurement?
3. What are the factors affecting in the accuracy of forest measurement?

Unit-2: Measurement of Trees
2.1 Diameter Measurement

 A diameter is a straight line passing through the center of a circle or sphere and meeting
at each end of circumference or surface.
 The most common diameter measurements taken in forestry are of the main stem of
standing trees, cut portions of trees and branches.
 Diameter measurement is important because it is one of the directly measurable
dimensions from which tree cross sectional area and volume etc. can be computed.
 The point at which diameters are measured will vary with circumstances.
2.1.1 DBH measurement and its significance

 The most frequent tree measurement made by forester is diameter at breast height (dbh).
 DBH is defined as the average stem diameter outside bark, at a point 1.3 m above
ground as measured
 The rational of DBH measurement of individual trees is to estimate the quantity of
timber, fuel wood or any other forest products which can be obtained from them.
 These measurement are also necessary for making inventory of growing stock as well as
to correlate height, volume, age, increment with most easily determinable dimension i.e.
dbh
DBH has been accepted as the standard height for diameter measurement because …
 It is a convenient height for taking measurement.
 It is economic (the base of the tree is generally covered with the grasses and shrubs and
even thorns sometimes).
 Majority of the trees develop root swell near the base (abnormalities at the base).
 It gives a uniform point of measurement and standardization is maintained.
2.1.2 Rules of DBH measurement and instruments used
Rules of DBH measurement

 Moss, creepers, lichens and loose bark found on the tree must be removed before
measuring the diameter over bark.
 Breast height (BH) should be by means of a measuring stick on standing trees at 1.3m
above the ground level.
Figure3: Level ground
 BH point should be marked by intersecting vertical and horizontal lines 12 cm long,

painted with white paint.

 On sloping land, the diameter at BH should be measured on the uphill side.
Figure 4: Sloped ground Figure 5: Uneven ground
 In case of the tree is leaning, dbh is measured along the tree stem and not vertically, on
the side of the lean for trees growing on flat ground and on the uphill side, for trees
growing on sloping ground.
Figure 6: Leaning tree Figure 7: Crooked tree
 The dbh should not be measured at 1.3m if the stem is abnormal at the level. BH mark
should be shifted up or down as little as possible to a more normal position of the stem
and then dia. Measured.
Figure 8: Defect at 1.3m Figure 9: Buttressed tree
 BH should be taken at the lowest point above which the buttress formation is not likely
to extend

 When the tree is forked above the BH, it is counted as one tree, but when it is forked
below BH, each fork should be treated as though it were a separate tree.
Figure 10: Fork at 1.3 m (1 tree) Figure 11: Fork above 1.2 m (1 tree)
Figure 12: Fork below 1.3 m (2 Figure13: Fork below 1.3m (2 trees: alternative method)
trees)
Diameter measuring instruments
 The most commonly used instruments for measuring diameters at BH are: Diameter tape,
calipers, Biltmore stick and other optical instruments.
 Collectively, instruments employed in determining tree diameters are referred to as
dendrometers.
Diameter tape
Figure 15: Tape
 The diameter of a tree cross section may be obtained with a flexible tape by measuring
the circumference of the tree and dividing by π(D=C/ π).
 The diameter tapes used by foresters, however are graduated at intervals of π units (in or
cm), thus permitting a direct reading of diameter.
 A diameter tape is a measuring tape that has scales on both sides: one side is specially
marked to show the diameter of a tree, and the other is a normal scale.

Precautions in using tape
 The tape should not be old. It must lie flat against the tree and not in twisted manner.
 It must lie in a perpendicular to the axis of the tree.
 The tape should be taken care of.
Advantage of tape
 Tape is convenient to carry.
 It does not require constant adjustment.
 Only one measurement is needed even with irregular trees.
 Diameter measurement by tape is the easiest in the case of logs lying on ground.
 The errors in case of tape are always positive and systematic.
 Tape negotiates the whole circumference of the tree.
 Tape readings are more consistent.
Disadvantages of tape
 The tape exaggerates the diameter if the tree has rough bark.
 It is somewhat slower to particularly in areas with dense shrub growth.
Difference in tension of the tape due to elasticity affects true diameter.
Calipers
Figure 16: Caliper
 Calipers are often used to measure tree dbh or when diameters are less than about 60 cm.
 A calipers may be constructed of metal, plastic or wood, consists of a graduated
beam/rule with two perpendicular arms.
 One arm is fixed at the origin of the scale and the other arm slides. When the beam is
pressed against the tree and the arms closed, the beam of the caliper can be read on the
scale.
 For an accurate reading, the beam of the caliper must be pressed against the tree with the
beam perpendicular to the axis of the tree stem and the arms parallel and perpendicular to
the beam.
Diameter measurement using calipers

 Place the calipers over the stem at the required height.
 Record the diameter then take another measurement at a right angle to the first and
record this measurement and
 Calculate the average of the two measurements and record to the nearest to 0.1cm.

Precautions in use
 The calipers must be placed on the tree with movable arm well opened and must not be
forced on the tree.
 The reading must be taken before the caliper is removed from tree.
 If the cross section of the stem is more or less elliptical, it is necessary to measure two
diameters.
 Calipers must be placed at right angles to the axis of the tree.
 The two arms of the caliper must be in contact with the tree and the movable arm should
be at right angles to the scale arm.
 Not only should the two arms of the caliper be in contact with the tree but the scale arm
must also touch it.
Advantages
 Diameters can be read directly in centimeters and millimeters, thus making the
instrument applicable for precise scientific work.
 By pressing the arms against the tree bole, the loose swollen bark is crushed out and
irregularity from this source is avoided.
 It is adaptable for use by unskilled labour.
 The errors are both positive and negative and therefore the chances are that they may
neutralize to give more accurate results than the tape.
Disadvantages
 They are not accurate when not in adjustment.
 Calipers sufficient in size to measure large trees are very awkward to carry and handle.
 Two measurements have to be taken on every tree to get the correct diameter.
 Movable arms often stick when the scale is wet or dirty, thus wasting a lot of time.
2.2 Height Measurement

 Height is the linear distance of an object normal to the surface of the earth.
 Tree height is the vertical distance measured from the ground surface.
 Height of standing tree is measured to find out its volume. Height of selected trees in a
forest are also required to read volume tables, form factor tables, yield tables etc.
 Lastly, heights of trees are required to find out productive capacity of site. Height is
generally considered as an index of fertility and with the knowledge of age it gives a
reliable measure of the site quality of a locality.
Total height of a standing tree is the distance along the axis of
the tree stem between the ground and the tip of the tree.
Bole height is the distance along the axis of tree between
ground level and crown point. (crown point is the position of the
first crown forming branch).
Commercial bole height is the height of bole that is usually fit
for utilization as timber.
Height of standard timber bole is the height of the bole from
the ground level up to the point where average diameter over
bark is 20cm.
Stump height is the distance between the ground and basal
position on the main stem where a tree is cut
Crown length-The vertical measurement of the crown of the

Figure 17: Tree height

tree from the tip to the point half way between the lowest green branches forming green crown
all round and the lowest green branch on the bole.
Crown height - The height of the crown as a measured vertically from the ground level to the
point half way between the lowest green the lowest green branches forming green crown all
round.
2.2.1 Principles of height measurement

 Instruments used for measuring tree heights are collectively referred to as hypsometers.
 All height measuring instruments are based either on geometric principles of similar
triangles or on trigonometric principles based on relations between the sides of right
angled triangle.
2.2.1.1 Trigonometric principles

The principles follow the basic rules of trigonometry for deriving heights of trees from distance
and angle measurements. Two laws are applicable for this purpose and they are: tangent law and
sine law. Instruments based on Trigonometrical principles are Brandis hypsometer, Abney’s
level, Haga Altimeter, Topographical Abney’s level, Relaskop, Tele Relaskop, Barr and Stroud
dendrometer, Blume-Leiss hypsometer
2.2.1.1.1 Tangent law

 Applicable to right angle triangle
 For accurate results, trees must not lean more than 5° from the vertical, and the fixed
horizontal distance must be determined by taped measurement.
2.2.1.1.2 Sine law

 Applicable to non right angle triangle is useful in deriving tree height in difficult
conditions.
 Sines of angles are proportional to the opposite sides.
2.2.1.2 Geometric principle of similar triangle

 Corresponding angles are equal and the corresponding sides are proportional.
 By knowing the two sides of a triangle and only one side of the other, the corresponding
second side of the latter can be found.
 Useful in rough estimation, not reliable for precise work. Eg. Christen’s hypsometer,
Smythies Hypsometer etc.

Method of height measurement
 Techniques for measuring tree height may be direct or indirect and essentially depend on
the position or fate of the tree:
 Felled trees - when the tree is on the ground, measurement of the linear distance from base
to tip or to the merchantable limit is done directly with linear tape or graduated pole.
 Standing trees - height can be measured by either direct or indirect methods (see below).
Indirect methods are most common because the tip or merchantable limit is often
inaccessible.
Basic assumptions in measurement of standing trees:

 The tree is vertical and
 The tip and the base of the tree are simultaneously visible.
1. Direct methods
 Climbing with tape and graduated pole. An accurate approach, but practicable only with
some species under certain conditions. This technique is costly and dangerous and is
normally restricted to experimental projects only.
 Height sticks or rods. A reliable method, with an instrument error less than l%. However
this method can also be expensive for trees in excess of about 20 m.
2. Indirect Methods (Non Instrumental methods and Instrumental methods)
Non instrumental methods
1. Shadow method: a pole of convenient length is fixed upright in the ground and its
height above the ground is measured. The shadows of the pole and the tree are also
measured.
2.
2. Single pole method

Pole of about 1.5 m length vertically at arm’s length in one hand in such a way that
portion of the pole above the hand is equal in length to the distance of the pole from eye.

AB/ab = EB/Eb i.e. AB = EB x ab/Eb
Where,
AB = tree, ac=pole about 1.5 m long, Eb=ab
Instrumental method
 By using instruments like hypsometer, clinometer, altimeters, abneys level etc.
 All these instruments are based either on geometric principle of similar triangles or on
trigonometric principles.
2.2.2 Measurement of height (vertical & leaning) tree in plane and slope areas
Measurement of height of trees on plane area

 The height of the tree is calculated with the help of the tangents of the angle to the top
and the distance of the observer from the tree.
AB = AD + BD = ED tanα + BD = BF tan α + EF
Where, AB = tree, EF = eye height of the observer,
BF = horizontal distance
Measurement of height of trees on sloped area

 Where the observer is standing at such a place that the top of the tree is above the
eye level and the base below it.
AB = AD + DB
= ED tan α + ED tan β = ED (tan α + tanβ)
= EB Cosβ (tan α + tanβ)
 Where top and base of the tree are above the eye
level.
AB = AD-BD
= ED tan α – ED tan β
= ED (tanα-tan β)
= EB cos β (tanα-tan β)

 Where base and top of the tree are below the eye level
AB = BD – AD
= ED tan β – ED tan α
= ED (tan β - tan α)
= EB cos β (tan β - tan α)
Measurement of height of leaning tree

Case-1(a): In case of the observer standing at between the top and bottom of the tree (lean
away from the observer)
exteriorECB  int eriorACB  CBA Therefore
CAB  ECB  CBA
 (900   ) 
 900  (   )
Now in triangle AEB,

AB  EB

SinAEB
Therefore, SinEAB
EBSinAEB
AB 
SinEAB
EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (   )]
EBSin(   )

Cos(   )
Case-1(b): In case of the observer standing at between the top and bottom of the tree (lean
towards the observer)
AB EB

In the triangle ACB, SinAEB SinEAB
exteriorEAB  int eriorACB  ABC Therefore,
 900     EBSinAEB
AB 
 900  (   ) SinEAB

EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (  )]

EBSin(   )

Cos(  )

Case-2(a): When the observer is below the top and bottom of the tree (lean away from the observer)
In the triangle ACB,

CAB  exteriorECB  int eriorCBA
 900   
 900  (   )
AB  EB

SinAEB SinEAB
Therefore,
EBSinAEB
AB 
SinEAB
EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (   )]
EBSin(   )

Cos(   )
Case-2(b): when the observer is below the top and bottom of the tree (lean towards the observer)
In the triangle ACB, exteriorEAB  int eriorACB  ABC

 900    
 900  (   )
AB  EB

SinAEB SinEAB
Therefore,
EBSinAEB
AB 
SinEAB
EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (  )]
EBSin(   )

Cos(  )

Case-3(a): when the observer is above the top and bottom of the tree (lean away from the observer)

CAB  1800 [ACB  ABC]
 1800 [900     ]
 900  (   )
AB  EB

SinAEB SinEAB
Therefore,
EBSinAEB
AB 
SinEAB
EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (  )]
EBSin(   )

Cos(  )
Case-3(b): when the observer is above the top and bottom of the tree (lean is towards the observer)

exteriorEAB  int eriorACB  ABC
 900    
 900  (   )
AB  EB

SinAEB SinEAB
Therefore,
EBSinAEB
AB 
SinEAB
EBSin(   )

Sin[900  (   )]
EBSin(   )

Cos(   )

2.2.3 Instrument used in height measurement
 There are various instruments to measure height of the tree.
 Height measuring instruments are called hypsometer.
 Those instruments based on trigonometric principles are more accurate than the ones
employing geometric principles.
 The Abney’s level, Haga Altimeter, Blume-Leiss Altimeter and Sunto Clinometer are
similar in accuracy.
a. Christen’s Hypsometer
 It is based on the geometric relationships of similar triangles.
 Consists of a strip of metal, thin wood or card board about 2.5cm wide and 33 cm length.
 It has two flanges or protruding edges one at the top and other at the bottom.
 Each flange has a hole in it, the upper one to suspend the instrument by some thread
passing through it at and the lower one to suspend a weight from it to prevent it from
swinging.
 To use it, a pole (usually 5 or 10 ft long) is held upright against the base of the tree, or a
mark is placed on the tree at a height of 5 or 10 ft above the ground.
 The hypsometer is then held vertically at a distance from the eye such that the two inside
edges of the flanges are in line with the top and base of the tree.
 It may be necessary for the observer to move closer to or farther from the tree to
accomplish this, but except for this, the distance from the tree is immaterial.
 The graduation on the scale that is in line with the top of the pole, or the mark, gives the
height of the tree.
 The following proportion gives the formula for graduating the instrument.
A'C' A' B'

AC AB
AC * A' B'
AB 
A'C'
For a given length of instrument A’B’ and a given
pole length or mark height AC, the graduation A’C’
can be obtained by substituting different values of
height AB in the equation.
 Although the christen hypsometer may be
used to measure any type of height, it is
practical only for total height measurements.
 A crowding of graduations at the bottom of
the scale, makes the instrument unreliable for
the determination of the height of tall trees.
Advantages
 It is light, easily made and easy to transport
 The height of the tree can be read directly.
 It is quicker to use and so it is useful in
conditions where speed is required.
Disadvantage
 Extra care has to be taken to hold the top and bottom of the tree within the flanges while
reading the heights.
 It should be held in the true vertical plane
 It is not suitable for more than 30m tree height.
 It requires the use of staff.
 Skill is necessary to use the instrument with consistent accuracy.
b. Sunto clinometers
 Hypsometers based on tangent of angles such as Abney’s level, Haga altimeter, the
Blume-Leiss altimeter and the Sunto clinometers are used in height measurement of
trees.
 The sunto clinometer is a
handheld device house in a
corrosion-resistant aluminum
body.
 A jewel-bearing assembly
supports the scale, and all moving
parts are immersed in a damping
liquid inside a hermetically sealed
plastic capsule.
 The liquid dampens undue scale
Vibrations. Figure 19: Sunto clinometer
 The instrument is held to one eye
and raised as lowered until the baseline is seen at the point of measurement.
 At the same time, the position of the hairline on the scale gives the reading.
 Due to optical illusion, the hairline seems to continue outside the frame and can
be observed at the point of measurement. The instrument is available with
several scale combinations: percent and degrees, percent and topographic,
degrees and topographic, and feet and meter.
 Hypsometers based on the tangents of angle are more accurate than those on similar
triangles.
 When used correctly, the Sunto Clinometer has an accuracy of about +/- 0.5 m for a
20 m tall tree (ie about 2.5%).
Use
1.Measure the horizontal distance from the base of a vertical tree (or the position
directly beneath the tree tip of a leaning tree) to a location where the required point on
the tree (e.g. tree tip) can be seen.
2. Sight at the required point on the tree:
 Using one eye: Close one eye and simultaneously look through the Sunto at the scale
and 'beside' the Sunto at the tree. Judge where the horizontal line on the Sunto scale
would cross the tree.
 Both eyes: With one eye looking at the Sunto scale and the other looking at the tree,
allow the images to appear to be superimposed on each other and read where the
horizontal line on the Sunto scale crosses the tree. Note: If you suffer from
astigmatism (a common situation where the eyes are not exactly parallel), use the one
eye approach.
3.Read from the percent scale and multiply this percentage by the horizontal distance
measured in step 1.
4. Site to the base of the tree and repeat steps 2 - 3.
5. Combine the heights from steps 3 and 4 to determine total tree height:
– Add the 2 heights together if you looked up to the required point in step 2 and
down to the base of the tree in step 4.
– Subtract the height to the base of the tree from the height to the required point if
you are on sloping ground and had to look up to both the required point and the
base of the tree.
6. Check all readings and calculations.
b. Abney’s level
 It is used to measure tree heights as well as land elevations.
 The instrument consists of a
graduated arc mounted on a
sighting tube about 6 inches
long.
 The arc may have a degree,
percentage or topographic scale.
 When the level bubble, which is
attached to the instrument, is
rotated while a sight is taken, a
small mirror inside the tube
makes it possible to observe
when the bubble is horizontal.
 The angle between the bubble tube and Figure 20: Abney's level
sighting tube may be read on the arc.
 The abney’s level, however, is slower to use, and large vertical angles are difficult to
measure because of the effect of refraction on observations of the bubble through the
tube beneath.
 This makes the abney level difficult to use in tall timber that is so dense that the tops
cannot be seen from a considerable distance.
 When used correctly, the Abney Level has an accuracy of about +/- 0.5 m for a 20 m tall
tree (ie about 2.5%).
Use
1. Measure the horizontal distance from the base of a vertical tree (or the position directly
beneath the tree tip of a leaning tree) to a location where the required point on the tree
(e.g. tree tip) can be seen.
2. Sight at the required point and move the index arm over the scale until the bubble tube is
level.
3. Read the percentage scale (or the degrees and minutes of the angle).
4. Calculate the height by multiplying the percentage read by the horizontal distance (or by
multiplying the horizontal distance by Tan of the angle).
5. Site to the base of the tree and repeat steps 2 - 4.
6. Combine the heights from steps 4 and 5 to determine total tree height:
– Add the 2 heights together if you looked up to the required point in step 2 and
down to the base of the tree in step 5.
– Subtract the height to the base of the tree from the height to the required point if
you are on sloping ground and had to look up to both the required point and the
base of the tree.
7. Check all readings and calculations.
Advantages
 It gives accurate angles of elevation and depression
 Reading can be taken after sighting the tree without disturbing the index.
 It is small and light and can be used even in hills without difficulty.
Disadvantages
a. Shaking of the hand makes the sighting of the top or bottom of the tree a little difficult and
time consuming.
b. The spirit level has to be adjusted by moving the head of the screw while simultaneously
looking to the top or bottom of the tree.

d) Vertex & Transponder
Fig: Vertex and Transponder

Vertex
The vertex is primarily used to measure the height of standing trees. The instrument can also be used
to measure distance, horizontal distance, angle and inclination. The vertex uses the ultrasonic
measuring technique for measurement. The Vertex have three keys: Two arrow keys and one ON
key.
To increase and optimize the accuracy, the instrument should be calibrated (marked) before reaching
the correct current temperature. Therefore, when calibrating, it is of almost important that the
instrument has been given time to stabilize at ambient temperature. Again, it is important give the
instrument approximately ten minute set to correct temperature before calibrating.
Transponder
Transponder is a device of receiving a radio channel and automatically transmitting of different
signal. Start the Transponder and place it on the tree to be measured. Note that the transponder
should be place at the 'T' height (Transponder height) that has been determined in the setting men.
Use of Vertex and Transponder

A transponder (temporarily attached to the tree at breast height) and the hand unit use sonic pulses
to determine the range from the tree. The hand unit contains an angle reading device and a simple
computer chip to calculate height above the transponder.
Important Precautions to Take While Using Vertex and Transponder

1. The Vertex uses ultrasonic signals to determined distance. Humidity air, pressure, surrounding
noise and temperature that can affect the range and extension of the ultrasonic signals.
2. In some cases, distance of 50m and greater can be measured without problems and in other cases
the maximum distance can be shorter than 30m.
3. Check the instruments daily and recalibrate it necessary. Don't touch the temperature sensor at the
front of the instruments and never calibrate the instrument before it has reached ambient temperature.
4. When measuring heights, it is important to hold the instrument as stated as possible.

Special considerations in measuring tree heights
 It is difficult to measure accurately the height of large flat crowned trees. There is
tendency to overestimate their heights.
 The optimum viewing distance for any hypsometer is the distance along the slope equal
to the height to be measured. This rule of thumb should be used with discretion.
 Since all hypsometers assume that trees are vertical, tress leaning away from an observer
will be underestimated and trees leaning towards an observer will be overestimated. This
error will be minimized if measurements are taken such that the lean is to the left or right
of the observer.
 The measurement of tree height with an accurate hypsometer is slow and expensive.
2.2.4 Sources of errors in height measurement
 Measuring the height of trees is time consuming and prone to errors.
 Experience has shown that when indirect methods are used to measure height,
measurement from two independent positions is essential.
 The readings from the two positions should agree within the limits of instrumental error
- this is an absolute check on instrument and operator error (sighted to correct tip, etc.).
 Thus, differences of up to 1 m in readings for a 40 m tree are acceptable - precision of
instruments under forest conditions is no better than this.
The most common errors include:
 The sources of the major errors in height measurement are:
1. Failure to measure correctly the horizontal distance from the observer to the tree
If the distance from the observer to the tree is not measured horizontally, the observer
will stand too near the tree, and the height will be overestimated by the direct reading on
the instrument scale.
2. Wind sway
Wind causes tree tops to sway and this can be very serious hindrance in tree height
measurement and cause serious errors. Accurate readings cannot be made in high winds.
The errors may be reduced by averaging readings taken at the extremes of the sway
towards and away from the observer.
3. Leaning trees
If the tree is leaning away from the observer, height will be under estimated and if the
lean is towards the observer, height will be overestimated.
4. Non linearity of the relationship of tree height and angle of sight.
The smaller the angle of the sight the easier it is to define the highest point in the crown;
but the nearer the angle of sight to 450 the smaller is the error caused by an inaccurate
reading of that angle. The best compromise between these two conflicting considerations
is to select the observation point so that the angle of sight lies between 300 and 450, i.e
the observer should stand between one and one-and-a-half times the tree height away
from the tree. Angles greater than 450 must be avoided as the probability of mistaking a
side branch for the top of the tree is unacceptably high.
5. Instrument error. All instruments should be checked periodically against some standard
or known height and adjust as necessary.
6. Operator and recording error. - Personal error is always likely, e.g.
 incorrect setting of distance or booking of angles and distances, incorrect reading;
 forgetting to add on the section of tree below eye level or forgetting to sight to the tree base;
 Measuring to wrong tip - shaking the tree may help!
 Difference of opinion amongst observers in nominating the tip of an umbrageous crown.

Some important questions
Short questions
1. What is the relationship between girth, diameter and radius?
2. Find the diameter of the tree, if its girth is 35 cm.
3. What are the appropriate instruments used for measuring the diameter above breast height?
4. Find the girth under bark if the bark thickness is 1 cm and girth over bark is 19 cm.
5. What is bole height and total height of tree?
6. Define crown length and crown height of tree?
7. Find the crown length, if total height of tree is 15 m and crown height is 10 m?
8. Find Crown Point, if total height of tree is 15 m and the distance between tips to bole height is 10 m.
9. What are the instruments used in height measurement of tree?
10. What are the principles of similar triangle in height measurement?
11. Describe about the tangent principle in tree height measurement.
12. Write about the sine principle in tree height measurement.
13. What are the errors in height measurement?
Long questions
1. What is the applicable breast height to measure the diameter in Nepal and why?
2. What are the key instruments used in diameter measurement, describe any one of them?
3. What are the standard governing rules to measure the diameter, describe in detail?
4. A hypsometer was used to measure the height of the tree, if the line dividing the cardboard and
5. meeting the top of the staff gauge recorded,
6. Length of lower part of cardboard is 5.5 cm, total length of cardboard is 33 cm and total length
7. of staff gauge is 4 m, find the height of the tree.
8. How does the leaning angle of tree measure in the field?
9. Find the height of the tree if the observer is standing 15 m away from the bottom of the tree and
making angle of elevation to the top is 600 and angle of depression to the bottom is 300.
10. Find the height of the tree, if a 1.5 m forester is standing 15 m from the bottom of the tree and making
angles of elevation to the top and bottom 450 and 300 respectively.
11. Find the height of the tree, if a 1.5 m forester is standing 15 m away from the bottom of the tree and
making angles of depression to the top and bottom 300 and 600 respectively.
Lean Tree Problems (Extra )
12. If the tree is leaning 50 outward from the observer, a 1.5 m observer is standing 15 m from the bottom
of the tree, making angle of elevation to the top 450 and angle of depression to the bottom is 300, find
the height of the tree.
13. If the tree is leaning 50 toward the observer, a 1.5 m observer, standing 15 m far from the bottom of
the tree is making angle of elevation to the top 450 and angle of depression to the bottom is 300, find
the height of the tree.
14. If the tree is leaning 50 away from the observer, a 1.5 m observer, standing 15 m far from the bottom
of the tree is making angles of elevation to the top and bottom 600 and 300 respectively, find the height
of the tree.
the tree is making angles of elevation to the top and bottom 600 and 300 respectively, find the height of
the tree.
16. If the tree is leaning 50 away from the observer, a 1.5 m observer, standing 15 m far from the bottom
of the tree is making angles of depression to the top and bottom 300 and 600 respectively, find the
height of the tree.
the tree is making angles of elevation to the top and bottom 300 and 450 respectively, find the height of
the tree.

Unit-3: Measurement of Form
Tree Stem Form
 Form is the rate of taper of a log or stem
 It is the decrease in diameter of a stem of a tree or
of a log from base upward.
 The taper varies not only with species, age, site
and crop density but also in the different parts of
the same tree.
 The basal portion of the tree corresponds to the
frustum of a neiloid, the middle portion to the
frustum of a paraboloid, and the top portion to the
cone
 Trees often are combinations of form.
Metzger’s Theory or Girder Theory
 Several theory put forward to explain variations in

taper from tree to tree and in the same tree as well
 Metzer’s theory assumes that the tree stem should
be considered as a cantilever beam of uniform size
against the bending force of the wind. Figure 31: Tree form
 The wind pressure acts on the crown and is conveyed to the lower parts of the stem in an
increasing measure with the increasing length of the bole.
 Thus, the biggest pressure is exerted at the base and there is a danger of trees snapping at
the place, to counteract this tendency, the tree reinforces itself towards the base.
 The pressure of wind crown keeps on changing as the tree is growing in open crowded
portion.
 Tapering increase if it is an isolated area, an area where largest density, in the area
tapering decreases.
 Though tapering is the natural process which can be controlled by human interference. If
competition increases, tapering decreases.
 Trees growing in complete isolation or exposed situation have short but rapidly tapering
boles while the trees growing in dense crops, which are therefore subjected to lesser
wind pressure, have long and nearly cylindrical boles.
Mathematically,
Let,
p= a force applied to a cantilever beam at its free end
l= the distance of a given cross section from the point of applications of this force
d= the diameter of the beam at the point
s= the bending stress in kg/cm2
By the rule of mechanics,


S  p *l * 32
d3 

As the force p in case of trees consists of components
W= wind pressure per unit area, F= crown area, than p=w*F
Then,
w * F * l 32
s *
d3 
32 * w * F * l
d3
*s
 For a given tree w, F, s can be considered as constant, therefore d3= kl, where k is a
constant
 Thus, the diameter raised to the third power increases proportionately with lengthening
of the lever or with the increasing distance from the central point of application of wind
force
 According to this logic, the tree stem must have the shape of a cubic paraboloid.
Methods of studying form

1. By comparisons of standard form ratios (form factor and form quotient)
2. By classification of form on the basic of form ratios and
3. By compilation of taper table
3.1 Form factor and its type

 Form factor is the ratio of the volume of a tree or its part to the volume of a cylinder
having the same length and cross section as the tree.
 It is the ratio between the volume of a tree to the product of basal area and height.
V
F
Sh
Where,
F  form factor
V  tree volume in cubic units
S  basal area at breast - height in area units
h  height of the tree in linear units
Types of form factor
1. Artificial form factor
 Known as breast-height form factor

 Basal area or diameter measured at dbh and the volume refers to the whole tree both
above and below the point of measurement.
 It is not reliable guide to the tree form.
 Diameter measurement is fixed, but no fixed relation exists to the height of the tree and
portion above the breast height.
 Trees of same form but different heights will have different form factor.
 Universally used for its handy measurement and standardization of diameter at breast
height.
 A useful application is for quick-and-dirty volume estimates, assuming a constant form
factor.

2. Absolute form factor
 It is the ratio between the volume of the tree above the point of diameter or basal area
measurement with the cylinder which has the same basal area and whose height is equal to the
height of the tree above that point.
 Basal area is measured at any convenient height and the volume refers to that part of the tree
above the point of measurement
3. Normal form factor
 Basal area is measured at a constant proportion of the total height of the tree, e.g 1/10th , 1/20th
etc. of the total height and the volume refers to the whole tree above ground level.
Disadvantages
1. The height of tree to be determined before the point of measurement can be fixed.
2. Point of measurement very inconvenient in case both very tall and short trees.
Absolute form factor and normal factor are no longer used. Unless stated, form factor implies
artificial form factor whose basal area calculated at 1.3 m. The natural form factor corresponding
to the total volume of a stem is generally between 0.3 and 0.6.
Uses of form factor

1. To estimate volume of standing trees
 Form factor compiled in tabular form to give average form factor of different dimensions by dbh
and height classes.
 Table used to estimate volume by measuring dbh and height.
 Table prepared from measuring large number of trees, so application to individual tree not
satisfactory, however used to estimate volume of group trees.
 Uses limited to similar growing conditions
2. To study laws of growth
 Gives insight to laws of growth, particularly to stem form of trees.
Kinds of form factor

Depending upon volume represented, form factor may be of following kinds
1. Tree form factor
2. Stem timber form factor
3. Stem small wood form factor
Form Height
It is the product of form factor and total height of the tree.
𝑉
𝐹ℎ =
𝑆
Where,
Fh  form height
V  volume of the tree S  basal area
Volume is calculated from under bark measurements and the basal area is calculated from dbh
(ob). Form height is used to determine how far is it reasonable to assume that volume is
proportional to the basal area. If form height remains constant with increasing diameter, then it is
clear that the assumption is justified.

3.2 Form quotient and its type
Form Quotient
 It is the ratio between the mid-diameter and the dbh.
mid - diameter
F.Q 
dbh
 Taper depends upon form quotient (A. Schiffel)
Types of form quotient

1. Normal form quotient
 Ratio of mid-diameter or mid-girth of a tree to its diameter or girth at breast height.
2. Absolute form quotient
 Ratio of diameter or girth of a stem at one half its heights above the breast height to the
diameter or girth at breast height.
Form quotient is the third independent variable of volume table that can be used to predict
the volume of a tree stem.
Form Class
 Form class is defined as one of the intervals in which the range of form quotients of trees
is divided for classification and use.
 It also implies to the class of trees which fall into such an interval.
 Trees may be grouped into form classes expressed by form quotient intervals such as
0.50 to 0.55, 0.55 to 0.60 and so on or by mid-points of these intervals such as 0.525,
0.575 and so on.
Form Point Ratio

 It is defined as the point in the crown as which wind pressure is estimated to be cantered.
 Form point ratio is defined as the relationship, usually expressed as a percentage, of the
height of the form point above ground level to the total height of the tree.
 Form point ratio bears a consistent relation to the form quotient.
 If form point ratio is known, the form quotient and form class of a tree can be
determined.
3.3 Taper table and formulae

 It provides the actual form by diameters at fixed points from the base to the tip of a tree.
 Volume tables can thus be prepared from taper tables in desired unit.
Use of taper table

1. Volume of the average tree for each diameter and height class can be found readily in
office without direct measurement. The only measurement that will be needed is the dbh
(ob) and the height of standing tree.
2. Volume table can be prepared from taper tables in desired units.
The ultimate purpose of all taper tables is to show upper stem diameters, which can
then be used to calculate the volume of the sections of a tree and the entire tree.
Taper tables can assume several forms.

Types of taper table
1. Ordinary taper table or diameter taper table
 It gives the taper directly for diameter at breast- height without reference to the tree form.
2. Form class taper table
 This tables gives for different form classes the diameters at fixed points on the stem
expressed as percentage of dbh (u.b)
General formulae or equations for tree form
 Taper equation represent the expected diameter as a function of height above ground,
total tree height and dbh irrespective of tree species and generalized for form class
 Many different forms of taper equations have been developed as no single one can
adequately represent all species in all situations. The use of taper equations allow us to
obtain volumes for any desired portion of a tree stem by predicting upper stem diameters.
Bark Measurement
 The thickness of the bark and its percentage of volume in the tree or log are important
parameters in mensuration because most measurements on standing trees have to be
made on over bark.
 Some species have very thick bark. In general, bark thickness varies with: species, age,
genotype, rate of growth and position in the tree
 The bark thickness of the living tree may be measured with little damage to the trees
using a Swedish Bark Gauge
Vob  Vub
Bark Percent  *100
Vob
Where,
Vob  Volume over bark
Vub  Volume under bark
Possible questions
Short questions
1. What is form of the tree?
2. Define the taper of the tree?
3. Why artificial form factor is also known as the breast height form factor?
4. What is the condition of defective in normal form quotient and how it can be removed?
5. What is form height, please mention the formula?
6. What is the shape of basal portion of tree? or How does the middle portion of tree correspond to
the shape or form of the tree?
7. How does the middle portion of tree correspond to the shape or form of the tree?
8. How does the top portion of tree correspond to the shape or form of the tree?
Long questions
1. What is Metzger's theory or Girder theory to measure the tree form?
2. Describe about the form factor of the tree and write its application.
3. Write about the form quotient to measure the tree and describe about the form class and form
point ratio as well.

4. Measurement of felled trees and Fuel wood
Some terminology
Basal area: the area of a cross section of a stem at breast height
Billet: A piece of round wood about one meter in length usually cut for pulp or firewood
Cull: the portion of a tree stem or log which is unmerchantable
Log: The stem of a tree or a length of stem or branch after felling and trimming (BCFT)
Growing Stock: The sum total of the bio mass of trees standing in a forest.
Increment: The increase in girth class, diameter, basal area, height, volume, quantity, site, price or
value of individual crops during a given period.
4.1 Measurement of length, diameter and sectional area of logs

 The ultimate object of all mensuration activity in forest is to calculate or estimate quantity
of wood contained in trees and consequently in crops not only for sale but also for research,
predicting future yields, estimating increment to assess return on capital etc.
 Measurement of felled trees are to determine the quantity of merchantable volume to
obtain statistical data that could be applied to standing trees for the purpose of estimation
the yield, to estimate the growing stock and to estimate the increment of woods and forests.
 Volume estimation may be made most accurately when the logs are separated and
accessible to the measurer
 A tree, therefore, could be separated into stem wood, which may be further divided into
timber and small wood, crown and branch wood.
 Stem wood may be measured after division into sections for obtaining real volume
 The measurement requires length and mid diameter or mid girth except where the tip is
measured as frustum of a cone where the diameter or girth at the ends is measured.
 Logs are neither cylinder nor often of any regular geometric shape. Therefore in order to
calculate the volume, the shape of a quadratic paraboloid is adopted.
 It is usual to cut the tree into logs due to irregularity in tree tapers.
 The length of the logs depends upon the rate of taper and market requirements.
 As the diameter at the thin end of the log determines the sawn volume that can be taken
out of it, the greater the rate of taper, the lesser is the length of the log.
 Another consideration that affects the length of log is the mode of transport
 When the logs are made for calculating volume of felled trees for research work, all logs
including the first are of uniformly 3m in length except the top end log which may be up
to 4.5 m. But if the end section is more than 1.5m in length, it is left separate rate log.
 Simple tape or a graduated rod can be used to measure the length of a given logs.
 Similarly, diameter tape, caliper and other optical instrument are used to measure the
diameter and sectional area of logs.
 Logs ate the round piece with square cut ends./Normally, a log is 6 or 8 ft over in length
and suitable for lumber.
 The cross sectional area or basal is found from the diameter as follows:
d 2
Basal Area 
4
4.2 Formulae for log volume calculation
When calculating volumes of logs and trees we normally assume that the sections are circular, or
at least that diameters are such that the area of the section is πD2/4.

It is customary in forest mensuration to take the shape of logs and trees as similar to certain
solids of revolution, the cylinder, paraboloid, cone, or neiloid.
More generally, different parts from the tree resemble portions of these solids. The crown part,
in conifers, tends to the cone form. The stem central part approaches a paraboloid. The base of
the tree expands in a form similar to the neiloid, although generally values of n greater than 3
come closer.
A. Prismoidal or Newton’s formula

S1  4Sm  S2
V *l
6
Where, V  Volume of Logs
S1  the sectional area at the thick end
Sm  the sectional area at the middle
S2  the sectional area at the thin end
l  the length or height of the solid
 It is the best and accurate method for volume calculation

 It gives particularly the volume of frustum of Neiloid ( as well as other sections)
 It is only used to calculate the error in volume calculated by other formula
 It is difficult to apply particularly when the logs are stacked
B. Smalian’s formula
S1  S2
V *l
2
Where,
V  Volume of Logs
S1  the sectional area at the thick end
S2  the sectional area at the thin end
 It gives the volume of frustum of paraboloid ( also cylinder)

 It over estimates the volume
 It is used when the logs are stacked or lying on the ground
C. Huber’s formula
V  Sm *l
Where,
Sm  the sectional area at the middle
 It gives the volume of frustum of paraboloid ( also cylinder)
 It under estimates the volume
 It is difficult to apply particularly when the logs are stacked.
 It is more easy and accurate than Smalian’s formula
D. Quarter Girth formula (Hoppus’s rule)
2
 g 
V    *l
 4 
Where,
g  the girth of the log at the middle
l  the length of the log
 This is the system of measurement used in Great Britain and also in Nepal for sale
purpose when round timber is sold by volume
 This formula gives only 78.5% of the cubic volume of cylinders, thus allowing a loss of
21.5%
Volume of sawn timber
Figure 28: Sawn timber
 It is the simple product of three dimensions; length, breadth and height

 Volume of sawn timber varies according to its cross sectional size and length.
4.3 Volume of stacked timber

 Products such as firewood and pulp logs are frequently commercialized according to
their volume in piles or stacks.
 A stere metre is the volume of a stack of 1×1×1
metres (a cubic metre stacked), and it is used for
firewood
 This volume contains air space and wood in
variable proportions according to the form of logs
 Piling co-efficient has to be used to get the Figure 29: Stacked timber
actual volume

 Other important factors in the solid content are the irregularity of the logs, the variability
of the diameters, and the bark thickness.
 Movement during transport can also introduce important changes.
4.4 Dimension and volume of chatta (stacked fuelwood)

 Standard size of chatta=
5ft.*5ft. *20ft. = 500 cft
including air space
 One chatta in metric unit=
14.16m3
 The following formula
should be used in order to
calculate the amount of Figure 30: Chatta
fuelwood that is obtained from the total volume up to 10 cm
top-diameter of class III and the remaining portions up to 10 cm top-diameter of class I

and II trees which would not be used as timber.
Volume of chatta
 0.8778 *Vol.I 1.4316 *Vol.II  3*Vol.III 

Amount of fuelwood in terms of number of chatta   
1000

Where,
Vol.I gross volume of up to 20 cm top diameter of class I trees
Vol.II gross volume of up to 20 cm top diameter of class II trees
Vol.III  Gross volume of up to 10 cm top diameter of class III trees
 All trees except Khair having dbh of 27.94 cm (11 inch) or above should be classified as
below
Class I = Green, dead or dying, standing or uprooted tree having good and solid trunk in
which sign of any disease or wound is not visible from outside
Class II = Green, dead or dying, standing or uprooted tree in which complete volume could
not be realized due to hollowness or other sign of defect but at least two straight logs of
each 1.83 m (6ft) long or one straight log of 30.5 m (10 ft) long which should have at
least 20 cm diameter could be recovered.
Class III = Remaining trees which do not fall under class I and class II
Solid volume of fire wood

 The stacked volume is not the actual volume of firewood, it is only for the convenience
of paying the labour in the forest where there is no arrangement for weightage.
 Solid volume of firewood in a stock depends upon several factors such as care in
stacking, form of billets, length of billets and their diameter

(i) Xylometric method (Water displacement):
The most accurate method measuring volume of an irregularly shaped solid is by measuring the
volume of water that it will displace. For example, the cubic volume of any part of a tree or small
wood or firewood or billet may be found by submerging it into a tank in which the water
displacement can be read accurately. The tank is also called as xylometer. But it is essential to cut
the section into a piece so that it can be fit into the xylometer (Young at el, 1967).
W=weight of stacked wood,

w=wt of submerged wood
V=volume of stacked wood and
v=volume of small wood
Therefore, V=W*v/w
W*v
V
w
 This method is cumbersome and seldom used in practice
(ii) Specific gravity method

If the specific gravity of wood is known the volume can be calculated.
Specific gravity of piece of wood=weight of wood/ weight of same volume of water
=Density of wood/ density of water
the density of pure water is 1 gm/cc.
Volume (cc)= weight (gm)/specific gravity
 Specific gravity is a unitless measure of mass.

 If specific gravity of wood is known than volume can be calculated.
Specific gravity of a piece of wood  Weight of wood
Weight of same volume of water
Density of wood
Specific gravity of a piece of wood 
Density of water
Weight (gms)
Volume 
Specific gravity
 As density for pure water is 1 gm per cc, the density of wood in gm per cc is the same as
its specific gravity minus the units.
 Specific gravity typically varies from 0.35 to 0.81 for most commercial tree species

Questions for the chapter
Short question
2. What are factors affecting the length of log?
3. Write down the formula of volume given by Smalien.
4. Write down the formula of volume given by Huber.
5. Write down the formula of volume given by Newton.
6. Which volume calculation formula is most precise?
Long question
1. How do you calculate the weight of the firewood?
2. What are the formulae used for volume calculation of stacked and unstacked timber and also compare
the volumes with Newton's volume calculation formula?
3. Calculate and compare the volume of log using Huber's, Smalien's and Newton's formula, if it's mid
girth is 35 inches, lower end girth is 30 inches and upper end girth is 40 inches and length is 12 ft.

Unit-5 Volume Table
 Another method of estimating the volume of standing trees is to use the volume table of that
species.
 Volume table is defined as a table showing for a given species the average content of trees, logs or
sawn timber for one or more given dimension. The given dimension may be
i) D.b.h
ii) D.b.h and height
iii) D.b.h, height and some measure of form or taper.
 The main objective of these table is to estimate the volume of an average standing tree of known
dimensions and thus to estimate the volume of a given crop or of marked trees in a given coupe.
 These tables are based on the actual measurement of sufficiently large number of trees and have
been prepared on the assumptions that the same species with the same dimensions will have the
same volume.
 The volume table does not give the exact volume of an individual because the volume of an
individual tree may be different from the average based on several individuals. Therefore the
volume table approach can be truly applied only to a group of trees, eg. Coupe, but not to individual
trees.
 The volume table depends mainly on three variables, viz., diameter, height and form.
 The choice of variable depends on the application, simplicity, speed with which they have to be
applied and desired accuracy.
 Diameter at breast-height is the most important of the three variables. Next to this comes the height
and last of all the form.
 An error of 10% in diameter results in the greater error in volume than a similar error in height or
form because the error in diameter measurement gets squared while calculating sectional area.
Types of volume table

1) On the basis of number of variable
2) On the basis of scope of application
3) On the basis of the kind of outturn
On the basis of number of variable

a) Volume table based on one variable(Diameter)
 Trees are classified by d.b.h only
 shows average volume of trees by diameter class
 They can be used only locally and hence these are called local volume tables
 These are easy and quick to use as they require the measurement of only d.b.h.
b) Volume table based on two variables(d.b.h. and height)

 As trees of same diameter may have the different height and different volume in
different localities, volume table based on these two variables, are applicable to larger
areas.
 gives volume by diameter class as well as height class

c) Volume table based on three variables(dbh, height and form quotient)
 These tables are based on the diameter, height and form quotient and are called the
form class volume tables.
 Though these are more accurate, these are expensive and difficult to prepare and
inconvenient and time consuming in their application.
 They have been prepared in Sweden and England.
On the basis of scope of application

a) General volume Table
 These volume tables are based on the average volume of trees growing over the large
geographical areas.
 These tables are usually based on two variables, viz., d.b.h. and total tree height.
 These tables shows volume of trees by diameter class and in each diameter class by height
class.
 These table are used for deriving local volume tables.
b) Regional volume table
These are compiled from measurement of trees growing in a region and therefore have a
limited application when compared to general volume table.
c) Local Volume Table
 These volume tables are compiled from the measurements of trees growing in restricted
locality.
 These are generally based on one independent variable, viz., D.b.h.
 The local volume table are used for :-
i. estimating the volume of the standing trees before felling with the object of regulating yield
in accordance with working plan prescriptions
ii. for making confidential estimate of the volume of coupe
 These are easier prepared directly from field data or derived from general volume table, either
by graphical method or by regression equation method.
On the basis of the kind of outturn

a) Standard volume table
 These volume table gives separately the estimated outturn in the form of standard
timber, i.e., from ground level to the limit of the portion of tree stem or branch where
diameter is 20cm measured over bark
 The volume is given in term of round timber and includes volume of stump
 Standard stem timber excludes the volume of bark while standard small
timber (5cm-20cm) includes it.
b) Commercial Volume table
These are the volume tables in which the contents of round timber are given as volume
measured down to the thin end diameter to which conversion is done, the stump volume
being omitted.
c) Sawn outturn tables
 These are the volume tables in which the contents of sawn timber are given as volume
measured down to a thin end diameter to which conversion is done, the stump volume
is omitted.
 These gives volume of sawn timber instead of volume in round as commercial volume
table.

d) Assortment tables
 These are volume tables which gives volume in round down to various stated thin end
diameters.
 It gives volume upto 25cm, 20cm or 15cm diameter limit. Thus, the standard volume
table and commercial volume table are special case of assortment table.
e) Sawn outturn assortment tables
These tables are similar to assortment tables expect that they give sawn outturn in the
number of standardized pieces instead of volume in round.
Difference between local and general volume table

GENERAL VOLUME TABLE
 Table showing average height, diameter and volume is called general volume
table
 Assumption: trees of the same species with the same dimensions will have same
volume
 Based on average volume of trees growing over a large geographic area
 Applicable to a wide range of distribution of species
 Based on usually more independent variable i.e. dbh and height
 It has limited direct application
 Used for deriving local volume tables and other volume tables
 Prepared from felled trees
 Confidence interval high i.e. less precise
LOCAL VOLUME TABLE

 Table showing average diameter and volume is called local volume table
 Assumption: Trees of the same diameter will have the same height will hold good of
same species
 Based on average volume of trees growing over a small restricted area
 Applicable to a small area of species distribution
 Based on one independent variable i.e. dbh
 Directly applicable to a species designed for the area
 Used for estimating volume of individual standing tree or stands
 Can also be prepared from standing trees
 Confidence interval low i. e. more precise
SN Local Volume Table General Volume Table
1. Table showing volume with respect to Table showing the volume with respect to average
average height and dbh is called general dbh is called local volume table
volume table
2. Assumption: trees of the same species with Assumption: Trees of the same diameter will have the
the same dimensions will have same same ht will hold good of same species
volume
3. Based on the average volume of trees Based on the average volume of trees growing over a
growing in a restricted locality. large geographical area
4. Based on One variable i.e. dbh Based on two variables i.e. dbh and height

5. Applicable to restricted localities Applicable to a wider range of distribution of species
6. Show volumes of trees by Show volumes of trees by diameter classes and in

diameter classes each diameter class by height classes
7. Can be derived from GVT Can’t be derived from LVT

8. Prepared from felled trees Can also be prepared from standing trees
9. Confidence interval high i.e. less precise Confidence interval low i. e. more precise
Method of preparation of local volume table

The local volume table is prepared based on the field base data by directly collecting from the field and
derived from the general volume table.
1. Graphical method
2. Regression equation method (method of least square fit)
1. Graphical method
The local volume table preparation

A. Based on direct data collected from the field:
• Step 1. Selection of tree: Sufficient number of sound, defective free and with straight
bole trees are selected for preparation of local volume table.
• Step 2. Measurement and recording: Diameter and height of trees are measured and
recorded. They are grouped according to diameter and height classes.
Tree no Diameter cm Height m
• Step 3. Calculation and curve: The average volume for each diameter class is calculated
using the standard formula. Then, the graph of average volume against the mean
diameter is drawn.
Tree no Diameter cm Height m Volume m3

• Step 4. Local volume table preparation:
The local volume is presented as following. This is the table showing diameter class and
volume of trees.
Diameter class Volume
5-10 cm 0.4
10-15 cm 1.01
15-20 cm 1.6
20 -25 cm 2.3
25-30 cm 2.1

B) Derivation of Local Volume Table from General Volume Table
• Since the General Volume Table gives the volume of tree by diameter and height classes
based on data collected from wider range of distribution, the local volume table can be
derived from this. For this same method is applied,
• Step 1. Selection of trees: Selecting some trees that represent the locality are measured.
• Step 2. Measurement and recording: Diameter and height of trees are measured and
recorded of selected trees. They are grouped according to diameter and height classes.
Tree no. Diameter(cm) Height(M)
1 26 18
2 37 22
3 42 24
4 50 26
5 58 28
Step 3. Calculation and tabulation: The figures of general volume table are plotted against the
middle diameter class for each height class separately. Thus there will be the same number of
curves as the number of height classes in order to distinguish them; they should be given a
number equivalent to the middle of the height to which it pertains. For example: the general
volume of Deodar is given.
• General volume table of Deodar (Cedrus deodara)

Volume (m3)
dbh Height(m)
(cm) 17 23 29 35 41
15 0.03 0.068 0.106
20 0.114 0.182 0.25
25 0.222 0.329 0.435 0.541
30 0.355 0.508 0.661 0.814
35 0.512 0.72 0.929 1.137 1.345
95 7.343 8.879 10.415

100 8.145 9.847 11.549

• Step 4 : Curve drawing: The curve will be drawn as shown below
• Step 5. Local Volume Table
Having potted all points, a smooth curve is drawn through this points. The curve thus obtained
is the desired local volume table curves. From this curve volume may be read at the middle of
diameter class and tabulated to give diameter classes and volume. This table is then called the
local volume table.
Diameter Volume
(cm) (m3)
30-40 0.65
40-50 1.3
50-60 2.25
60-70 3.55
70-80 5.75
80-90 8.1

Information available on Volume Table
 Name of the species – both common and scientific name
 Distribution of the species
 Basic data: locality factors, number of trees measured, increment boring, stem or stump
analysis
 The method of compilation and computation
 Mathematical equation (volume equation)
 Applicability
Volume table will have different tables

 Table of basic average like height and diameter, form factor
 Table of individual and aggregate checks
 Table for under bark volume, over bark volume
 Table for bark thickness or bark percentage
 Other tables: diameter growth table, commercial volume table and conversion factor
Advantages of volume table

 Easy to assess the volume of standing trees
 Easy to use
 The calculation is time/money/man power consuming and need extra instrument which
 volume table doesn’t need
 More convenient and easy to apply in field
 Measurements and calculation can be done simultaneously in the field
 Standard to use because it will have more precision (up to .001)
Disadvantages of volume table

 Not use for single tree but can be used for group or coup of trees
 Same height and Diameter of same trees doesn’t give same volume
 Volume tables have limited use depends up on the locality, aspect, altitude (even for same
species)
 Measurements also make differences to develop the volume table (so consideration of
accuracy)
 Research works requires more sample tree measurement
 The volume table completely reliant on average height and diameter use.

Unit-6
Sampling and Enumeration
6.1. Definition and scope of sampling
 Sampling is the process in which enumeration is to be done only in a representative portion

of the whole.
 In Sampling, the information is obtained only from a part of the population assuming that
it is the representative of the whole. A part is studied and on that basis, the conclusion is
drawn for the entire population.
 For example, a forest area may be of 1000 ha out of which only 100 ha have been selected
for enumeration and estimate of the whole population of 1000 ha is made, it is called
sampling.
6.2 Concept of Sampling

 Population
A finite (or infinite) set of objects whose properties are to be studied in a survey. It is the
aggregate of all units, however, sampled, forming the subject of study. The term is used in
statistics.
 Sample
A finite subset of the population selected from it for the purpose of the study/investigation.
Or
A subset of the target population chosen so as to be representative of that population.
 Sampling unit:
The population is divided into suitable units for the purpose of sampling.
 Types of sampling units in forest surveys are:
 Compartments,
 topographical sections,
 strips of a fixed width,
 Plots of definite shape and size etc.
43
 Sampling frame:
The list of sampling units from which the sample units are to be selected is called sampling
frame.
 Sample Size:
Sample size refers to the number of participants or observations included in a study. It
determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to include in
a statistical sample. In practice, the sample size used in study is usually determined based
on the cost, time, or convenience of collecting the data, and the need for it to offer sufficient
statistical power.
 Sampling Intensity (SI):

The ratio of sample to the whole population which is expressed on a percentage.
SI = sample area/Total area x 100
 Sampling Errors:-
 The sampling error are those errors arise from the fact that only of fraction of the forest
area is enumerated and its result is applied to the whole population.
 If there is no non-sampling error, the difference between the estimate and population
parameter is the error of the estimation. In other word
E=M-Y
Where, E is error in estimation
M is the population mean
Y is the sample mean
Non Sampling Error:-

Non sampling error are those errors which arises from several causes such as
 error in location of sampling unit,
 error in measurement,
 biases of enumerator ,
 Instrumental error faulty method of compilation and analysis.
6.3. Advantages and limitation of sampling in Forestry

Advantages of sampling
 Less time
 Reduced cost
 Administrative convenience
 Better supervision
 Check result of census method
 Suitable for infinite/hypothetical population
 Suitable for destructing sampling
Limitations of sampling
Sampling is better over complete census only if
 The sampling units are drawn in a scientific manner.
 Appropriate sampling technique is used, and
 The sample size is adequate.
44
Sampling theory has its own limitations and problems, which are:
 Proper care should be taken in the planning and execution of the sample survey;
otherwise the results obtained might be inaccurate and misleading
 Sampling theory requires the services of trained and qualified personnel and sophisticated
equipment for its planning, execution and analysis. In the absence of these, the results of
the sample survey are not reliable.
 If the information is required about each and every unit of the universe, there is no way
but to resort to complete enumeration.
In Short
o Chances of bias
o Difficulties in selecting truly a representative sample
o Need for subject specific knowledge
o changeability of sampling units
o Impossibility of sampling.
6.4 Definition and scope of Enumeration and its importance in Forestry

 Enumeration= The Enumeration is the counting, singly or together, of individuals of one
or more species in a forest crop and their classification by species, size, condition, etc.
 Total enumeration (census): enumeration is carried out over the entire area of the forest
unit under consideration.
 Partial enumeration: enumeration is to be done only in a representative portion of the

whole forest.
 The choice of a particular inventory system is governed by relative cost, size and density
of timber, area to be covered, precision desired, number of people available for fieldwork,
and length of time allowed for the estimate.
Scope and importance of Total Enumeration

 Intensive Study of the population
 Reliable Data, since the investigator observes every item personally
 Suitable Choice where the different items of the population are not homogeneous
 The basis of various surveys
6.5 Types of sampling

1. Probability/random sampling
I. Simple random sampling
II. Stratified random sampling
III. Multistage sampling
IV. Multiphase sampling
V. Sampling with varying probabilities
2. Non random sampling

I. Selective sampling
II. Systematic sampling
45
1. Probability/random sampling
I. Simple Random Sampling
 It is a selection process in which every possible combination of sample units has an equal
and independent chance of being selected in the sample.
 Sampling units are chosen completely at random.
 For theoretical considerations, SRS is the simplest form of sampling and is the basis for
many sampling methods.
 It is most applicable for the initial survey in an investigation and for studies that involve
sampling from a small area where the sample size is relatively small.
Selection of SRS by lottery and random number table method
When to use
 If the population is more or less homogenous with respect to the characteristics under
study and
 If the population is not widely spread geographically.
16 samples are selected randomly from a population composed of 256 square plots
Advantages
 Very simple and easy method for understanding.
 SRS is a scientific method and there is no possibility of personal bias.
 Estimation method are simple and easy.
Disadvantages
 If the sample chosen is widely spread, takes more time and cost.
 The researcher has no control over the selection of the units.
 A population frame or list is needed.
46
II. Stratified Random Sampling
 It is a method of sampling in which the population is first divided into sub population of
called strata of same or different size in such a way that characteristics within the strata are
homogenous but between the strata are heterogeneous.
 Samples are taken from each stratum by randomly or other method regarding to optimum or
proportional allocation methods.
Criteria of stratification of forest area

 Topographic features
 Forest types
 Density classes
 Volume classes
 Age classes etc.
There are 2 methods of choosing the number

of sample plots in stratified random sampling.
They are:
Proportional Allocation:
 Distributes the number of sample plots proportionally based on the area of each strata.
Larger size strata receive large sample plot.
Optimum Allocation:
 Allocates the number of sample plots based on creating the smallest standard error possible.
Other thing being equal, a larger sample may be taken from a stratum with a larger variance
When to use – when the sampling units are heterogeneous with respect to characteristics
under study.
16 samples are selected randomly from a population composed of 256 square plots.
47
Advantages
 More representatives than SRS & systematic sampling
 Greater accuracy than SRS
 Administrative convenience
Disadvantages
 More time & cost due to wide geographical area.
 Sampling units for each stratum is necessary or separate frame is needed for each stratum
 Need prior & additional information about population & its subpopulation.
 If each stratum doesn’t show the reliable homogeneity, the result may not be relevant
III. Multistage Sampling

o In random sampling described earlier, sampling units are drawn from a population at one time
or stage and it is therefore called single-stage sampling.
o As the sampling units are not taken out at one stage but are taken out in two or three stages,
the method of sampling is called multi-stage sampling.
o In this sampling the sampling unit gets smaller at each successive stage of sampling but the
principle of random sampling may be preserved at each stage of selection.
o Data is collected at last stage of sampling.
Example:-
o A forest of 100 ha may be divided into 200 sampling unit of 0.5 ha with 5% sampling
intensity 10 plots are selected.
o Each selected plots are further broken up to 0.1 ha, each will have 5 sampling unit.
o One of more of these are again selected at random in second stage can be repeated, if
necessary till the desired stage.
Advantages
o Cost and speed that the survey can be done
o Convenience of finding the survey sample
o Normally more accurate than cluster sampling for the same size sample
Disadvantages
o Not as accurate as Simple Random Sample if the sample is the same size.
o More testing is difficult to do
IV. Multiphase Sampling

 In this method some of the same sampling units are used at the different phase of sampling to
collect different information or same information by different method.
 Two phased sampling is commonly used in forest inventories
 data is collected at each and every stage of sampling
 Eg: The procedure using a combination of aerial photographic interpretation and field plots
 Eg. Investigation- no. of bamboo clump in forest
- First phase-no. of clumps/ha
- Second phase-no. of clumps/clumps
V. Sampling with varying probabilities
48
 In the random sampling described above, the chances of selection of all sampling units are
the same at all times.
 In varying probability scheme, the probability of drawing a specified unit differs from draw
to draw.
 It appears in probability proportional to size sampling that such procedure would give biased
estimators as the larger units are over-represented and the smaller units are under-represented
in the sample.
 For instance, while estimating total number of unemployed youth in a district, the number of
households in the village can be used as a size measure when villages are taken as sampling
units.
2. Non Random Sampling

I. Selective sampling
 Also known as selective/subjective or purposive sampling.
 For quick and rough estimates, this sampling is often employed.
 The sample is chosen based on what the researcher thinks is appropriate for the study.
 This technique relies on the judgment of the researcher when choosing who to ask to
participate.
 Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or
specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics.
Advantages of Purposive Sampling

 Purposive sampling is one of the most cost-effective and time-effective sampling methods.
 It may be the only appropriate method available if there are only limited number of primary
data sources who can contribute to the study.
Disadvantages of Purposive Sampling

 Vulnerability to errors in judgment by researcher.
 Low level of reliability and high levels of bias.
 Inability to generalize research findings.
 Statistically unsound
II. Systematic sampling

 In this sampling technique, first unit is chosen randomly and the rest being automatically
selected according to some predetermined patterns.
 Systematic sampling is a commonly employed technique if the complete and up to date list of
the sampling units is available.
 In this sampling, the sampling units are spaced at fixed intervals throughout the population.
 Measure of every ith tree along a certain compass bearing is an example of systematic sampling.
 A common sampling unit in forest surveys is a narrow strip at right angles to a base line and
running completely across the forest, i.e. systematic sampling by strips.
i. Strip system of sampling
A common sampling unit in forest surveys is a narrow strip at right angles to a base line and
running completely across the forest, i.e. systematic sampling by strips. Sampling is continuous
49
and less time is wasted in traveling between strips than would be the case for a plot cruise of equal
intensity.
𝑊
Cruise intensity (I) = 𝐷 x 100,
Where,
W =strip width and
D = distance between strips
ii. Systematic line plot

It is a systematic sampling where plots of fixed size and shape are taken at equal intervals along
equally spaced parallel lines.
no.of plots x area of plot
Sampling intensity (I) = x 100
total area
16 samples are selected systematically from a population composed of 256 square plots.
Merits of systematic Sampling

 Method is simple and convenient.
 Most frequently used sampling in forestry.
 Save time, money and resources compare to simple random sampling.
 Most of the results are satisfactory.
Demerits of systematic sampling

 The systematic method assumes the size of the population is available or can be reasonably
approximated.
 If the sample units are not arranged well then the result may mislead.
 Not suitable for more heterogeneous population.
 Not suitable for infinite population.
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6.6 Forestry Inventory Guidelines
Inventory- Introduction and scope
 Forest inventory is the procedure of obtaining information on the quantity and quality of the
forest resources and many of the characteristics of the land area on which the forest is
located.
 Forest inventory is the systematic collection of data and forest information for assessment or
analysis.
 Most forest inventories have been, and will continue to be, focused on timber estimation.
 When taking forest inventory the following are important things are measure and note:
species, DBH, height, site quality, age, and defects.
 From the data collected one can calculate the number of trees per hectare, the basal area, the
volume of trees in an area, and the value of the timber.
 Whole forest cannot be surveyed and inventoried.
 The prediction of whole forest is based on the measurement of small forest area.
 Planning based on the forest stock, increment, condition and quality of the site.
Silent features of forest inventory guideline
 Forest inventory helps in sustainable forest management planning
 Inventory helps to estimate the annual allowable cut of forest
 Inventory gives the optimum potentiality of the forest
 Helps to understand the land use planning, forest types and conditions of the forest
 Gives a way how to access and involve local people in forest resources
 Gives sampling method and sampling intensity to apply in forest inventory
 Gives the process of plot establishment in the forest
 We can have idea on size of plots for tree, pole, sapling, seedling and NTFPs
An inventory of a forest area can provide information for many different purposes; it may be
part of-
 A natural resource survey with the aim of allocating land to different uses, i.e. land
planning
 A natural project to assess the potential for forest and wood based industry development
 A wood based industry feasibility study
 A resource assessment for forest management planning
 The usual purpose of a timber inventory is to determine, as precisely as available time
and money will permit, the volume (or value) of standing trees in a given area. To attain
this objective requires a reliable estimate of the forest area and measurement of all or an
unbiased sample of trees within this area.
 The information may be obtained from measurement taken on the ground or on remotely
sensed imagery (aerial photographs, satellite imagery etc.).
Types of inventory
According to the Area Covered
1. Total enumeration (census):
2. Partial enumeration:
According to the method used
1. Strip system of cruising
2. Line-Plot system of cruising
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 Regardless of the kind of inventory being under taken, a carefully developed plan is
needed to execute the inventory efficiently.
 Many forest inventories are carried out using fixed area sample units. These fixed area
sample units are called strips or plots, depending on their dimensions.
 Sample plots can be any shape (circular, square, rectangular or triangular), however,
square/rectangular and circular plot shapes are most commonly employed.
 A strip can be thought of as a rectangular plot whose length is many times its width.
 Tree Classification, Size and Inventory Plot Size
52
53
 Sampling Intensity
The ratio of sample to the whole population which is expressed on a percentage.
Sample area
SI= ∗ 100
Total area
 Sampling intensity depends up on

1. objective of work,
2. required accuracy,
3. heterogeneity of forest condition and
4. resources availability
 Sampling intensity is carried out 0.5 % for general forest & 0.1% for open/ regeneration or
protected areas forest based on community forest inventory guideline 2061.
54
55
How to find the number of sample plot
56
57
Steps in a sample survey/Inventory:
(i) Define the objectives of the survey
 We should have clear objective for the survey to be undertaken.
 In a forest survey, the area to be covered and accuracy desired should be decided and
existing information is identified.
(ii) Determination of sampling unit
 The sample unit is identified.
 The sampling units may be compartments, topographical sections, strips of a fixed width
or plots of a definite shape and size.
(iii) Choice of a sampling design:
 Suitable sampling design for the study area should be select. Eg. Stratified systematic
sampling for community forest inventory.
 The sample size is determined.
 Shape of sample plot is fix such as circular plot.
(iv) Organization of the field work
 Instructions should cover staffing, organization and instruction of duties, logistics support
and so on
 Step by step procedures and training need should be considered
(v) Measurement procedures
 Should correctly locate the selected units and record the necessary measurements
according to the specific instruction given.
 Measurement of sampling unit
 Tree and other plot measurements
 Compilation of field forms and revision before leaving the field.
 Supervision and quality control of the fieldwork are essential to obtain satisfactory
results.
(v) Analysis of the data
 Depending on the sampling design used and the information collected, proper formulae
should be used in obtaining the estimates.
 Formulas for estimates of mean, totals, and corresponding standard errors.
 Precision of the estimates should be computed.
(vi) Reporting of results, maintenance of systems, and storage and record
Uses/Scope of Forest Inventory

 To know the qualitative & quantitative record of forest (forest condition, species, species
composition, stage of forest), Growing stock, MAI, annual allowable harvest.
 Area, size and shape of the forest can be understand.
 Users of forest, Research and others.
 Provides the information about the NTFPs.
 To show the status of forest species (extinct, rare, abandoned).
 Foundation of forest planning and forest policy.
 Operational plan writing (information for forest management)
 Help to design the forest management options.
 Support in decision making system to establish the industry.
 To estimate of the value of forest and to estimate Carbon.
58
Note:-
1Ha = 100m * 100m = 10,000m2
1 ha = 1.5 Bigha = 30 Kattha
1 Bigha = 20 Kattha = 13 Ropani
1 Ropani = 1.5 Kattha
1 inch = 2.54 cm
1 feet= 12’’ = 12 * 2.54cm = 30.48 cm
1 meter = 100 cm = 3.28 feet
1 Chatta= 500 cft = = 20’ * 5’ * 5’ = 14.16 m3

Quarter Chatta = 5’ * 5’ * 5’
1 m3 = 35.28 cft
6.7 Estimation of the carbon pool of the forest
 According to the IPCC, there are five carbon pools of terrestrial ecosystem involving biomass,
namely the above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, the dead mass of litter, woody
debris and soil organic matter. The above-ground biomass of a tree constitutes the major
portion of the carbon pool. Forests are important carbon pools which continuously exchange
CO2 with the atmosphere, due to both natural processes and human action.
 Forests can act as either carbon sources or carbon sinks.
 A forest is considered to be a carbon source if it releases more carbon than it absorbs. Forest
carbon is released when trees burn or when they decay after dying (as a result of old age or of
fire, insect attack or other disturbance).
 A forest is considered to be a carbon sink if it absorbs more carbon from the atmosphere than
it releases. Carbon is absorbed from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. It then becomes
deposited in forest biomass (that is, trunks, branches, roots and leaves), in dead organic matter
(litter and dead wood) and in soils. This process of carbon absorption and deposition is known
as carbon sequestration.
59
A. Above ground forest carbon measurement method
 Biomass estimation of the forest ecosystem enables us to estimate the amount of carbon
dioxide that can be sequestered from the atmosphere by the forest. Above Ground
Biomass (AGB) represents all biomass in living vegetation, both woody and herbaceous
which is above the soil. Forest biomass can be estimated through field measurement and
remote sensing and GIS methods
 Above ground forest biomass can be estimate by following methods:
1. Destructive /Harvest method:
 Among all the available biomass estimation method, the destructive method, also known
as the harvest method, is the most direct method for estimation of above-ground biomass
and the carbon stocks stored in the forest ecosystems.
 This method involves harvesting of all the trees in the known area and measuring the
weight of the different components of the harvested tree like the tree trunk, leaves and
branches and measuring the weight of these components after they are oven dried.
 This method of biomass estimation is limited to a small area or small tree sample sizes.
2. Non-destructive method/ allometric equations method:

The most widely used indirect method for estimating biomass of forest is through allometric
equations. This method estimates the biomass of a tree without felling. The non-destructive
method of biomass estimation is applicable for those ecosystems with rare or protected tree
species where harvesting of such species is not very practical or feasible. Estimating the above-
ground forest biomass by non-destructive method is by simply measuring the diameter at breast
height, height of the tree, volume of the tree and wood density and calculate the biomass and
carbon stocks of forests using allometric equations. It is less time consuming and less
expensive.
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Biomass equations used in Nepal
 Model equation, ln Y = a + b ln X, has been suitable for calculating the biomass, where Y
= oven dry weight in kg and X = dbh
 Model equation, ln W = a + b ln dbh, (for plantation species and natural forests) where W
= Green weight of tree components (biomass) in kg, dbh = over bark diameter at breast
height in cm, a and b = coefficient of the model.
3. Use of Remote Sensing and GIS For Biomass Estimation

Remote sensing is useful tool for indirect estimating forest biomass. Advance technologies such
as Optical remote sensing, Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and Radio Detection and
Ranging (RADAR) can be used for biomass estimation of forest.
B. Below ground forest carbon measurement method

Below Ground Biomass (BGB) Estimation: It involve measurement of carbon stored in root of
plant and in forest soil.
 Direct measurement, default root to shoot ratio values and allometric equations are the
commonly used methods for estimating BGB.
 Direct measurement of total root biomass is very expensive, destructive and time
consuming due to the variation of root distribution in the soil.
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Unit 7:
Forest Increment
7.1 Definition and types of increment

 Tree growth is the increase in its size with time.
 Tree growth shows elongation and thickening of roots, stems and branches.
 Growth takes place simultaneously and independently in different parts of a tree and can be
measured by many parameters, for eg. Growth in diameter, in height, in crown size, in bole
volume etc.
 Growth causes trees to change in weight and volume (size) and in form (shape).
 Forest Increment is defined as the increase in diameter, girth, basal area, height, volume,
quality, price or value of trees or crops during a given period.
 Yield is the total amount available for harvest at a given time from a forest. Thus, yield is
summations of annual increments.
Types of Forest increment:

1. Current Annual Increment (CAI): It is the increment which a tree or crop puts on in a
single year.
2. Periodic Annual Increment (PAI): It is an average annual increment for any short period.
PAI at any short period. Eg from 40 – 45 yrs. PAI is preferred because it is very difficult
to measure increment for each year.
3. Mean Annual Increment (MAI): It is the mean volume of a tree or crop put on from
origin up to the desired age. It is the total increment up to a given age divided by that age.
Total volume
MAI=
Age at that stage
4. Total Increment: It is the increment that a tree or crops put on from origin up to the age
which the tree or crops is cut.
7.2 Basic concept of diameter, height and volume increment

Diameter Growth/Increment:
 Linear growth of all parts of tree results from activities of the primary meristem while the
diameter growth results from the activities of the secondary meristem and cambium.
 Rate of diameter growth depends upon soil moisture and amount of leaf functioning for
photosynthesis process.
 Wider spacing among tree and larger crowns lead to faster diameter growth.
 Diameter growth is slowly at first, when the height ceases its growth then becomes
faster.
 Actually, the diameter growth can be calculated by measuring the diameter repeatedly of
a single tree or forests.
62
Diameter growth = change in diameter at two different times
D= Dt2- Dt1
Where, D is the changes in diameter in certain time, Dt2 and Dt1 are diameter measured at
second time and first time respectively.
 Whatever the structure of forest, rate of diameter growth depends on degree of competition.
 Diameter growth may not be regular along the whole of the bole length.
 Diameter increment is an attribute that is used for growth modeling, which is important in
developing a sustainable harvesting plan.
 So, two graphs can be drawn to show the diameter increment
63
Height Growth
• The linear growth (Height growth) takes place as the result of the direct activities of
primary meristem. The increase in branch length, tip length and root length are due to the
activities of primary meristem.
• The growth of the plants (height also) is influenced by the rate of photosynthesis. The
height growth is also influenced by the several biotic and abiotic factors. Here, the abiotic
factors are available materials and minerals in the soil while biotic factors competition with
other plants and disturbances of living beings.
• Height growth proceeds slowly in seedling until well established. This is followed by the
rapid growth for 20-30 yrs depending upon the species & sites.
• The past trend in height growth can help to predict the future height growth.
• Actually, the height growth can be calculated by measuring the height repeatedly of a single
tree or forests.
• Height growth = change in height at two different times
H= Ht2- Ht1
• Where H is the changes in height in certain time, Ht2 and Ht1 are height measured at
second time and first time respectively.
Basal Area & Volume growth

• Total height growth, diameter growth at breast height and diameter are the elements of
tree growth. From this growth, the growth of section or entire stem can be determined.
• Basal area growth depends on site quality, species and age.
• Basal area growth is a function of diameter growth.
• As the number of trees/ha increases, basal area will increase with each tree.
• After tree competition begins and tree numbers increase, sum of tree basal areas will
64
increase but basal area per tree will decrease.
• Basal area growth may be estimated from periodic measurement of dbh.
• Volume growth is a function of basal area and height.
• Total volume increases with number of trees up to a certain density after which, increasing
number of trees will cause a reduction in volume.
• Although the exact cumulative growth curve will differ with variable used and climatic
functions, the elongated S-shaped pattern is characteristic of the growth curve that can be
invariably expected.
• In a forest we generally considered the increment as a volume increment.
• Volume increment can be determine as CAI, MAI, PAI, etc.
7.3 Concept of current annual increment and mean annual increment
 Current Annual Increment (CAI): It is the increment which a tree or crop puts on in a
single year.
 Mean Annual Increment (MAI): It is the mean volume of a tree or crop put on from
origin up to the desired age. It is the total increment up to a given age divided by that age.
Total volume
MAI=
Age at that stage
 For determination of economic rotation age of even-aged stand, we should know CAI and
MAI. Rotation age is the Planned number of years between regeneration of the crop and
its final cutting at a specified stage of maturity.
 One year’s growth is called CAI, this term is generally used for volume increment. CAI is
the amount by which the volume of a stand increases in one year.
 One year’s growth is generally too small for accurate measurement, it is measured over a
period of years and the average obtained from that is referred as Periodic Mean Annual
Increment (PMAI).
65
years Volume (cft) MAI (cft) CAI (cft)
1 2 2 2
2 4 2 2
3 7 2.3 3
4 10 2.25 3
5 14 2.8 4
6 18 3 4
7 22 3.15 4
8 25 3.125 3
9 28 3.11 3
10 30 3 3
11 33 3 2
12 33 2.75 1
13 33.5 2.75 0.5
Relationship between CAI & MAI:

• CAI is small in early stage (seedling and sapling), increases slowly at first then more
rapidly to the maximum, after which it begins to decline and finally it ceases with its
mortality. This is true for both individual and forest. As the CAI curve raises, the MAI rises
too but not as steep rate as that of CAI. The CAI and MAI meet twice in whole life of plant,
firstly in at the end of the first year and secondly at the stage when MAI reaches highest
point and equals to CAI. This is point of maximum production too.
• CAI is higher than MAI at the beginning.
• While CAI is more than MAI, MAI is rising.
• CAI attains maximum before MAI.
• CAI is falling when MAI is still rising.
• When, tree has no more growth or felled, CAI becomes 0 and -ve but MAI is always
positive and never become 0 and -ve.
66
Figure: Relationship between CAI & MAI
7.4 Estimation of increment (diameter growth percentage and volume growth percent)
Increment Percent:
It is defined as the average annual growth in diameter, basal area or volume over a specified
period expressed as percentage of diameter, basal area or volume
A. Diameter increment percentage

1. Compound interest formula: The increment of a diameter, ht & volume in tree is like the
increase in capital at compound interest.
So, D= d(1+p/100)n
Where, D is diameter after n years, d is diameter at initial year, p rate of increment in % and n
is number of years
Diameter increment % ( P) = (n√D/d-1)*100
2. Pressler’s formula
P (increment% ) =200(D-d)/ (d+D)*n
3. Schneider’s formula
P (increment% ) =400/nD*100 where D is the present diameter at the point of boring, n is
number of rings in the outer most
Other method of Diameter Growth estimation:

 In standing trees, it is determined either by repeated measurement of diameter at periodic
intervals or by the use of increment borer in case of trees having growth rings.
 For trees having growth rings: Stump analysis, Stem analysis and Increment boring.
 For trees without annual rings: From periodic measurements/ continuous forest
inventory.
67
B. Volume increment percent
• Volume Growth (Determination)
 taking periodic measurement of dbh; dbh and height; or dbh, height and form and
determining volumes at the beginning and at the end of a period from a local,
standard, form class volume table or direct measurement as appropriate and then
taking the difference.
1. Compound interest formula
(Increment %) P = 100 ((V/v) 1/n – 1)
2. Pressler’s formula
(Increment %) P = 200 (V-v)/(V+v)*n
Where, v is the initial volume, V is the volume after n years and p is the rate of volume
increment percent.
Other method of increment estimation:

1. Yield Table Method:
• If valid yield tables are available, the future increment of even-aged forest can be estimated.
To determine increment from yield table we should have knowledge of species, Site
Quality or site index, age and density. If the stand has the same stocking (density) as of the
yield tables then increment for the prediction period can be directly estimated from the
yield tables.
2. From MAI:
Increment % = MAI (at rotation)*area of felling series
3. From CAI: (area method, per tree method)
Stump Analysis: Analysis of a stump cross-section by measuring annual rings in order to

estimate the age of the tree and its past rate of diameter and basal area growth. To find out
age/diameter relationship to determine the rotation age
Stem Analysis: Analysis of a complete stem by measuring annual rings on a number of cross-
sections at different heights in order to determine its past rates of growth. To determine age-
diameter, age-height and age-volume relations throughout the life of the tree analyzed
68
Unit 8
Community Forestry Inventory
8.1 Definition of CF Inventory:
 Community Forestry inventory is the process of obtaining information on the quantity
and quality of community forest resources and many of the characteristics of the land area
on which the trees are growing.
 Community Forest inventory is the systematic collection of data and forest information
for assessment or analysis of forest resource to prepare the operational plan of CF.
• Stand density (Gingrich, 1967) is the quantity measurement of a stand in terms of square
feet of basal area, number of trees or volume per unit area. It reflects the degree of crowding
of stems within the area.
• Stocking (Bickford et al, 1057) is an indication of number of trees in a stand as compared
to desirable number for best growth and management such as well stocked, over stocked,
partly stocked.
Purpose of inventory
i. This specifies why the inventory is required and how the resulting information will be
used.
ii. The issues and problems to be answered and identified.
iii. The information required to answer the question is determined.
iv. The existing information is identified.
v. The additional information needs are specified. This essentially spells out what data
will be collected during the inventory.
vi. The precision desired for each item of information is defined
Scales of forest inventory

 National level forest inventory
 Regional level inventory
 District level inventory
 Small scales inventory
8.2 Process and steps of CF Inventory:

Following are main steps for CF inventory according to CF inventory guidelines 2061:
1. Preparation for forest resource inventory

• Discussion with CFUG and user committee about forest resource inventory.
• Preparation of materials required for inventory such as tape, D-tape, GPS, etc.
• Participatory resource mapping showing different resources should be made and forest visit
with CFUG.
2. Mapping and Blocking:

The boundary of community forest should be surveyed and map should be prepared. Then, the
forest areas should be divided into different blocks. The forest area, forest condition, species,
object of management, slope and stage of the plants are the main bases of blocking.
69
3. Choice of sampling method & plot determination: Simple random sampling or systematic
sampling can be used to gather the information about the forest resources. In Nepal, Stratified
systematic sampling is used for CF inventory. The number of sample plot depend on the area
of block or forest. Generally, 0.5 % sampling intensity is used in CF but for the forest for
protection, open grassland, regeneration area 0.1% SI is prefer. Shape of sample plot may be
circular, square and rectangle but circular plot are used mostly.
4. Data collection: The Plot size may different for tree, pole, regeneration, NTFPs and data
such as DBH, Height and bole quality should recorded for tree and Pole. Only species name
and their number is recorded for seedling and sapling to assess the growing stock. The stocks
of litter, fire wood, grasses and NTFPs (species) should be collected.
5. Forest resource data analysis: The collected data should be analyzed applying appropriate
methodology. The number of plants per hectare (tree, pole, sapling, seedling) should be
calculated. The volume and basal area per ha should be calculated of trees and poles.
Regeneration condition, total growing stock, annual increment, Annual allowable cut is
estimate block wise or in whole forest through excel format.
6. Utilization of Information Received from Forest Resources Inventory

• Silvicultural operation such as weeding, cleaning, thinning, pruning, control burning,
plantation and other prescription is made according to the condition of forest.
• Livelihood improvement programs that can be implement in CF is identified for the poor and
DAGs people.
8.3 Methods of Inventory

I. Inventory from data collected in field
II. Inventory from aerial photography
III. Inventory from remote sensing satellites
I. Inventory from data collected in field

 Forest inventory can be performed by collecting the data from the field which is more accurate
than other methods of inventory applied in Nepal.
 Data are collected by the field crews for tracts, plots and sub plots. The two main information
sources for the inventory are:
 Field measurements and observations;
 Interviews with local people, land owners or users, key external informants such as
foresters responsible for the area where the tract is located.
 These two sources of information imply the use of different methods and approaches that
complement each other.
II. Inventory from Aerial Photograph

Some applications of aerial photographs are:-
 Vegetation/ forest type mapping
 Volume estimation (biomass)
 Road location
 Physiography, drainage and landform classification
70
 Insect and disease survey
 Forest inventory
 Forest management plan
 Monitoring erosion
 Fire damage assessment
III. Inventory from remote sensing satellites

 Remote sensing satellites launched by various nations for various purpose in space are
Landsat, SPOT, IRS, ERS, etc.
 Application of remote sensing satellites in Nepalese forestry are given below:-
 National level forest area estimation
 Forest resource mapping
 Forest resource assessment
 Forest cover change detection
CF Inventory Guideline 2061:

;fd'bflos jgsf] ;|f]t ;j]{If0f ug{ ;fd'bflos jg pkef]Qmf ;d"xsf ;b:ox¿ / ;xhstf{x¿sf] nflu ;/n / Jojxfl/s xf];\ egL
;fd'bflos jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f dfu{bz{g @)%& nfO{ kl/dfh{g u/L ;fd'bflos jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f dfu{bz{g @)^! tof/ ul/Psf] 5 .
o;n] ;fd'bflos jg pkef]Qmf ;d"xnfO{ ;fd'bflos jgsf] lbuf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ;xof]u k'Ug] ljZjf; ul/Psf] 5 .
!=@ p2]Zo M
• ;fdfGotof lbuf] jg Joj:yfkgsf nflu jgsf] jflif{s j[l4b/eGbf j9L kl/df0fdf jg k}bfjf/ jgaf6 lgsfNg' xF'b}g .
;fd'bflos jgsf] lbuf] Joj:yfkgsf nflu ;|f]tsf] pRrtd ;+efJotfsf (Optimum Potentiality) cfwf/df dfq
jgk}bfjf/ jgaf6 lgsfNg' kb{5 . o;sf nflu jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f ug'{ kb{5 . jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0fn] jg pkef]Qmf ;d"xnfO{
jg Joj:yfkgaf/] lg0f{o lng d2t ub{5 .
• ;fd'bflos jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f dfu{bz{gsf] d'Vo p2]Zo ;fd'bflos jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f u/L ;fd'bflos jgdf kfOg] jg–
k}bfjf/sf] df}Hbft / jflif{s ¿kdf k|fKt ug{ ;lsg]] kl/df0f olsg u/L lbuf] jg Joj:yfkg ug{ jg pkef]Qmf ;d"xnfO{
cfjZos ;xof]u k'¥ofpg' /x]sf] 5 .
• jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f (Forest Resources Inventory)
• jgdf kfOg] jg:kltx¿, ;fOh, ;ª\Vof tyf jg k}bfjf/x¿sf] cj:yf cflbsf] hfgsf/L lng jgdf ul/g] gfFk–hfFr -
n]vf–hf]vf_ sfo{nfO{ jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f elgG5 . o; hfgsf/Lsf] cfwf/df jgsf] jt{dfg x}l;ot, j[l¢b/ / jflif{s ¿kn]
lng ;lsg] jg k}bfjf/sf] kl/df0f cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 .
• jgsf] df}Hbft (Growing Stock)
• jgsf] df}Hbft eGgfn] s'g} jg of jg–v08df /x]sf ;Dk"0f{ v8f la¿jfx¿ nufot ljz]if dxTjsf ;-;fgf la¿jfsf]
tyf jg k}bfjf/sf] nut eGg] a'lemG5 . jgsf] df}HbftnfO{ ;ª\Vof k|lt x]S6/, ju{ ld6/ k|lt x]S6/, cfoftg 3g
ld6/÷3g lkm6 k|lt x]S6/, jfof]df; -bfp/f, :ofpnf, 3f; cflb_ s]=lh=k|lt x]S6/ cflbdf gfKg ;lsG5 .
• agsf] jflif{s j[l4 (Annual Increment)
• aflif{s j[l4 eGgfn] jif{el/ x'g] af]6 la¿jfx¿sf] j[l4nfO{ hgfpF5 . pbfx/0fsf] nflu ¿vsf] prfO a9\g' ¿vsf] Jof;
a9\g' cflb
• Blocking of Forest on the basis of forest condition, types, species, area, slope, natural
boundary and management objective.
71
Sampling:
• o;sf nflu xfd|f] Pp6f 3/fo;L pbfx/0f lnpmF, efF8fsf] eft kfs]sf] jf sfFrf] cj:yfdf 5 eg]/ yfxf kfpg xfdL
efF8fsf] @–$ l;tf eft 5fd]/ kQf nufpg] u5f+}{ . o;sf] nflu ;a} eftsf l;tfx¿nfO{ 5fDg' k|yd t cfjZos g} kb}{g
bf];|f], To;f] ubf{ w]/} ;do nfUg] x'G5 cyf{t w]/} sl7g x'G5 . o; pbfx/0fdf efF8fsf] eftsf] cj:yfnfO{ lgSof}{n ug{
eftsf @ –$ j6f l;tf 5fg]/ 5fd] h:t} jgdf s]xL :ofDkn Kn6x? lnO{ jgsf] cj:yf kQf nufpg] sfo{nfO{ :ofDklnª+
lng] sfd elgG5 . of] pbfx/0fh:t} k"/} jg ;|f]tsf] cj:yfsf] lgSof}{n ug{ s]xL :ofDkn Kn6x? lnO{ To; Kn6df ?v,
aNnf aNnL, nfy|f, la?jf, 3fF;, kTs/ / cGo u}x|sfi7 jg k}bfjf/x?sf] gfkhfFr u/L tL hfgsf/Lx¿sf] ljZn]if0f ug]{
sfo{nfO{ jg ;|f]t ;j]{If0f sfo{sf nflu :ofDklnª ul/Psf] elgG5 .
Grading ¿vsf] u'0f:t/ 5'6\ofpg] cfwf/x¿M

• klxnf] bhf{ ! M;fDffGotof /fd|f] / ;f]emf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . o:tf] sf08 ePsf] ¿vaf6 ^ lkm6 nDafOsf tLg jf ;f]eGbf
a9L uf]lnof sf7 k|fKt x'g ;S5 .
• bf];|f] bhf{ @ Ml7s}sf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . o:tf] ¿vaf6 ^ lkm6 nDafOsf @ j6f ;Dd uf]lnof sf7 k|fKt x'g ;S5 .
• t];|f] bhf{ # M;fDffGotof afËf]l6Ëf] sf08 ePsf] ¿v . ;f]emf] sf08 eP klg wf]b|f] jf ufF7f–u'F7L ePsfn] sf7sf] uf]lnof
k|fKt ug{ g;lsg] / ;a} bfp/f dfq x'g] ¿v .
• gf]6M vo/ k|hfltsf] xsdf eg] u'0f:t/ 5'6\ofO{ /xg' kb}{g .
Shape of sample plot:

• Circular, Square and Rectangle shape plot are used.
Circular plot is more precise because it has minimum perimeter for a given area compared to any
other geometric shape and thus has minimum number of boarder line stems.
sample plot size circular square (mX m) rectangle(mX m)
(m2) radius(m)
500 for tree 12.61 22.36 X 22.36 25 X 20
100 pole 5.64 10 X 10
25 sapling 2.82 5X 5
10 seedling 1.78 3.16 X 3.16 5X2
:ofDkn Kn6 h;df -s_ ¿vsf], -v_ aNnf aNnL / 3fF;, kts/ / bfp/fsf] -u_ nfy|fsf] / -3_ la¿jfsf] gfkhfFr lnOG5 .
72
Size of sample plot
 Sampling Method in community Forestry: Stratified systematic sampling is used in CF

inventory in Nepal.
 Sampling Intensity: 0.1% (for regeneration and open land) to 0.5 % (general forest) in
community forest.
 Tree quality (TQ):
First quality- straight and clear bole, 3 or more logs with 6 feet length obtained.
Second quality- straight bole, 2 logs with 6 feet length obtained.
Third quality – crooked and abnormal bole and only fuel wood obtained.
Timber Volume Calculation
Timber volume = π x d2/4 x ht. x ff x TQ
Where, ff = form factor (0.5)
TQ = tree quality , first quality (by 2/3), second quality (1/2)
Regeneration Status :
Forest condition
GS >200 m3/ha 50-200 m3/ha <50 m3/ha
Regeneration good fair poor good fair poor good fair poor
Forest Condition good good fair good fair poor fair poor poor
Annual growth rate of forest
73
• Annual harvestable amount/annual allowable cut (AAC):
75% of annual growth rate of good forest
60% of annual growth rate of fair forest
40% of annual growth rate of poor forest
• The Annual Allowable Cut (AAC) is the annual amount of timber that can be harvested on
a sustainable basis within a defined forest area.
• The AAC is measured in cubic meters and is based on what the forest will grow. Forest
managers use a variety of sample plots and statistical methods to predict the future growth.
a9\g] k|s[lt g]kfnL gfd j}1flgs gfd

l56f] a9\g]k|hfltsf l;l/; Albizzia spp.
pbfx/0fx¿ plQ; Alnus nepalensis
sbd Anthocephalus cadamba
l;dn Bombax ceiba
lz;f} Dalbergia sissoo
d;nf Eucalyptus spp.
asfOgf] Melia azedarach
rfFk Michelia champaka
lsDa' Morus alba
kf6] ;Nnf, cd]l/sg ;Nnf Pinus patula
nx/] lkkn Populus deltoids
l6s Tectona grandis
t'gf Toona ciliata
udf/L Gmelina arborea
dWod vfnn] a9\g] k|hfltsf vo/ Acacia catechu
pbfx/0fx¿ s6'; Castanopsis spp.
df}jf Englehartia spicata
vf]6] ;Nnf Pinus roxburghii
uf]a|] ;Nnf Pinus wallichiana
lrnfpg] Schima wallichii
;fh Terminalia tomentosa
l9nf] a9\g] k|hfltsf km/ Abies pindrow
pbfx/0fx¿ b]abf/ Cedrus deodara
laho ;fn Pterocarpus marsupium
v;|' Quercus spp.
;fn Shorea robusta
nf}7;Nnf Taxus baccata
l7+u|] ;Nnf Tsuga dumosa
cGo
74
!= pbfx/0fsf nflu olb s'g} ;fd'bflos jgs]f Pp6f v08 jf pkv08df
 hDdf Kn6 ;ª\Vof Ö @) 5g\ .
 ;a} Kn6df hDdf lrnfpg]sf] la¿jf ;ª\Vof Ö %)) 5g\ .
 Kn6sf] If]qkmn Ö !) ju{ ld6/ 5 -@ ld= × % ld=_
• eg], k|lt Kn6 ;/b/ la¿jf ;ª\Vof Ö %)) Ö @%
@)
k|lt x]S6/ lrnfpg]sf la¿jf ;ª\Vof Ö @% × !),))) Ö @%,))) x'G5 .
!)
@= hDdf !)) x]S6/ If]qkmn ePsf] ;fd'bflos jgsf] Ps v08df hDdf @% x]S6/ hª\un 5 . pQm v08sf]
d'Vo sf7 lrnfpg] k|hfltsf] 5 . :ofDklnª OG6]lG;6L )=% k|ltzt lnFbf !)) ju{ ld6/sf !# j6f :ofDkn Kn6
lng' kb{5 -tflnsf #=^ cg';f/_ . tL :ofDkn Kn6df gflkPsf hDdf sf7sf] cfotg @) 3g ld6/ 5 eg] pQm
v08sf] lrnfpg]sf] hDdf df}Hbft lgDg adf]lhd lgsfNg ;lsG5 .
v08sf] If]qkmn +=@% x]S6/ 5
hDdf lnOPsf] Kn6x¿sf] ;ª\Vof += !# 5
k|lt Kn6sf] If]qkmn = !)) ju{ ld6/ 5
!# j6f Kn6df gflkPsf lrnfpg]sf ¿vx¿sf] hDdf cfotg +=@) 3g ld6/ 5
eg], k|lt Kn6 ;/b/ lrnfpg]sf] cfotg += @) += !=%$ 3g ld6/
!#
kmd{ ˆofS6/ += )=% 5 .
To;sf/0f ,
v08df lrnfpg]sf] += !=%$ × !),))) × @% × )=% 3g ld6/
hDdf df}Hbft !))
+= !=%$ × @% × )=%
= !(@% 3g ld6/
+= ^&,&^) 3g lkm6
Importance of CF Inventory Guideline,2061

 Provide a detailed knowledge on the process of Community Forestry inventory.
 Gives a way how to sustainably manage the forest and its resources.
 We can have a idea to establish a plot in a forest.
 Knowledge on how to calculate the Growing stock, Annual allowable cut and annual
increment.
 We can get idea about measurement of species dimensions like dbh, height, crown, etc.
 We can calculate the number of sample plot as well as size of sample plot for different size
species.
 We can know how to divide forest into block and sub-block.
 Idea on mapping of the forest resources in the desired map.
 Idea of conservation, protection and management of different species.
 Idea on sampling intensity and sampling method to use
75

Measurement CP

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Measurement CP

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Forest Measurement

Measurement (Direct, Estimation Prediction (Over

Trees DBH, height, bark Volume functions

1.1 Definition and scope of forest mensuration

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 1

Measurement theory Manager’s information needs Errors

What is in the forest now? Forest Mensuration Forest change

Sampling Monitoring change

Figure 1: Scope of forest mensuration

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 2

Importance of Forest Mensuration

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 3

1.2 Bias, Accuracy and Precision

Common sources of bias

How to minimize bias

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 4

Relationship among Accuracy (A), Bias (B) and Precision (P). A² = B² + P²

Accuracy in Forest Mensuration

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 5

Some Key questions

1. What are the major measuring dimensions of plant in the forest?

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 6

2.1 Diameter Measurement

2.1.1 DBH measurement and its significance

2.1.2 Rules of DBH measurement and instruments used

Rules of DBH measurement

Figure3: Level ground

 BH point should be marked by intersecting vertical and horizontal lines 12 cm long,

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 7

Figure 4: Sloped ground Figure 5: Uneven ground

Figure 6: Leaning tree Figure 7: Crooked tree

Figure 8: Defect at 1.3m Figure 9: Buttressed tree

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 8

Figure 15: Tape

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 9

Figure 16: Caliper

Diameter measurement using calipers

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 10

2.2 Height Measurement

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 11

2.2.1 Principles of height measurement

2.2.1.1 Trigonometric principles

2.2.1.1.1 Tangent law

2.2.1.1.2 Sine law

2.2.1.2 Geometric principle of similar triangle

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 12

Basic assumptions in measurement of standing trees:

2. Indirect Methods (Non Instrumental methods and Instrumental methods)

Non instrumental methods

2. Single pole method

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 13

Measurement of height of trees on plane area

Measurement of height of trees on sloped area

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 14

Measurement of height of leaning tree

Now in triangle AEB,

exteriorEAB  int eriorACB  ABC Therefore,

Now in triangle AEB,

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 15

In the triangle ACB,

In the triangle ACB, exteriorEAB  int eriorACB  ABC

Lecture notes on Forest Measurement 16

In the triangle ACB,

 0.8778 Vol.I 1.4316 Vol.II  3*Vol.III 