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Graduate Texts in Physics
Timm Krüger
Halim Kusumaatmaja
Alexandr Kuzmin
Orest Shardt
Goncalo Silva
Erlend Magnus Viggen
The Lattice
Boltzmann
Method
Principles and Practice
Graduate Texts in Physics
Series editors
Kurt H. Becker, Polytechnic School of Engineering, Brooklyn, USA
Jean-Marc Di Meglio, Université Paris Diderot, Paris, France
Sadri Hassani, Illinois State University, Normal, USA
Bill Munro, NTT Basic Research Laboratories, Atsugi, Japan
Richard Needs, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
William T. Rhodes, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, USA
Susan Scott, Australian National University, Acton, Australia
H. Eugene Stanley, Boston University, Boston, USA
Martin Stutzmann, TU München, Garching, Germany
Andreas Wipf, Friedrich-Schiller-Univ Jena, Jena, Germany
Graduate Texts in Physics
123
Timm KrRuger Halim Kusumaatmaja
School of Engineering Department of Physics
University of Edinburgh Durham University
Edinburgh, United Kingdom Durham, United Kingdom
Interest in the lattice Boltzmann method has been steadily increasing since it
grew out of lattice gas models in the late 1980s. While both of these methods
simulate the flow of liquids and gases by imitating the basic behaviour of a gas—
molecules move forwards and are scattered as they collide with each other—the
lattice Boltzmann method shed the major disadvantages of its predecessor while
retaining its strengths. Furthermore, it gained a stronger theoretical grounding in the
physical theory of gases. These days, researchers throughout the world are attracted
to the lattice Boltzmann method for reasons such as its simplicity, its scalability on
parallel computers, its extensibility, and the ease with which it can handle complex
geometries.
We, the authors, are all young researchers who did our doctoral studies on the
lattice Boltzmann method recently enough that we remember well how it was to
learn about the method. We remember particularly well the aspects that were a
little difficult to learn; some were not explained in the literature in as clear and
straightforward a manner as they could have been, and some were not explained
in sufficient detail. Some topics were not possible to find in a single place: as the
lattice Boltzmann method is a young but rapidly growing field of research, most of
the information on the method is spread across many, many articles that may follow
different approaches and different conventions. Therefore, we have sought to write
the book that the younger versions of ourselves would have loved to have had during
our doctoral studies: an easily readable, practically oriented, theoretically solid, and
thorough introduction to the lattice Boltzmann method.
As the title of this book says, we have attempted here to cover both the lattice
Boltzmann method’s principles, namely, its fundamental theory, and its practice,
namely, how to apply it in practical simulations. We have made an effort to make
the book as readable to beginners as possible: it does not expect much previous
knowledge except university calculus, linear algebra, and basic physics, ensuring
that it can be used by graduate students, PhD students, and researchers from a wide
variety of scientific backgrounds. Of course, one textbook cannot cover everything,
and for the lattice Boltzmann topics beyond the scope of this book, we refer to the
literature.
v
vi Preface
The lattice Boltzmann method has become a vast research field in the past 25
years. We cannot possibly cover all important applications in this book. Examples
of systems that are often simulated with the method but are not covered here
in detail are turbulent flows, phase separation, flows in porous media, transonic
and supersonic flows, non-Newtonian rheology, rarefied gas flows, micro- and
nanofluidics, relativistic flows, magnetohydrodynamics, and electromagnetic wave
propagation.
We believe that our book can teach you, the reader, the basics necessary to read
and understand scientific articles on the lattice Boltzmann method, the ability to run
practical and efficient lattice Boltzmann simulations, and the insights necessary to
start contributing to research on the method.
Every textbook has its own style and idiosyncrasies, and we would like to make you
aware of ours ahead of time.
The main text of this book is divided into four parts. First, Chaps. 1 and 2 provide
background for the rest of the book. Second, Chaps. 3–7 cover the fundamentals of
the lattice Boltzmann method for fluid flow simulations. Third, Chaps. 8–12 cover
lattice Boltzmann extensions, improvements, and details. Fourth, Chap. 13 focuses
on how the lattice Boltzmann method can be optimised and implemented efficiently
on a variety of hardware platforms. Complete code examples accompany this book
and can be found at https://github.com/lbm-principles-practice.
For those chapters where it is possible, we have concentrated the basic practical
results of the chapter into an “in a nutshell” summary early in the chapter instead
of giving a summary at the end. Together, the “in a nutshell” sections can be
used as a crash course in the lattice Boltzmann method, allowing you to learn the
basics necessary to get up and running with a basic LB code in very little time.
Additionally, a special section before the first chapter answers questions frequently
asked by beginners learning the lattice Boltzmann method.
Our book extensively uses index notation for vectors (e.g. u˛ ) and tensors (e.g.
˛ˇ ), where a Greek index represents any Cartesian coordinate (x, y, or z) and
repetition of a Greek index in a term implies summation of that term for all possible
values of that index. For readers with little background in fluid or solid mechanics,
this notation is fully explained, with examples, in Appendix A.1.
The most important paragraphs in each chapter are highlighted, with a few
keywords in bold. The purpose of this is twofold. First, it makes it easier to know
which results are the most important. Second, it allows readers to quickly and easily
pick out the most central concepts and results when skimming through a chapter by
reading the highlighted paragraphs in more detail.
Instead of gathering exercises at the end of each chapter, we have integrated them
throughout the text. This allows you to occasionally test your understanding as you
Preface vii
read through the book and allows us to quite literally leave certain proofs as “an
exercise to the reader”.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to a number of people for their help, big and small, throughout the
process of writing this book.
We are indebted to a number of colleagues who have helped us to improve this
book by reading and commenting on early versions of some of our chapters. These
are Emmanouil Falagkaris, Jonas Latt, Eric Lorenz, Daniel Lycett-Brown, Arunn
Sathasivam, Ulf Schiller, Andrey Ricardo da Silva, and Charles Zhou.
For various forms of help, including advice, support, discussions, and encour-
agement, we are grateful to Santosh Ansumali, Miguel Bernabeu, Matthew Blow,
Paul Dellar, Alex Dupuis, Alejandro Garcia, Irina Ginzburg, Jens Harting, Oliver
Henrich, Ilya Karlin, Ulf Kristiansen, Tony Ladd, Taehun Lee, Li-Shi Luo, Miller
Mendoza, Rupert Nash, Chris Pooley, Tim Reis, Mauro Sbragaglia, Ciro Sempre-
bon, Sauro Succi, Muhammad Subkhi Sadullah, and Alexander Wagner.
On a personal level, Alex wants to thank his family which allowed him to spend
some family time on writing this book. Erlend wants to thank Joris Verschaeve
for helping him get started with the LBM and his friends and family who worried
about how much time he was spending on this book; it all worked out in the end.
Halim wants to thank his family for the continuous and unwavering support and
Julia Yeomans for introducing him to the wonder of the LBM. Goncalo thanks his
family for their unlimited support, Alberto Gambaruto for introducing him to the
LBM, and Viriato Semiao for the chance to start working in the field; special thanks
to Irina Ginzburg for the opportunity to work with her and the countless discussions
and teachings. Orest thanks his family, friends, and colleagues for their valuable
support during his doctoral and postdoctoral studies. Timm thanks Aline for her
understanding and support and Fathollah Varnik for introducing him to the LBM.
Finally, we would like to thank our editor Angela Lahee for her support and
patience.
Part I Background
1 Basics of Hydrodynamics and Kinetic Theory . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Navier-Stokes and Continuum Theory . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Navier-Stokes Equation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.3 Equations of State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Relevant Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Kinetic Theory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 The Distribution Function and Its Moments .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3.3 The Equilibrium Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.3.4 The Boltzmann Equation and the Collision Operator . . . . 21
1.3.5 Macroscopic Conservation Equations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.6 Boltzmann’s H-Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2 Numerical Methods for Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.1 Conventional Navier-Stokes Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.1 Finite Difference Method .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.1.2 Finite Volume Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.1.3 Finite Element Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.2 Particle-Based Solvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.1 Molecular Dynamics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2.2 Lattice Gas Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2.3 Dissipative Particle Dynamics .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.4 Multi-particle Collision Dynamics .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.5 Direct Simulation Monte Carlo. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.2.6 Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.3 Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.4 Outlook: Why Lattice Boltzmann? . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
ix
x Contents
6 Forces . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6.1 Motivation and Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
6.2 LBM with Forces in a Nutshell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
6.3 Discretisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.3.1 Discretisation in Velocity Space. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6.3.2 Discretisation in Space and Time . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
6.4 Alternative Forcing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.4.1 General Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.4.2 Forcing Schemes .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.5 Chapman-Enskog and Error Analysis in the Presence
of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.5.1 Chapman-Enskog Analysis with Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.5.2 Errors Caused by an Incorrect Force Model .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
6.6 Boundary and Initial Conditions with Forces .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.6.1 Initial Conditions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.6.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
6.7 Benchmark Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.7.1 Problem Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
6.7.2 Numerical Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.7.3 Constant Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
6.7.4 Constant Force and Pressure Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
6.7.5 Linear Force and Pressure Gradient .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.7.6 Role of Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
7 Non-dimensionalisation and Choice of Simulation Parameters . . . . . . . 265
7.1 Non-dimensionalisation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
7.1.1 Unit Scales and Conversion Factors. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
7.1.2 Law of Similarity and Derived Conversion Factors . . . . . . 268
7.2 Parameter Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.1 Parameters in the Lattice Boltzmann Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7.2.2 Accuracy, Stability and Efficiency . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
7.2.3 Strategies for Parameter Selection . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
7.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
7.3.1 Poiseuille Flow I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
7.3.2 Poiseuille Flow II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.3.3 Poiseuille Flow III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
7.3.4 Womersley Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.3.5 Surface Tension and Gravity . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
7.4 Summary.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Contents xiii
Appendix . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
A.1 Index Notation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
A.2 Details in the Chapman-Enskog Analysis .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
A.2.1 Higher-Order Terms in the Taylor-Expanded LBE . . . . . . . 655
A.2.2 The Moment Perturbation . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
A.2.3 Chapman-Enskog Analysis for the MRT
Collision Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
A.3 Taylor-Green Vortex Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
A.4 Gauss-Hermite Quadrature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
A.5 Integration Along Characteristics for the BGK Operator . . . . . . . . . . 665
A.6 MRT for D3Q15, D3Q19, and D3Q27 Velocity Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
A.6.1 D3Q15 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
A.6.2 D3Q19 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
A.6.3 D3Q27 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
A.7 Planar Interface for the Free Energy Gas-Liquid Model . . . . . . . . . . . 673
A.8 Planar Interface for the Shan-Chen Liquid-Vapour Model .. . . . . . . . 675
A.9 Programming Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
A.9.1 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
A.9.2 Expressions and Operators . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
A.9.3 Data Types.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
A.9.4 Composite Data Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
A.9.5 Variable Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
A.9.6 Pointers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
A.9.7 Dynamic Memory Allocation . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
A.9.8 Arrays.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
A.9.9 If Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
A.9.10 While Loop .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
A.9.11 For Loop .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683
A.9.12 Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
Contents xvii
Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
Acronyms
xix
xx Acronyms
Certain questions come up particularly frequently from people who are learning the
lattice Boltzmann method. We have listed and answered many of these questions
here, with references to the relevant book sections.
Getting Started
xxi
xxii Frequently Asked Questions
Boundary Conditions
Q: When using a no-slip boundary condition, where exactly in the system is no-slip
enforced?
A: The location depends on the type of no-slip boundary condition employed: see
Fig. 5.7 and Sect. 5.2.4.
Q: How can an open inflow or outflow boundary be simulated?
A: This is explained in Sect. 5.3.5.
Q: How are boundary conditions handled at 2D or 3D corners?
A: See Sects. 5.3.6 and 5.4.4.
Q: How can I implement curved boundaries instead of “staircase” boundaries?
A: This is covered in Chap. 11.
Q: What kind of boundary conditions is used for advection-diffusion LBM?
A: See Sect. 8.5.
Q: How do I compute the momentum exchange between fluid and walls?
A: See Sect. 5.4.3 for straight boundaries and Sect. 11.2.1 for more complex cases.
Advanced Questions
Abstract After reading this chapter, you will have a working understanding of
the equations of fluid mechanics, which describe a fluid’s behaviour through its
conservation of mass and momentum. You will understand the basics of the kinetic
theory on which the lattice Boltzmann method is founded. Additionally, you will
have learned about how different descriptions of a fluid, such as the continuum fluid
description and the mesoscopic kinetic description, are related.
While the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) has found applications in fields as
diverse as quantum mechanics and image processing, it has historically been and
predominantly remains a computational fluid dynamics method. This is also the
spirit of this book in which we largely develop and apply the LBM for solving fluid
mechanics phenomena.
To facilitate discussions in subsequent chapters, we summarise in Sect. 1.1 the
most basic theory of fluid dynamics. In particular, we will review the continuity,
Navier-Stokes and energy equations which are direct consequences of conserva-
tion of mass, momentum and energy. However, fluid dynamics is a continuum
description of fluids which treats them as continuous blobs of matter, ignoring the
fact that matter is made up of individual molecules. Section 1.2 discusses various
representations of a fluid, from the continuum level to the atomic level. Section 1.3
gives a basic introduction to kinetic theory, a finer description of a fluid where
we track the evolution of its constituent molecules’ distributions in coordinate
and velocity space. The LBM springs from kinetic theory, making this description
fundamental to this book.
P
imply a summation, e.g. aˇ bˇ D ˇ aˇ bˇ D ab. This style of notation is explained
in more depth in Appendix A.1.
The field of fluid dynamics concerns itself with macroscopic phenomena of fluid
motion. This implies that the fluid concept is a continuum one. Even when we speak
about a fluid element, such a volume contains many molecules. This fluid element
is small with respect to the system size, but is large in comparison to the size of
each individual molecule and the typical distance between them. We will discuss
the breakdown of this assumption in Sect. 1.2, but for most applications in fluid
dynamics this is a very robust approximation.
Let us now consider a small fluid element with density whichRoccupies some
stationary volume V0 . The mass of this fluid element is simply V0 dV. If we
consider the change of this mass per unit time, it must be due to fluid flow into
or out of the volume element because fluid mass cannot be created or destroyed.
Mathematically, this may be written as
Z I
@
dV D u dA (1.1)
@t V0 @V0
where the closed area integral is taken over the boundary @V0 of the volume element
V0 , u is the fluid velocity, and we take the outward normal as the direction of dA.
The surface integral on the right-hand side of (1.1) can be transformed into a volume
integral using the divergence theorem to give
Z Z
@
dV D r .u/ dV: (1.2)
V0 @t V0
This leads to
@
C r .u/ D 0 (1.3)
@t
since the volume V0 is stationary and arbitrary. Equation (1.3) is the conti-
nuity equation in fluid dynamics. It is a partial differential equation (PDE)
reflecting the conservation of mass. The vector
u D j (1.4)
In the literature, the continuity equation is also sometimes written in the forms
@ D
C u r C r u D 0 or C r u D 0: (1.5)
@t Dt
Here we have introduced the material derivative
D @
D Cur (1.6)
Dt @t
which denotes the rate of change as the fluid element moves about in space, rather
than the rate of change @=@t at a fixed point in space.
Exercise 1.1 Fluid conservation equations can be given in two main forms: conser-
vation form, as in (1.3), or material derivative form, as in (1.5). Using the continuity
equation, (1.3), show that for a general conserved quantity the two forms can be
related as
@./ D
C r .u/ D : (1.7)
@t Dt
Similar to our analysis above, we can consider the change of momentum of a fluid
element with density and velocity u, occupying a small volume V0 . For a simple
ideal fluid, the change of net momentum can be due to (i) flow of momentum into or
out of the fluid element, (ii) differences in pressure p and (iii) external body forces
F. Each of these contributions is written respectively on the right-hand side of the
following momentum balance equation:
Z I I Z
d
u dV D uu dA p dA C F dV: (1.8)
dt V0 @V0 @V0 V0
Here, uu denotes the outer product with components u˛ uˇ . Transforming the surface
integrals into volume integrals using the divergence theorem, the above equation can
be rewritten as
Z Z Z Z
@.u/
dV D r .uu/ dV r p dV C F dV: (1.9)
V0 @t V0 V0 V0
6 1 Basics of Hydrodynamics and Kinetic Theory
@.u/
C r .uu/ D r p C F; (1.10)
@t
a PDE describing the conservation of momentum for an ideal fluid.
This momentum equation can be written in a more general form, called the
Cauchy momentum equation:
@.u/
C r ˘ D F: (1.11)
@t
Here we have used the momentum flux density tensor, defined as
The term ˛ˇ is called the stress tensor and corresponds to the non-direct
momentum transfer of the moving fluid. For simple fluids described by the
Euler equation we find an isotropic stress ˛ˇ D pı˛ˇ ; the stress tensor
contains diagonal elements which are the same in all directions.
The momentum flux transfer in the Euler equation only includes momentum
transfer which is reversible, either through the flow of mass or due to pressure forces
which are conservative. For real fluids, we need to include a viscosity or internal
friction term which causes dissipative and irreversible transfer of momentum from
one fluid element to another, neighbouring element.
To establish the form of this viscous stress tensor 0 , we first argue that
such contribution must be zero when the flow is uniform, including rigid body
translation and rotation. We may further argue that if the velocity gradients are
small, then momentum transfer due to viscosity is well captured by terms which
are proportional to the first derivatives of the velocity only [3]. A general tensor of
rank two satisfying these two arguments is
!
0 @u˛ @uˇ @u
˛ˇ D C C ı˛ˇ (1.13)
@xˇ @x˛ @x
where and are coefficients of viscosity. They are usually assumed to be isotropic
and uniform, though this assumption will break down for more complex fluids.
The viscous stress tensor is often separated into a traceless shear stress and a
normal stress:
!
0 @u˛ @uˇ 2 @u @u
˛ˇ D C ı˛ˇ C B ı˛ˇ : (1.14)
@xˇ @x˛ 3 @x @x
1.1 Navier-Stokes and Continuum Theory 7
The first viscosity coefficient is usually called the shear viscosity while the
combination B D 2=3 C is normally called the bulk viscosity.
With the total stress tensor given as the sum of the pressure and viscosity
contributions,
0
˛ˇ D ˛ˇ pı˛ˇ ; (1.15)
we are now ready to write down the full momentum equation for a viscous
fluid. Inserting (1.14) and (1.15) into (1.11), we obtain the Navier-Stokes
equation
@.u˛ / @.u˛ uˇ /
C
@t @xˇ
2 ! 3
@p @ 4 @u˛ @uˇ 2 @u
D C C C B ı˛ˇ 5 C F˛ :
@x˛ @xˇ @xˇ @x˛ 3 @x
(1.16)
Du
D r p C u C F: (1.18)
Dt
Exercise 1.2 Let us consider the steady shear flow known as Couette flow where
an incompressible fluid is sandwiched between two parallel plates as shown in
Fig. 1.1(a). The separation between the two plates is d in the y-direction. The bottom
plate is held fixed such that u D .0; 0; 0/> while the top plate moves with velocity
u D .U; 0; 0/>. There is no external force applied to the system. Starting from the
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