CHAPTER-I

Gener
ati
onofEl
ect
ricalPower
1
.2Pr
inci
pleandt
ypeofcogener
ati
on

• Si
mul
taneouspr
oduct
ionofel
ect
rici
tyandt
her
malener
gy

• Pr
esi
dentCar
tercoi
nedt
hephr
asecogener
ati
oni
nthe1
970s

• Al
socal
ledCombi
nedHeatandPower(
CHP)

• Thermaldemand can i
ncl
ude hotwat
er,st
eam,space heat
ing,cool
i
ng,and
ref
riger
ati
on

Fuel
susedi
nCogener
ati
on

• Nat
uralgas

• Coal

• Bi
omass

– Bagasse(
wast
epr
oductf
romsugarcanepr
oces
sing)

• Wast
egas

• Li
qui
dfuel
s(oi
l
)

• Renewabl
egas
es

Ef
fici
ency

• Mor
eef
fici
entbecausei
tusest
her
esi
dualt
her
malen
ergywast
edi
nst
andar
d
 el
ect
ricalener
gyf
aci
l
iti
es

• Usesl
essf
uelt
hanconven
tionalf
aci
l
iti
es

• Over
allnetef
fici
encyof65%t
o90%(
gener
all
yar
oun
d70%)

• Typi
calpowerf
aci
l
ityi
s30%t
o35%ef
fici
ent

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofCo-
Gener
ati
onSyst
em

Cogener
ati
ons
yst
emsar
enor
mal
lycl
assi
fi
edaccor
din
gtot
hes
equen
ceofener
gyuse.

Toppingcycl
e:thefuelsuppl
i
edisus edtofi
rstpr
oducepowerandthent
hermalener
gy,
whichistheby-productoft he cycleandisused t
o sat
isf
y pr
ocessheatorot her
thermalr
equi
rements.

Bot t
omingcycle:Ina bot t
omingcycle,the pri
maryf uelpr
oduceshi
ght emper
atur
e
thermalenergy an
dt he heatreject
ed fr
om t he pr
ocessisusedto generat
epower
througharecoveryboil
eran daturbi
negener
ator.

Topping cycl
e cogener
ati
oni
swi
del
y used and i
sthe mostpopul
armet
hod of
cogenerati
on

TOPPI
NGCYCLE

Thef
ourt
ypesoft
oppi
ngcycl
ecogen
erat
ionsyst
emsar
ebr
ief
lyexpl
ained

A gasturbi
neordieselengineproduci
ngel
ectr
icalormechani
calpowerf ol
lowedbya
heatrecoveryboil
ertocr
eat es t
eamt odr
iveas econ
dar
ys t
eamt ur
bine.Thisi
scal
led
acombined-cycl
etoppi
ngs ystem.
Thes econdtypeofs yst
em burnsfuel(
anyt ype)toproducehigh-
pressur
esteam t
hat
thenpassesthroughasteam t
urbin
et oproducepowerwi ththeexhaustprovi
deslow-
pressur
eprocesss t
eam.Thi
sisast eam-
turbi
net oppi
ngsystem.

At hir
dt ypeempl oysheatrecover
yf rom anengi
ne exhaus
tand/orj
acketcool
i
ng
systemf l
owingtoaheatrecoveryboil
er,wher
eiti
sconvertedtopr
ocessst
eam/hot
waterf orfur
theruse.

The fourt
ht ype i
s a gas-
tur
bine t
oppi
ng syst
em.A nat
uralgas t
urbi
ne dri
ves a
gener
ator.Theexhaustgasgoestoaheatr ecover
yboi
l
erthatmakesprocesssteam
andprocessheat
 Var
iouscogener
ati
onsyst
em:

• St
eamt
urbi
necogener
ati
onsys
tem

• Gast
urbi
necogen
erat
ionsyst
em

• Reci
procat
ingen
ginecogener
ati
ons
yst
em

St
eamt
urbi
necogener
ati
onsyst
em:

I
nt histype,steam en t
er i
ngatHigh/Medium Pr
essur
ei sextr
actedatani nt
ermedi
ate
pressur
ei nthet ur
binef orprocessusewhil
etheremaini
ngsteam conti
nuestoexpand
andcon densesinas urfacecondenserandworkisdonet i
l
litreachestheCondensi
ng
pressur
e.(
vacuum) .

Althoughcon den si
ngsystemsneedmoreauxili
aryequipmentsuchast
hecondenseran d
coolingt ower s
,bettermatchi
ngofelect
ricalpoweran dheatdemandcanbeobt ained
whereel ectricit
ydeman dismuchhi
gherthant hesteam demandandthel
oadpat terns
arehi ghl
yf l
uctuati
ng.

GasTur
bineCo-
Gener
ati
onSyst
em:

Gast urbin
ecogen erati
onsystemscanpr oduceallorapartoftheen er
gyrequir
ementof
the sit
e,an dt he energy r
eleased athightemperatur
ei nthe exhauststackcanbe
recover edforvariousheati
ngandcoolingappl
icati
ons
Reci
procat
ingEngi
neCo-
Gener
ati
onSyst
em:

 I
tisal
sok
nownasi
nter
nalcombust
ion(
I.C.
)engi
nes

 Thesecogener
ati
ons yst
emshavehighpowergener
ati
onef
fici
enci
esi
n
compar
isonwi
thotherpri
memovers
.

 Therearet
wos our
cesofheatforr
ecover
y:exhaustgasathi
ghtemperat
ure
andengi
nej
ack
etcooli
ngwatersyst
ematlowtemperatur
easshowninthefig

Typi
calCo-
Gener
ati
onappl
icat
ion:

I
ndust
rial

Paperi
ndust
ry

Foodi
ndus
try

Chemi
cali
ndust
ry
 Cer
ami
cindust
ry

St
eeli
ndust
ry

Text
il
eindust
ry

Ut
il
it
ySect
or

Hospi
tal
s

Hot
els

Uni
ver
sit
ies

Spor
tscen
tre

Advant
agesofCo-
Gener
ati
on

 Reduceslossesontheel
ect
ricalnet
workbecausecogener
ati
oni
nst
all
ati
onar
e
usual
lycl
osertothecons
umptionpoi
nt.

 I
ncr
eas
escompet
iti
onamongel
ect
rici
typr
oducer
s.

 Reducesemissi
onofCO2 andot
hersubst
ancesandcont
ribut
est
osust
ain
abl
e
development
.

 Cogener
ati
onr
educesener
gycos
ts.

1
.3-Layoutofcont
rolr
oom,cont
rolr
oomequi
pmentandappl
icat
iont
her
eof

A controlr
oom, operati
onscenter
,or oper at
ionscont
rolcent
er (OCC)isar oom
ser
ving asa cent
ralspace wher
eal ar
ge physi
calfaci
li
ty orphysi
cal
ly di
spersed
ser
vicecanbemon i
tor
edandcon t
rol
led.
Cont
rolr
oomappl
i
cat
ion

• Nuclear power pl
ant
s and other power
-gener
ati
ng st
ati
ons, many oi
l
ref
ineri
es and chemi
calpl
ant
s

• Comput
eri
zed dat
acen
ter
s

• Ai
rl
ines

• Maj
ort
rans
por
tat
ionf
aci
l
iti
es,suchas br
idges, t
unnel
s, can
als, ai
rpor
ts

• Cont
rolr
ailoper
ati
onsovert
housandsofmi
l
esofr
ail
road.

Cont
rolr
oomequi
pmentf
orSpeci
alhazar
ds

• Cont
rol rooms ar e usual
ly equi
pped wi
th el
abor
ate f
ire suppr
essi
on
and secur
itysyst
ems

• The den s e con centr

ati
on of equipment of t
en r equi
res speci
al
el
ect
rical uni
nter
rupt
ibl
epowers
uppl
y (
UPS)feedsand ai
rcondi
tioni
ng.

• I
t is also common to place cont
rol rooms under posi
ti
ve pr
essur
e
vent
il
ati
on topr
event smok
eortoxicgasesfr
omenteri
ng

• i
tisusefult
oensur
et heus
eof fir
estops,t
hataremassi
vean
dthi
ckenought
o
r
esistheattr
ans
missi
ontothei
nsi
deofthecontr
olroom

Cont
rolRoomLayout:
 • Thedes i
gnofacon t
rolroom i
ncorporat
es er
gonomic and aesthet
ic(
beaut
y)
featur
esincl
udi
ngoptimum t
raffi
cf l
ow,acoust
ics,i
l
lumi
nati
on,andhealthand
safetyofthework
ers

• Ergonomic(
desi
gn f or eff
ici
ency and comf ort i
n wor k
ing envi
ronment)
consider
ati
onsdetermi
netheplacementofhumansandequi
pmenttoensur
et hat
operatorscaneasi
l
ymovei nto,outofther
oom.

• Goodl
i
ght
ingf
aci
l
ity

1
.4Layoutandequi
pmentofswi
tchyar
datpowerst
ati
on

• Swi
tchyar
disanencl
osedar
eaofpowers
yst
emcont
ain
ings
wit
chgear

• As wit
chyar
disapar
tofel
ect
ricalgen
erat
ion,t
rans
mis
sionanddi
str
ibut
ion
syst
em

Component
sofaSwi
tchyar
d
 A-Busbar

B-Di
scon
nect
or

C-Ci
rcui
tBr
eak
er

D-Cur
rentTr
ans
for
mer

E-Vol
tageTr
ans
for
mer

F-Ear
thi
ngSwi
tch

G–Li
ght
nin
gAr
rest
or

A.BUSBAR

Typesofbus-
barar
rangement

1
. Si
ngl
ebus-
barar
rangement

2.Si
ngl
ebus-
barar
rangementwi
thsect
ional
i
zat
ion

3.Ri
ngbus-
barsyst
em

4.Doubl
emai
nandt
ransf
erbus-
barar
rangement

5.Dupl
i
cat
ebus-
barsys
tem

Si
ngl
ebus-
barar
rangement

I
nt hi
s ar
rangemen ta setof bus-
bari s used and tot
his bus-barallgener
ator
s,
t
ransf
ormers,feedersar
econnect
edt hr
oughisolatoran
dci
rcui
tbr eaker
.
Si
ngl
ebus-
barar
rangementwi
thsect
ional
izat
ion

Thi
si sused sothata faultonan y one secti
onofthe bus-barmay notcausea
complet
e shut
down .Thi
si s achi
eved by provi
din
g a ci
rcui
tbr eak
eran di
solat
ing
swi
tchesbetweenthesecti
on.

Ri
ngbus-
barsyst
em:

I
nthi
sarrangementeachf
eederissuppl
i
edf
romt
wopat
h,s
othati
ncas
eofaf
ail
ureof
anysect
ionsuppl
yisnoti
nter
rupted.
Doubl
emai
nandt
ransf
erbus-
barar
rangement

Thi
ss chemen eedsabuscoupl
erf
ort
heonl
oadt
ransf
erofci
rcui
tsf
romon
emai
nbus
totheot her
.

B–Di
sconnect
or

• I
tisaneas
il
yremovedpi
eceoft
heact
ualcon
duct
orofaci
rcui
t.

• Thepur
poseofdi
scon
nect
sist
ois
olat
eequi
pment
.

• Theyar
eno-
loaddevi
ces
C–Ci
rcui
tBr
eaker

• I
tisusedt
oin
ter
ruptci
rcui
tswhi
l
ecur
ren
tisf
lowi
ngt
hrought
hem.

• Thecir
cui
tbreak
erwor
ksal
ongwi
tht
her
elaywhi
chgi
veat
rippi
ngsi
gnali
ncase
ofanyfaul
ts.

• Thecircui
tbreakerthenopent
oisol
atet
heci
rcui
tsucht
hatot
heri
nst
rumen
tof
theci
rcuitpr
otected.

D–Cur
rentTr
ansf
ormer

• Thecur
rentt
ransf
ormeri
sconnect
eddi
rect
lyi
nser
ieswi
tht
hel
i
ne.

• Currentt r
ansf
ormerare used wit
h power-fact
ormeters
,wat t-
hourmeters,
compen s
ators,prot
ect
ive and r
egulat
ing r
elays andt
he tr
ip coi
lof ci
rcuit
breaker
s.
 Fi
g:Cur
rentTr
ans
for
mer Fi
g:Vol
tageTr
ans
for
mer

E–Vol
tageTr
ansf
ormer

• I
tisal
sok
nowaspot
ent
ialt
rans
for
mer
.

• I
ti s used with wat
t-hour meter
s,power -
factor meter
s,frequency meters,
synchr
os copesandsyn chr
onizi
ngapparat
us,protecti
vean dregul
at i
ng rel
ays
andthen o-vol
tageandover-vol
tagetr
ipcoil
sofaut omati
ccir
cuitbreaker
s.

F–Ear
thi
ngSwi
tch

• I
tisal
soknownasgroun ddisconnect
,whichusedtoconnectstheequi
pmentt
oa
gr
idofel
ectr
icalconductor
sbur i
edintheearthonthestat
ionproper
ty

• I
tisi
ntendedt
opr
otectpeopl
ewor
kingont
hegr
oundedequi
pment
.

G–Li
ght
ningAr
rest
er

• I
tisadevi ceusedonelectr
icalpowersyst
emstoprotecttheinsul
ati
onand
conduct
orsofthesys
temfromt hedamagi
ngeff
ect
sofli
ghtni
ng.

• Whenali
ghtni
ngsurgetravelsal
ongthepowerlinet
othearrest
ert hecur
rent
f
romthesur
geisdivert
edt hr
oughthear
res
tor,i
nmostcasest
oear t
h
LayoutofSwi
tchyar
d

Concl
usi
on:

• Swi
tchyar
dismos
tes
sen
tialpar
toft
hepowersyst
em.

• I
tist
hepr
otect
ivepar
toft
hewhol
epowersyst
em.

1
.5 GRI
DORI
NTERCONNECTEDSYSTEMANDLOADTRANSFER

An electr
icalgr
id is an i
nter
connect
ed net
wor
kfordel
i
ver
ing el
ect
rici
ty f
rom
pr
oducerstoconsumer
s.

• I
tcon si
stsofgenerati
ngstat
ion
st hatpr oduceelect
ricalpower
, hi
ghvol
tage
tr
ansmissi
onli
nes thatcar
ry power f rom dist
antsourcestodemandcent
ers,
anddis
tri
buti
onli
nesthatconn
ectin
dividual customers

• Anelectr
icgr
idi
sanet
wor kofs ynchr
oni
zed power provi
der
sandconsumer
s
thatar
econnect
edbytran
smiss
ionanddistr
ibut
ionl
i
nesandoperat
edbyoneor
 mor
econt
rolcen
ter
s.

• I
tissi
mpl
ythet
ransmi
ssi
onsyst
emf
or el
ect
rici
ty

Benef
itsofgr
idi
nter
connect
ions

• I
mpr
ovi
ngr
eli
abi
l
ity

• Reducedi
nvest
menti
ngen
erat
ingcapaci
ty

• I
mpr
ovi
ngl
oadf
act
orandi
ncr
eas
ingl
oaddi
ver
sit
y

• Opt
imi
zat
ion ofmai
ntenanceschedul
es

• I
tallowsinexpensi
vepowerf
rom onesyst
em t
obesol
dtosyst
emswi
thmor
e
expensi
vepower.

• Reduct
ionoft
ransmi
ssi
onl
ossesi
nthenat
ion
algr
id

• Back
ingupt
hevol
tagel
eveli
nremot
ear
eas

• Reduceddepen
dencyonsi
ngl
elar
gepowerpl
ant
s

Basi
cel
ement
sofani
nter
connect
ion

• Tr
ansmi
ssi
onLi
nes-over
headl
i
nesandunder
groun
d(orunder
sea)cabl
es

• Suppor
tSt
ruct
ures

• Tr
ansf
ormer
s

• Subst
ati
ons
 • Pr
otect
ionSystems-The key componentsofpr
otect
ionsys
temsar
e ci
rcui
t
br
eaker
s,i
nst
rumenttr
ansf
ormersandrelays.

• Commun
icat
ions,Moni
tor
ing,an
dCont
rolSyst
ems

Tr
ansmi
ssi
onI
ssuesi
ngr
id

• Thermall
imit
s-Thecapaci
tyoft r
ansmi
ssi
onli
nes,t
ran
sfor
mer
s,andot
her
equi
pmentisdet
ermi
nedbyt emperat
urel
imi
ts.

• Stabi
li
tyli
mit
s-Thestabi
l
ityli
mitofatransmiss
ionl
inei
sthemaximumamount
ofpowerthatcanbetransmi
ttedforwhi
cht hesyst
emwi l
lremai
nsynchr
oni
zed
i
fadistur
banceoccur
s

• Volt
ageRegul
ati
on-Uti
li
ti
esgener
all
ymai
ntai
nsyst
emvoltageswi
thi
n5-1
0
per
centofnomi
nalval
uesinor
dertoavoi
dtheri
skofvol
tagecoll
apse

• AvailableTransmissi
onCapaci ty(
ATC)-Ani mportantmeasureoftransmis
sion
capacityistrans
mi ssi
ontransf
ercapabi
l
ity( TTC),whichisthemaximumpower
flowt hatal
inecanaccommodat eatanygi vent i
mean dsti
llbeabl
et os ur
vive
thelos sofamaj orgen er
atorortr
ansmi
ssionl i
nkelsewhereinthesystem

• Tr ansmi
ssionupgrades-I
fexist
ingt
ransmi
s si
onf aci
li
ti
esaretobeusedi nt
he
i
n tercon
nectionbutarenotadequat
et otransmittheexpectedvolumeofpower,
theycanbeupgr adedeit
herbyaddingadditi
onalli
nesinpar
all
elorincr
easi
ngthe
transmissi
onvoltage

Syst
emI
ssuesi
ngr
id

• Fr
equency Regul
ati
on- Cont
rol
li
ng f
requency inas ynchr
onous net
wor
kis
ul
ti
matel
yanissueofpr
ecisel
ymatchi
nggenerat
iont
oload

• Coordi
nati
ngOperations-Acon ti
nuousrecor
doft hebalanceofload,gener
ati
on,
andexchangeswithot hercontrolareascal
ledtheAr eaControlError(
ACE)is
usedtopl
anr eal
-ti
mecor rect
ionstomaintai
nload-gen
erati
onbalance.

• I
nterconnect
ionofpowersyst emswi t
hweakgr ids-Notal lin
terconnections
takeplacebet weenpowersyst
emsint optechnicalcondit
ion.Int
erconnection
canimproves uchsyst
ems,byprovi
dingemergencyr eser
vesandmor er el
iable
suppl
ies.

Pl
anni
ngofI
nter
connect
ionTechni
calPar
amet
ers

• Pr
eli
minar
y el
ect
rici
ty suppl
y and demand est
imat
es-Pr
ojectowner
s mak
e
 quant
itat
ive est
imat
es of el ect
rici
ty supply and deman
d and potent
ial
magni
tudesofpowerexchangesbetweenthes yst
emstobeint
erconn
ect
ed.

• Techni
calspeci
fi
cati
on-i
tincl
udestheamountanddir
ectionofpowert
o be
tr
ansmi
tted,t
emporar
yoverl
oadlevel
s,vol
tagel
evel
setc.

• Concept ualdesign-Potenti
alprojectdesigners/ contractorsprovide project
own er
swi thacon cept
ualdesignforthei
ntercon necti
on,incl
udi
ngthepr el
iminary
determinati
onofAC orDC i nter
connect
ion,linesorcabl e,conductors,support
str
uctures,trans
formers,r
eactivecompensation,substati
onlocati
onanddes i
gn.

Quest
ions

1.Whatiscogener ati
on?
2.Whatar ethef uelst hatar eusedi ncogener at i
on.
3.Whatar ethet ypesofcogener ati
onsyst em.
4.Descri
beaboutal lthef ourt ypesoft oppingcycl ecogener ati
on.
5.Whatar ethevar i
ouscogener at i
onsyst emanddescr ibeeachoft hem.
6.Whatar etheappl icationofcogener at i
on
7.Writeaboutt headvant agesofcogener ation.
8.Whatdoyoumeanbyacont rolr oomofel ect ri
cpowersyst em.
9.Whatar ethevar i
ousappl icati
onofcon trolr oom.
10.Whataret heequi pmentt hatar eneededt obui ldacont rolroom.
11.Dr
awt hevar iouslayoutofcont rolr oom
12.Whatdoyoumeanbyswi tchyar dinpowersyst em.
13.Whataret hevar i
ouscompon entsofswi t chyar danddescr ibeeachoft hem.
14.Descri
beaboutt hevar i
oust ypesofbus- barar rangement .
15.Drawoutt hel ayoutofaswi tchyar d.
16.Whatisael ect ri
calgr i
dsyst em?
17.Whataret hevar i
ousbenef i
tsofgr i
di nter connect ion?
18.Whataret heel ement sofagr i
ds yst em?
19.Whataret hevar i
oust ransmiss i
onands yst emi ssuesi ngri
di nt
erconnecti
on?

1.Whi
choft hefol l
owingisn otabenef itofcogenerat
ion
a.I
ncr easedef fi
ciencyofener gycon versi
onanduse
b.Reducedgr eenhous egasemi ssi
ons
c.Reducedpowerf act or
d.Reducedt ransmissi
onl osses
ANSWERS1 .c
2.Cogenerationist hesimultaneousgener at
ionof
a.Heatan dpower
b.Mechan icalenergyan dpower
c.Steamandconden s ate
d.Alloft heabove
ANSWERS2.a
3.TheRank i
ngCycl ei sr elat edt o
a.Boi l
er
b.St eamt urbine
c.Con den ser
d.Al loft heabove
ANSWERS3.b
4.Whati sani mpor t antadvan tageofcl os ed-cycl egast urbinecogenerat
ionsyst
ems?
a.Wor kingf luidr emai nscl eanan di tdoesnotcaus ecor r
osionorerosi
on
b.Lowcapi talcos ts
c.Highpr es sur eofpr oduceds team
d.Hight emper atur eofpr oduceds t eam
ANSWERS4.a
5.Thecogener ations ystemwhi chhasahi ghover al
leff i
ciencyisthe
a.Gast ur bine
b.Backpr es sures t eamt urbi
ne
c.Reci pr ocat i
ngen gine
d.Combi n edcycl e
ANSWERS5.d
6.Whichoft hef ollowi n
gs tat emen tsisnotcor rect
a.At oppi ngcycl epl an tgen eratesel ect r
ici
tyormechani calpowerfi
rst
b.Abot tomi ngcycl epl an tgenerat esheatf i
rst
c.Abot tomi n gcycl epl antgenerat esel ectri
cit
yormechan i
calpowerfi
rst
d.Bot haan db
ANSWERS6.c
7.Howi stheef f i
ciencyofcogen er
ationmeas ured?
a.Elect ricalcon ver sion c.Bot haan db
b.Ther malr ecover y
c.Bot haan db
d.Non eoft heabove
ANSWERS7.c
8.Thecogener ationi sn otappl i
cabletowhi cht ypeofi ndustry?
a.Sugar
b.Paperan dpul p
c.Ref iner y
d.Ref ract ory/br i
ck -mak ing
ANSWERS8.d
9.Whati sat ypi calef fi
ci encyofacogen erat i
onsyst em?
a.58%
b.68%
c.85%
d.95%
ANSWERS9.c
10.Whichfuelt ypecanbeus edi nagast urbine?
a.Lightf ueloi l
b.Nat uralgas
 c.Di
esel
d.Al
loftheabove
ANSWERS10.d