MODULE 1
steam evaporating from the boiling water was
A phase is a state, such as solid, liquid or gas,
in which a material exists under certain
temperature and pressure conditions.
1. Melting – change from solid to liquid
2. Freezing – change from liquid to solid
3. Sublimation – change from solid to gas
4. Deposition – change from gas to solid
5. Vaporization – change from liquid to gas
6. Condensation - change from gas to liquid
A phase diagram tells us whether a material is
a solid, liquid or gas at a given temperature and
pressure.
How Phase Changes Occurs
A. Compressed Liquid (Subcooled Liquid) to
Saturated Liquid
For water at a liquid state, it is being
compressed by the atmospheric pressure
exerted by the earth’s atmosphere. At this
phase the water is called compressed liquid or
subcooled liquid. Assuming that the
temperature of water is increased to its boiling
point indicated by the point on the left side of
the graph. This point corresponds to the water
being saturated or a saturated liquid which by
definition is a point where the water boils.
B. Saturated Liquid to Saturated Vapor
Heating the water further as it reached is
saturation point, the temperature remains
constant until it reaches a point on the right
side of the graph. In this point, water vapor
evaporates readily from the saturated liquid
which is indicated by water readily condensing
back to liquid when we put a lid while the
water boils. The water at this state is called
saturated vapor. In this state, the steam can
readily turn back to its liquid state given a slight
decrease in temperature.
C. Saturated Vapor to Superheated Vapor
From a saturated vapor state, imagine that the
taken and further heated. The temperature of
this saturated vapor rises even more and
beyond this saturated vapor point, the water
loses its tendency to condense back to liquid.
This steam is now called a superheated vapor.
MODULE 2
ISOCHORIC PROCESS or ISOMETRIC - constant
volume
ISOBARIC PROCESS - the constant pressure is
obtained when the volume is expanded or
contracted. This basically neutralizes any
pressure change due to the transfer of heat. In
an isobaric process, when the heat is
transferred to the system some work is done.
Moreover, there is also a change in the internal
energy of the system.
ISOTHERMAL PROCESS - often used as the
basis for compression with other compression
processes.
ISENTROPIC PROCESS - entropy of the fluid or
gas remains constant. It means the isentropic
process is a special case of an adiabatic process
in which there is no transfer of heat or matter.
POLYTROPIC PROCESS - describe gas expansion
and compression which include heat transfer.
The exponent n is known as the polytropic
index and it may take on any value from 0 to ∞,
depending on the particular process.
n = 0, p= constant, ISOBARIC
n = 1, pV = constant, ISOTHERMAL
n = k, pV = constant, ISENTROPIC
n ➝ ∞, ISOCHORIC
1 < n < k, in this process heat and work flows go
in opposite directions, This process occurs, in
vapor compression refrigeration during
compression
k < n < ∞, in this process heat and work flows
go in the same direction, this process occurs,
for example, in an internal combustion engine
(e.g., Otto cycle), in which there are heat loses
through the cylinder walls during gas
expansion (power stroke).
MODULE 2.1
CARNOT CYCLE
– most efficient Thermodynamic Cycle
– heat is transferred during Isothermal Process
– during Isentropic Compression, the pressure
increases
– during Isentropic Expansion, the pressure
decreases
– Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) is the ratio of
the Net Work and the Volume Displacement
Carnot Heat engine or Carnot Cycle was a
concept developed by Nicolas Leonard Sadi
Carnot (1796-1832, a French Military Engineer
and Physicist) so that one can visualize a
reversible heat engine in practice. Carnot
engine is a reversible heat engine which works
on Carnot cycle.
Reversible isothermal process of heat
addition (Process A-B) - In this process heat is
released from the hot reservoir and is
absorbed by the ideal gas particles within the
system. Thus, the temperature of the system
rises. The high temperature causes the gas
particles to expand hence pushing the piston
upwards and doing work on the surroundings.
Reversible adiabatic process of expansion
(Process B-C) - In this process expansion
continuous, however there is no heat exchange
between the system and the surroundings.
Thus, the system is undergoing adiabatic
expansion. The expansion allows the ideal gas
particles to cool, decreasing the temperature
of the system.
Reversible isothermal process of heat
rejection (Process C-D) - In this process
surroundings do work on the system which
causes heat to be released. The temperature
within the system remains the same. Thus,
isothermal expansion occurs.
Reversible adiabatic process of compression
(Process D-A) -No heat exchange occurs in this
process however; the surroundings continue to
do work on the system. Adiabatic compression
occurs which raises the temperature of the
system and puts the piston back to its original
state (Prior to process A-B).
MODULE 3
A steam power plant consists of a boiler (a kind
of steam generating unit), steam turbine and
generator, and other auxiliaries. The boiler
generates steam at high pressure and high
temperature. The steam turbine converts the
heat energy of steam into mechanical energy.
The generator then converts the mechanical
energy into electric power.
Steam turbine was invented in 1884 by Sir
Charles Parsons, first model was connected to
a dynamo that generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of
electricity.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Rankine Cycle – is the standard or most
common steam cycle. The working fluid is
water.
PSME Boiler Construction Code – The term,
PSME Boiler Construction Code, shall mean the
Boiler Construction Code of the Philippine
Society of Mechanical Engineers with
amendments and interpretations there to
made and approved by the council of the
Society.
Unfired Pressure Vessel – a vessel in which
pressure is obtained from an external source,
or from an indirect application of heat.
Locomotive Boiler – a boiler mounted on a
self-propelled track locomotive and used to
furnish motivating power for travelling on rails.
Portable Boiler – an internally fired boiler
which is self – contained and primarily
intended for temporary location and the 3. The fluid is incompressible (V1 = V2)
construction and usage is obviously portable.

Internal Inspection – an inspection made when

a boiler or unfired pressure vessel is shut down
and handholes, manholes, or other inspection
openings are opened or removed for
inspection of the interior.
External Inspection – an inspection made on
the external parts accessories and/or
component even when a boiler or unfired
pressure vessel is in operation.
PURE SUBSTANCE
Sub-cooled liquid or Compressed liquid – The
liquid is not about to vaporized
Saturated liquid – The liquid is about to
vaporized
Saturated Vapor – The vapor is about to
condense

Fusion Welding – a process of welding metals
in a molten or molten and vaporous state,
without the application of mechanical pressure
or blows. Such welding may be accomplished
by the oxy- acetylene or hydrogen flame or by
electric arc. Thermit welding is also classed as
fusion welding.
Superheated Vapor – The vapor is not about to
condense
Vapor – Gaseous Phase that is in contact with
the Liquid phase
Degrees Superheat – the difference between
the actual temperature of Superheated Vapor.

Degrees Sub-cooled – the difference between

the saturation temperature for the given
Boiler And Condenser Conditions: pressure and the actual sub-cooled liquid
1. Changes in KE and PE are negligible. temperature.

2. There is no work crossing the control Wet vapor or Mixture – combination of

surface. Saturated Vapor and Liquid

3. The process is constant pressure heat Critical point – the point at which the saturated
addition. liquid and saturated vapor are identical.

Quality – The ratio of the mass of vapor to the

total mass of liquid and vapor
Turbine Conditions:

1. The turbine is adiabatic. (Q = 0, S1 = S2)

2. There change in kinetic energy across the

turbine is not negligible but in the ideal
analysis, the KE is being ignored since we have
no specific means of determining inlet and
discharge velocities.

Pump Conditions:

1. The turbine is adiabatic. (Q = 0) and

reversible (S1 = S2)

2. There change in kinetic and potential energy

are negligible.