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6th Edition
UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS
IN A CHANGING SOCIETY
DEBORAH MORLEY
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
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Understanding Computers in a Changing Society, © 2015, 2013 Cengage Learning
6th Edition
WCN: 02-200-203
Deborah Morley
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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 18 17 16 15 14
PREFACE
n today’s technology-oriented society, computers and technology impact virtually everyone’s life. Understanding
I Computers in a Changing Society, 6th Edition is designed to ensure that students are current and informed in order to thrive
in our technology-oriented, global society. With this new edition, students not only learn about relevant cutting-edge technology
trends, but they also gain a better understanding of technology in general and the important issues surrounding technology
today. This information gives students the knowledge they need to succeed in today’s world.
This nontechnical, introductory text explains in straightforward terms the importance of learning about computers
and other computing devices, the various types of devices and their components, the principles by which computers
work, the practical applications of computers and related technologies, the ways in which the world is being changed
by these technologies, and the associated risks and other potential implications of computers and related technologies.
The goal of this text is to provide readers with a solid knowledge of computing fundamentals, an understanding of the
impact of our technology-oriented society, and a framework for using this knowledge effectively in their lives.
KEY FEATURES
Just like its previous editions, Understanding Computers in a Changing Society, 6th Edition
provides current and comprehensive coverage of important topics. Flexible organization
and an engaging presentation, combined with a variety of learning tools associated with
each chapter, help students master the important computing concepts they will encounter in
school, on the job, and in their personal lives.
Currency and Accuracy

The state-of-the-art content of this book reflects the latest technologies, trends, and classroom
needs. To reflect the importance of mobile computing today, the entire text has an increased
emphasis on smartphones, media tablets, mobile apps, and the issues that surround them, such
as mobile security. All topics and figures have been updated for currency and, to ensure the
content is as accurate and up to date as possible, numerous Industry Expert Reviewers pro-
vided feedback and suggestions for improvements to the content in their areas of expertise.
Throughout the writing and production stages, enhancements were continually made to ensure
that the final product is as current and accurate as possible.
Comprehensiveness and Depth

Accommodating a wide range of teaching styles, Understanding Computers in a Changing
Society, 6th Edition provides comprehensive coverage of traditional topics while also covering
relevant, up-to-the-minute new technologies and important societal issues. This edition has
an increased emphasis on mobile computing, cloud applications, and social media and
includes the following new topics:
➤ New hardware developments, including smartphones, media tablets, smart
watches, Google Glass, hybrid notebook-tablet computers, tiny PCs like the
IV PREFACE
Raspberry Pi and Chromecast, GPUs, immersion cooling systems, tablet and

smartphone docks, personal 3D printers, projector phones, self-driving cars,
self-healing devices, perceptual computing, gesture input, touch mice, eye
tracking tablets, tablet storage devices, DNA data storage, and 4K (Ultra HD)
Blu-ray Discs.
➤ New software developments and issues, including Windows 8, the Google Play
store, mobile app builders, and the impact of cloud computing.
➤ New mobile applications, including Bring Your Own Device (BYOD), mobile
ticketing, mobile data caps, group messaging, geofencing, Google Now, and mobile
ergonomics.
➤ New networking technologies, including new and emerging Wi-Fi standards,
the Internet of Things (IoT), Bluetooth Smart, software defined networking
(SDN), and new Wi-Fi-enabled products such as smart thermostats, scales, and
Wi-Fi locks.
➤ New security risks, including BYOD security issues, social media hacks, and
scareware, ransomware, and chargeware.
➤ New security precautions, including digital tattoos and other emerging biometric
systems, soft and hard tokens for OTPs/two-factor authentication, 3D Secure online
purchase verification, wireless tethers for mobile devices, and proximity devices and
apps to automatically lock and unlock a computer.
➤ New Web applications, including cloud printing, Internet monitors, virtual currency,
social commerce, and social media integration.
CHAPTER 8 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 297

Readability
TREND
We remember more about a subject if it is made interesting and exciting, as well as
Perceptual Computing an eight-cubic-foot 3D interactive space inside which users can
swipe, grab, pinch (refer again to the photo), and move objects
presented in a straightforward manner. This book is written in a conversational, down-
In the 2002 futuristic movie Minority Report, Tom Cruise around as if they were using a touch screen, except that they are
changes the images on his display by gesturing with his hands.
While it was fiction in the movie, it is now just about a reality.
Enter the trend of perceptual computing where users control
not actually touching the screen. And noncontact systems such
as this have additional advantages, such as being able to use 3D
gestures instead of just 2D gestures, avoiding the fingerprint and
to-earth style—one designed to be accurate without being intimidating. Concepts are
their devices with three dimensional (3D) gestures, voice com- germ issues related to public keyboard and touch screen use,
mands, and facial expressions instead of with traditional input
devices like the keyboard and mouse.
Gesture input itself isn’t new—it’s been used in various forms
allowing for full body input, and enabling input to be performed
from a slight distance (such as from a nearby chair or through a
glass storefront window).
explained clearly and simply, without the use of overly technical terminology. More com-
for several years with devices such as the Nintendo Wii, Xbox
Kinect, and the Apple iPhone and in large screen consumer gam-
ing and advertising applications; it is also an important compo-
nent of the Windows 8 operating system. But the gesture-input
systems of the future are expected to be much more sophisti-
plex concepts are explained in an understandable manner and with realistic examples from
cated and combined with other types of input to allow users to
more naturally control their computers and to allow the devices
to adapt to each individual’s need. For example, a computer or
phone could offer to make a game easier if a player appears frus-
everyday life.
trated or could offer to turn the page on a tablet displaying a
Courtesy Leap Motion
recipe if the hands of the person cooking are covered with flour.
One recent step in this direction is the Leap 3D System
shown in the accompanying photograph. It is an iPod-sized
box that connects to a computer via a USB port and creates
The digital camera capabilities built into most smartphones today allow for several
types of emerging input applications. For instance, they allow gesture input, as well as FIGURE 8-2 Chapter Learning Tools
<
the use of two-dimensional ( ) barcodes and augmented reality applications to retrieve Most smartphones
and display useful information. Two-dimensional (2D) barcodes—such as the QR (Quick can read 2D
Response) code that represents data with a matrix of small squares—store information barcodes.
both horizontally and vertically and so can hold significantly more data than conven-
tional one-dimensional barcodes. Most 2D barcodes today are designed to be used by
consumers with smartphones. For instance, capturing the image of a QR barcode located
on a magazine or newspaper ad, poster, or billboard with a smartphone’s camera could
enable the consumer’s smartphone to load a Web page, dial a phone number or send
1. Outline, Learning Objectives, and Overview: For each chapter, an Outline
of the major topics covered, a list of student Learning Objectives, and a
302 UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS IN A CHANGING SOCIETY
a text message (to enter a contest, for example), display a video clip or photo (stored
either in the code or online), download a coupon or ticket, or Like a Facebook page (see
Figure 8-2). QR codes can also be used to transfer contact information to a phone or
initially for mobile phones and other portable devices, IMOD dis-
Courtesy SPARQCode
add an event to an online calendar. Augmented reality is another emerging smartphone
Chapter Overview help instructors put the subject matter of the chapter in
application. With augmented reality, computer-generated images are overlayed on top plays use external light, such as from the sun or artificial light
of real-time images. Today, Web-based content is typically displayed over the images inside a building, to display images so images are bright and clear
seen through a smartphone’s camera and displayed on the smartphone. The content is even in direct sunlight (refer again to Figure 8-7). And, because
backlighting isn’t used, power consumption is much less than
Content from a
what is needed for LCD displays. In fact, similar to the e-paper
>Two-dimensional (2D) barcode. A barcode that represents data with a matrix of small squares and
smartphone or the
Internet appears
stores in
information
your line of vision.
discussed in the Chapter 7 Inside the Industry box, devices using
both horizontally and
IMOD displays use no power unless the image changes, which
vertically so it can hold significantly more data than a conventional one-dimensional barcode. >Augmented reality. When computer generated
images are overlayed on top of real-time images, Display
such asistobuilt
means they can remain on at all times without draining the device
overlay information over the photo or video displayed on a smartphone.
perspective and let students know what they will be reading about.
into the Glass battery. Beginning to be used with mobile devices, IMODs could
frames. eventually be used for outdoor television screens, large digital
signs, and other outdoor display devices that normally consume a
great deal of power.
While most displays are designed to be looked at from at
least several inches away, some displays are designed to be
2. Boldfaced Key Terms and Running Glossary: Important terms appear in
Courtesy Google
wearable. A wearable display usually projects the image from

a mobile device (such as a smartphone or media tablet) to a
display screen built into the glasses via a wireless connection.
Typically, the technology allows the user to see the image as
boldface type as they are introduced in the chapter. These terms are defined at
FIGURE 8-8 if it is on a distant large screen display, and many wearable
<
Google Glass. displays overlay the projected image on top of what the user is seeing in real time to
provide augmented reality. For example, the Google Glass eyeglasses-based display
shown in Figure 8-8 has a tiny display located where the right lens would be and users
can see content projected on that screen in front of what they are seeing normally.
the bottom of the page on which they appear and in the end-of-text glossary.
Google Glass is typically connected (via Bluetooth) to a smartphone and then content
(such as text messages, maps and directions, video calls, and Web pages) is streamed
from that phone to the Google Glass display. Google Glass also has a built-in Web
browser and can connect directly to a Wi-Fi hotspot when needed, has a touch-sensitive
pad on the right side of the frame for input, and a bone-conductive audio output system
3. Chapter Boxes: In each chapter, a Trend box provides students with a
so that audio output is heard only by the user. In addition to consumer wearable dis-
ASK THE EXPERT

plays that have entertainment and productiv-
ity applications (such as being able to access
GPS directions as needed or to monitor your
e-mail during a meeting), there are also wear-
look at current and upcoming technology trends; an Inside the Industry
Product Planning Manager, able displays designed for soldiers and other
box provides insight into some of the practices and issues related to the
Courtesy of Seagate Technology LLC
mobile workers.
Seagate Technology
Should my next computer have a magnetic

hard drive or an SSD?
Your storage options for a new PC include traditional
hard drives (HDDs), solid-state drives (SSDs), and the
Emerging Storage Devices
Improvements in magnetic disk technol-
ogy are continuing to increase the data that
can be stored on hard drives. Traditionally,
computer industry; a How It Works box explains in detail how a technol-
newer solid-state hybrid drives (SSHDs). Selecting the magnetic particles on a hard disk have
what is right for you is a trade-off between price,
performance, and capacity.
been aligned horizontally, parallel to the
hard disk’s surface (referred to as longitudi-
nal magnetic recording). To increase capac-
ogy or product works; and a Technology and You box takes a look at how
➤ SSDs have maximized PC performance and very ity and reliability, most new hard drives
➤
good shock resistance, but are low capacity and
pricey.
HDDs have the lowest cost and high capacity but
today use perpendicular magnetic recording
(PMR), in which the bits are placed upright to
allow them to be closer together than is pos-
computers and technology are used in everyday life.
have average performance. sible with a horizontal layout. For instance,
PMR currently allows a recording density up
➤ SSHDs have SSD-like performance and high to 1 terabit per s uare inch (Tb inch ), which
capacity, but have a small price premium. results in internal hard drives with capacities
up to about 4 TB of storage for a 3.5-inch 4. Ask the Expert Boxes: In each chapter, three Ask the Expert boxes
feature a question about a computing concept, a trend, or how computers
PREFACE V
are used on the job or otherwise in the real world along with the
TI P
response from an expert. Experts for this edition include a former Navy
pilot, a guitarist from a rock band, and executives from notable com- Both Facebook and Twitter allow
panies like McDonald’s, SONIC, ARM, Seagate, ACM, Rhapsody, you to encrypt your connections—
The Computer Ethics Institute, Sony Animations, D-Link, GreenDisk, enable this option when you are
and Symantec. using a public Wi-Fi hotspot to
protect your account from hackers.
5. Marginal Tips and Caution Elements: Tip marginal elements feature
time-saving tips or ways to avoid a common problem or terminology mis-
take, or present students with interesting additional information related to
the chapter content. Caution elements warn of a possible problem students
should avoid.
6. Illustrations and Photographs: Instructive, current, full-color illustrations
and photographs are used to illustrate important concepts. Figures and screen-
shots show the latest hardware and software and are annotated to convey
important information.
7. Summary and Key Terms: The end-of-chapter material includes a concise,
section-by-section Summary of the main points in the chapter. The chapter’s
Learning Objectives appear in the margin next to the relevant section of the
summary so that students are better able to relate the Learning Objectives to
the chapter material. Every boldfaced key term in the chapter also appears in
boldface type in the summary.
8. Review Activities: End-of-chapter Review Activities allow students to test
themselves on what they have just read. A matching exercise of selected
Key Terms helps students test their retention of the chapter material.
A Self-Quiz (with the answers listed at the end of the book) consists of ten
true-false and completion questions. Five additional easily graded match-
ing and short-answer Exercises are included for instructors who would like
to assign graded homework. Two short Discussion
Questions for each chapter provide a springboard
to jump-start classroom discussions.
9. Projects: End-of-chapter Projects require stu-
dents to extend their knowledge by doing research
and activities beyond merely reading the book.
Organized into six types of projects (Hot Topics,
Short Answer/Research, Hands On, Ethics
in Action, Presentation/Demonstration, and
Balancing Act), the projects feature explicit instruc-
tions so that students can work through them with-
out additional directions from instructors and some
require students to form an opinion about a current
issue and discuss it in a classroom discussion or short
paper. A special marginal icon denotes projects that
require Internet access.
References and Resources Guide

A References and Resources Guide at the end of the book brings together in one con-
venient location a collection of computer-related references and resources, including a
Computer History Timeline, a Guide to Buying a PC, A Look at Numbering Systems
feature, and a Coding Charts feature.
VI PREFACE
NEW and Updated Expert Insight Features

In the exciting Expert Insight feature located at the end of
the first seven chapters, industry experts provide students
with personal insights on topics presented in the book, includ-
ing their personal experiences with technology, key points to
remember, and advice for students. The experts, professionals
from these major companies—D-Link, Logitech, Microsoft,
McAfee, eBay, ACM/Google, and Dell—provide a unique
perspective on the book’s content and how the topics dis-
cussed in the text impact their lives and their industry, what it
means for the future, and more!
Student and Instructor Support Materials

Understanding Computers in a Changing Society, 6th Edition
is available with a complete package of support materials
for instructors and students. Included in the package are CourseMate, the Instructor
Companion Site, and, if access to SAM has been purchased, SAM Computer Concepts
material is available.
CourseMate
The Understanding Computers in a Changing Society, 6th Edition includes CourseMate,
which helps you make the grade. CourseMate includes:
➤ Key Term Matching and Flashcards—allow students to test their knowledge of
selected chapter key terms.
➤ Interactive Quiz—allows students to test their retention of chapter concepts.
➤ Global Technology Watch—provides additional reading on the latest technology
topics.
➤ Beat the Clock—allows students to test how ready they are for upcoming exams.
➤ Crossword Puzzles—incorporate the key terms from each chapter into an online
interactive crossword puzzle.
➤ Online Videos—include several videos per chapter related to the topics in that
chapter, as well as practical “How To” information related to chapter topics.
➤ Further Exploration—includes links to additional information about content
covered in each chapter.
➤ Interactive eBook—includes highlighting, note taking, and search capabilities.
➤ Engagement Tracker—monitors student engagement in the course.
➤ Additional Resources—include additional resources that can be viewed or printed,
such as Expert Insights; an Online Study Guide, Online Summary, and Online
Glossary for each chapter; a Guide to Buying a PC and a Computer History
Timeline; and more information about Numbering Systems and Coding Charts.
(Go to cengagebrain.com to access these resources.)
Instructor Companion Site

Everything you need for your course in one place! This collection of book-specific lec-
ture and class tools is available online via www.cengage.com/login. Access and download
PowerPoint presentations, images, Instructor’s Manual, videos, and more.
PREFACE VII
Electronic Instructor’s Manual

The Instructor’s Manual is written to provide instructors with practical suggestions for
enhancing classroom presentations. The Instructor’s Manual provides: Lecture Notes,
Teacher Tips, Quick Quizzes, Classroom Activities, Discussion Questions, Key Terms,
a Chapter Quiz, and more!
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero

Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero is a flexible, online system that allows
you to:
➤ Author, edit, and manage test bank content from multiple Cengage Learning
solutions
➤ Create multiple test versions in an instant
➤ Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or wherever you want
PowerPoint Presentations
This book has Microsoft PowerPoint presentations avail-
able for each chapter. These are included as a teaching aid
for classroom presentation, to make available to students on
a network for chapter review, or to be printed for classroom
distribution. Instructors can customize these presentations to
cover any additional topics they introduce to the class. Figure
Files for all figures in the textbook are also available online.
SAM: Skills Assessment Manager

SAM 2013 is designed to help bring students from the class-
room to the real world. It allows students to train and test on
important computer skills in an active, hands-on environ-
ment. SAM’s easy-to-use system includes powerful interactive
exams, training, and projects on the most commonly used
Microsoft Office applications. SAM simulates the Office 2013
application environment, allowing students to demonstrate
their knowledge and think through the skills by performing real-world tasks such as bold-
ing text or setting up slide transitions. Add in live-in-the-application projects and students
are on their way to truly learning and applying skills to business-centric documents.
Designed to be used with the New Perspectives Series, SAM includes handy page
references, so students can print helpful study guides that match the New Perspectives
Series textbooks used in class. For instructors, SAM also includes robust scheduling and
reporting features.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to extend a special thank you to all of the industry professionals who provided
their expertise for the Expert Insight features:
Daniel Kelley, Vice President, Marketing, D-Link Systems, Inc.
Ali Moayer, Senior Director of Engineering, Logitech
Stephen Rose, Senior Product Marketing and Community Manager, Windows Commercial,
Microsoft
Greg Hampton, Vice President, Product Management, McAfee
Jim Griffith, Dean of eBay Education, eBay
Stuart Feldman, Past President of ACM and Vice President, Engineering, Google
Frank Molsberry, Sr. Principal Engineer and Security Technologist, Dell Inc.
VIII PREFACE
In addition, I am very grateful to the numerous Industry Expert Reviewers that perform technical reviews and provide helpful
suggestions each edition to ensure this book is as accurate and current as possible. I would also like to thank the Educational
Reviewers who have helped to define and improve the quality of this text over the years. In particular, I would like to thank
the following individuals:
Industry Expert Reviewers

Julie Anne Mossler, Director of Communications, Groupon; Alan Tringham, Senior Marketing Communications Manager,
ARM; The Wi-Fi Alliance; Mike Hall, Corporate Communications, Seagate Technology; Kevin Curtis, CTO, InPhase
Technologies; Sriram K. Peruvemba, Vice President, Marketing, E Ink Corporation; Jim Sherhart, Senior Director of
Marketing, Data Robotics; Jack Dollard, Marketing, Mitek Systems; Joe Melfi, Director of Product Marketing for Cloud
Solutions, D-Link Systems; Dave Gelvin, President, Tranzeo Wireless USA; Kevin Raineri, Director, Sales and Marketing,
Innovative Card Technologies; Bill Shribman, Executive Producer, WGBH Interactive; Mike Markham, Vice President of
Sales, Cadre Technologies; Renee Cassata, Marketing Manager, iDashboards; Russell T. Cross, Vice President of AAC
Products, Prentke Romich Company; Dr. Kimberly Young, Director, The Center for Internet Addiction Recovery; Jason
Taylor, Worldwide Director of Corporate Communications, MobiTV; Nicole Rodrigues, Public Relations Manager,
MobiTV; Stephen Yeo, Worldwide Strategic Marketing Director, IGEL Technology; Bob Hirschfeld, Public Information
Officer, Lawrence Livermore National Lab; Bryan Crum, Vice President of Communication, Omnilert, LLC; David
Bondurant, MRAM Product Manager, Freescale Semiconductor, Inc.; Rick McGowan, Vice President & Senior Software
Engineer, Unicode, Inc.; Margaret Lewis, Director of Commercial Solutions, AMD; Mark Tekunoff, Senior Technology
Manager, Kingston Technology; Billy Rudock, Customer Service Staff Engineer, Seagate Technology; James M. DePuydt,
Ph.D., Technology Director, Imation Corporation; Dan Bloom, Sr. PR Manager, SanDisk; Kevin Curtis, CTO, InPhase
Technologies; Gail Levy, Director of Marketing, TabletKiosk; Novell Marketing; John McCreesh, Marketing Project
Lead, OpenOffice.org; Jackson Dunlap, ESP Systems; Laura Abram, Director of Corporate Marketing, Dust Networks;
Kevin Schader, Communications Director, ZigBee Alliance; Mauro Dresti, Linksys Product Marketing Manager; Lianne
Caetano, Executive Director, WirelessHD, LLC; Brad Booth; Howard Frazier; Bob Grow; Michael McCormack; George
Cravens, Technical Marketing, D-Link Systems; Christiaan Stoudt, Founder, HomeNetworkHelp.Info; Douglas M. Winneg,
President, Software Secure, Inc.; Frank Archambeault, Director of Network Services, Dartmouth College; Adam Goldstein,
IT Security Engineer, Dartmouth College; Ellen Young, Manager of Consulting Services, Dartmouth College; Becky Waring,
Executive Editor, JiWire.com; Ellen Craw, General Manager, Ilium Software; Michael Behr, Senior Architect, TIBCO; Joe
McGlynn, Director of Product Management, CodeGear; John Nash, Vice President of Marketing, Visible Systems; Josh Shaul,
Director of Technology Strategy, Application Security, Inc.; Jodi Florence, Marketing Director, IDology, Inc.; Dr. Maressa
Hecht Orzack, Director, Computer Addiction Services; Janice K. Mahon, Vice President of Technology Commercialization,
Universal Display Corporation; Dr. Nhon Quach, Next Generation Processor Architect, AMD; Jos van Haaren, Department
Head Storage Physics, Philips Research Laboratories; Terry O’Kelly, Technical Communications Manager, Memorex;
Randy Culpepper, Texas Instruments RFID Systems; Aaron Newman, CTO and Co-Founder, Application Security Inc.;
Alan Charlesworth, Staff Engineer, Sun Microsystems; Khaled A. Elamrawi, Senior Marketing Engineer, Intel Corporation;
Timothy D. O’Brien, Senior Systems Engineer, Fujitsu Software; John Paulson, Manager, Product Communications,
Seagate Technology; Omid Rahmat, Editor in Chief, Tom’s Hardware Guide; Jeremy Bates, Multimedia Developer, R & L
Multimedia Developers; Charles Hayes, Product Marketing Manager, SimpleTech, Inc.; Rick McGowan, Vice President &
Senior Software Engineer, Unicode, Inc.; Russell Reynolds, Chief Operating Officer & Web Designer, R & L Multimedia
Developers; Rob Stephens, Director, Technology Strategies, SAS; Dave Stow, Database Specialist, OSE Systems, Inc.
Educational Reviewers
Marc Forestiere, Fresno City College; Beverly Amer, Northern Arizona University; James Ambroise Jr., Southern University,
Louisiana; Virginia Anderson, University of North Dakota; Robert Andree, Indiana University Northwest; Linda Armbruster,
Rancho Santiago College; Michael Atherton, Mankato State University; Gary E. Baker, Marshalltown Community College;
Richard Batt, Saint Louis Community College at Meremec; Luverne Bierle, Iowa Central Community College; Fariba
Bolandhemat, Santa Monica College; Jerry Booher, Scottsdale Community College; Frederick W. Bounds, Georgia
Perimeter College; James Bradley, University of Calgary; Curtis Bring, Moorhead State University; Brenda K. Britt,
Fayetteville Technical Community College; Cathy Brotherton, Riverside Community College; Chris Brown, Bemidji State
University; Janice Burke, South Suburban College; James Buxton, Tidewater Community College, Virginia; Gena Casas,
Florida Community College, Jacksonville; Thomas Case, Georgia Southern University; John E. Castek, University of
Wisconsin-La Crosse; Mario E. Cecchetti, Westmoreland County Community College; Jack W. Chandler, San Joaquin Delta
College; Alan Charlesworth, Staff Engineer, Sun Microsystems; Jerry M. Chin, Southwest Missouri State University;
PREFACE IX
Edward W. Christensen, Monmouth University; Carl Clavadetscher, California State Polytechnic University; Vernon
Clodfelter, Rowan Technical College, North Carolina; Joann C. Cook, College of DuPage; Laura Cooper, College of the
Mainland, Texas; Cynthia Corritore, University of Nebraska at Omaha; Sandra Cunningham, Ranger College; Marvin
Daugherty, Indiana Vocational Technical College; Donald L. Davis, University of Mississippi; Garrace De Groot, University
of Wyoming; Jackie Dennis, Prairie State College; Donald Dershem, Mountain View College; John DiElsi, Marcy College,
New York; Mark Dishaw, Boston University; Eugene T. Dolan, University of the District of Columbia; Bennie Allen Dooley,
Pasadena City College; Robert H. Dependahl Jr.; Santa Barbara City College; William Dorin, Indiana University Northwest;
Mike Doroshow, Eastfield College; Jackie O. Duncan, Hopkinsville Community College; John Dunn, Palo Alto College;
John W. Durham, Fort Hays State University; Hyun B. Eom, Middle Tennessee State University; Michael Feiler, Merritt
College; Terry Felke, WR Harper College; J. Patrick Fenton, West Valley Community College; James H. Finger, University
of South Carolina at Columbia; William C. Fink, Lewis and Clark Community College, Illinois; Ronald W. Fordonski,
College of Du Page; Connie Morris Fox, West Virginia Institute of Technology; Paula S. Funkhouser, Truckee Meadows
Community College; Janos T. Fustos, Metropolitan State; Gene Garza, University of Montevallo; Timothy Gottleber, North
Lake College; Dwight Graham, Prairie State College; Wade Graves, Grayson County College; Kay H. Gray, Jacksonville
State University; David W. Green, Nashville State Technical Institute, Tennessee; George P. Grill, University of North
Carolina, Greensboro; John Groh, San Joaquin Delta College; Rosemary C. Gross, Creighton University; Dennis Guster,
Saint Louis Community College at Meremec; Joe Hagarty, Raritan Valley Community College; Donald Hall, Manatee
Community College; Jim Hanson, Austin Community College; Sallyann Z. Hanson, Mercer County Community College; L.
D. Harber, Volunteer State Community College, Tennessee; Hank Hartman, Iowa State University; Richard Hatch, San
Diego State University; Mary Lou Hawkins, Del Mar College; Ricci L. Heishman, Northern Virginia Community College;
William Hightower, Elon College, North Carolina; Sharon A. Hill, Prince George’s Community College, Maryland; Alyse
Hollingsworth, Brevard College; Fred C. Homeyer, Angelo State University; Stanley P. Honacki, Moraine Valley Community
College; L. Wayne Horn, Pensacola Junior College; J. William Howorth, Seneca College, Ontario, Canada; Mark W. Huber,
East Carolina University; Peter L. Irwin, Richland College, Texas; John Jasma, Palo Alto College; Elizabeth Swoope
Johnson, Louisiana State University; Jim Johnson, Valencia Community College; Mary T. Johnson, Mt. San Antonio
College; Susan M. Jones, Southwest State University; Amardeep K. Kahlon, Austin Community College; Robert T. Keim,
Arizona State University; Mary Louise Kelly, Palm Beach Community College; William R. Kenney, San Diego Mesa
College; Richard Kerns, East Carolina University, North Carolina; Glenn Kersnick, Sinclair Community College, Ohio;
Richard Kiger, Dallas Baptist University; Gordon C. Kimbell, Everett Community College, Washington; Robert Kirklin,
Los Angeles Harbor Community College; Judith A. Knapp, Indiana University Northwest; Mary Veronica Kolesar, Utah
State University; James G. Kriz, Cuyahoga Community College, Ohio; Joan Krone, Denison University; Fran Kubicek,
Kalamazoo Valley Community College; Rose M. Laird, Northern Virginia Community College; Robert Landrum, Jones
Junior College; Shelly Langman, Bellevue Community College; James F. LaSalle, The University of Arizona; Chang-Yang
Lin, Eastern Kentucky University; Linda J. Lindaman, Black Hawk College; Alden Lorents, Northern Arizona University;
Paul M. Lou, Diablo Valley College; Deborah R. Ludford, Glendale Community College; Kent Lundin, Brigham Young
University-Idaho; Barbara J. Maccarone, North Shore Community College; Wayne Madison, Clemson University, South
Carolina; Donna L. Madsen, Kirkwood Community College; Randy Marak, Hill College; Gary Marks, Austin Community
College, Texas; Kathryn A. Marold, Ph.D., Metropolitan State College of Denver; Cesar Marron, University of Wyoming;
Ed Martin, Kingsborough Community College; Vickie McCullough, Palomar College; James W. McGuffee, Austin
Community College; James McMahon, Community College of Rhode Island; William A. McMillan, Madonna University;
Don B. Medley, California State Polytechnic University; John Melrose, University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire; Dixie Mercer,
Kirkwood Community College; Mary Meredith, University of Southwestern Louisiana; Marilyn Meyer, Fresno City
College; Carolyn H. Monroe, Baylor University; William J. Moon, Palm Beach Community College; Marilyn Moore,
Purdue University; Marty Murray, Portland Community College; Don Nielsen, Golden West College; George Novotny,
Ferris State University; Richard Okezie, Mesa Community College; Joseph D. Oldham, University of Kentucky; Dennis J.
Olsen, Pikes Peak Community College; Bob Palank, Florissant Community College; James Payne, Kellogg Community
College; Lisa B. Perez, San Joaquin Delta College; Savitha Pinnepalli, Louisiana State University; Delores Pusins,
Hillsborough CC; Mike Rabaut, Hillsborough CC; Robert Ralph, Fayetteville Technical Institute, North Carolina; Herbert
F. Rebhun, University of Houston-Downtown; Nicholas John Robak, Saint Joseph’s University; Arthur E. Rowland, Shasta
College; Kenneth R. Ruhrup, St. Petersburg Junior College; John F. Sanford, Philadelphia College of Textiles and Science;
Kammy Sanghera, George Mason University; Carol A. Schwab, Webster University; Larry Schwartzman, Trident Technical
College; Benito R. Serenil, South Seattle Community College; Allanagh Sewell, Southeastern Louisiana University; Tom
Seymour, Minot State University; John J. Shuler, San Antonio College, Texas; Gayla Jo Slauson, Mesa State College;
Harold Smith, Brigham Young University; Willard A. Smith, Tennessee State University; David Spaisman, Katherine Gibbs;
Elizabeth Spooner, Holmes Community College; Timothy M. Stanford, City University; Alfred C. St. Onge, Springfield
X PREFACE
Technical Community College, Massachusetts; Michael L. Stratford, Charles County Community College, Maryland; Karen
Studniarz, Kishwaukee College; Sandra Swanson, Lewis & Clark Community College; Tim Sylvester, Glendale Community
College; Semih Tahaoglu, Southeastern Louisiana University; Jane J. Thompson, Solano Community College; Sue Traynor,
Clarion University of Pennsylvania; William H. Trueheart, New Hampshire College; James D. Van Tassel, Mission College;
James R. Walters, Pikes Peak Community College; Joyce V. Walton, Seneca College, Ontario, Canada; Diane B. Walz,
University of Texas at San Antonio; Joseph Waters, Santa Rosa Junior College, California; Liang Chee Wee, University of
Arizona; Merrill Wells, Red Rocks Community College; Fred J. Wilke, Saint Louis Community College; Charles M.
Williams, Georgia State University; Roseanne Witkowski, Orange County Community College; David Womack, University
of Texas, San Antonio; George Woodbury, College of the Sequoias; Nan Woodsome, Araphoe Community College; James
D. Woolever, Cerritos College; Patricia Joann Wykoff, Western Michigan University; A. James Wynne, Virginia
Commonwealth University; Robert D. Yearout, University of North Carolina at Asheville; Israel Yost, University of New
Hampshire; and Vic Zamora, Mt. San Antonio College.
I would also like to thank the people on the Cengage team—their professionalism, attention to detail, and enormous enthu-
siasm make working with them a pleasure. In particular, I’d like to thank Donna Gridley, Michelle Ruelos Cannistraci,
Jennifer Feltri-George, Christine Myaskovsky, and Pam Conrad for all their ideas, support, and tireless efforts during the
design, writing, rewriting, and production of this book. I would also like to thank Marissa Falco for the interior design and
GEX Publishing Services for the cover design. I want to thank Sreejith Govindan and Integra for all their help managing the
production of the book. Thanks also to Kathleen McMahon.
I am also very appreciative of the numerous individuals and organizations that were kind enough to supply information and
photographs for this text and the many organizations, as well as Daniel Davis of Tinkernut.com, that generously allowed us
to use their content for the Online Videos, which can be found on CourseMate.
I sincerely hope you find this book interesting, informative, and enjoyable to read.
Deborah Morley
BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface iii Chapter 6

Intellectual Property Rights and Ethics 232
Chapter 1 Expert Insight on Systems 260
Introduction to the World of Computers 2
Expert Insight on Personal Computers 44 Chapter 7
Health, Access, and the Environment 262
Chapter 2 Expert Insight on Computers and Society 292
A Closer Look at Hardware and Software 46
Expert Insight on Hardware 90 Chapter 8
Emerging Technologies 294
Chapter 3
The Internet and the World Wide Web 92 References and Resources Guide R-1
Expert Insight on Software 140 Glossary/Index I-1
Chapter 4
Network and Internet Security 142
Expert Insight on Networks and the Internet 186
Chapter 5
Computer Security and Privacy 188
Expert Insight on Web-Based Multimedia
and E-Commerce 230
CONTENTS
Preface iii > The Anonymity Factor 37

> Information Integrity 37
Summary 38
Chapter 1 Introduction to the World
Review Activities 40
of Computers 2
Projects 42
Overview 3
Computers in Your Life 3
> Why Learn About Computers? 3 TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Restaurant
> Computers in the Home 5 iPad Ordering Systems 7
> Computers in Education 5 TREND Tiny PCs 18
> Computers on the Job 6 INSIDE THE INDUSTRY
> Computers on the Go 7 Tech Clothing 20
What Is a Computer and What Does HOW IT WORKS Campus Emergency
It Do? 8 Notification Systems 30
> Data vs. Information 9
> Computers Then and Now 10
> Hardware 12
Expert Insight on
> Software 14
Personal Computers 44
> Computer Users and Professionals 16
Computers to Fit Every Need 17
> Embedded Computers 17
Chapter 2 A Closer Look at Hardware
> Mobile Devices 18
and Software 46
> Personal Computers (PCs) 19
Overview 47
> Servers 23
> Mainframe Computers 24
Digital Data Representation 47
> Supercomputers 24
> Bits and Bytes 47
> Numbering Systems and Coding
Computer Networks and the Internet 25 Systems 48
> What Are the Internet and the World Wide
Web? 25 Input Hardware 49
> Accessing a Network or the Internet 27
> Keyboards 49
> Surfing the Web 31
> Pointing Devices 49
> Scanners, Readers, and Digital
> Searching the Web 32
Cameras 53
> E-Mail 32
> Other Input Devices 56
Computers and Society 34
Processing Hardware and Other Hardware
> Benefits of a Computer-Oriented
Society 34 Inside the System Unit 57
> Risks of a Computer-Oriented
> The Motherboard 57
Society 34 > Processors 58
> Differences in Online Communications 36 > Memory 60
XIII
Output Hardware 62 > The Internet Community Today 96

> Display Devices 62 > Myths About the Internet 98
> Printers 63 Getting Set Up to Use the Internet 99
> Other Output Devices 65 > Type of Device 99
Storage Hardware 65 > Type of Connection and Internet
> Storage System Characteristics 65 Access 101
> Hard Drives 67 > Selecting an ISP and Setting Up Your
> Optical Discs and Drives 69

Computer 105
> Flash Memory Storage Systems 72 Searching the Internet 106
> Other Types of Storage Systems 74 > Search Sites 106
> Evaluating Your Storage Alternatives 77 > Search Strategies 108
> Evaluating Search Results 110
Communications Hardware 77
> Citing Internet Resources 111
> Network Adapters and Modems 78
> Other Networking Hardware 78 Beyond Browsing and E-Mail 111
Software Basics 79 > Other Types of Online
Communications 111
> Software Ownership Rights 79
> Social Networking/Social Media 115
> Desktop vs. Mobile Software 80
> Online Shopping and Investing 117
> Installed vs. Cloud Software 80
> Online Entertainment 119
> Common Software Commands 81
> Online News, Reference, and
> Working with Files and Folders 83
Information 122
Summary 84 > Online Education and Writing 125
Review Activities 86 Censorship and Privacy Issues 128
Projects 88 > Censorship 129
> Web Browsing Privacy 130
> E-Mail Privacy 133
TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Mobile
Summary 134
Ticketing 55
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY GPUs
and Transformers: The Ride 3D at Projects 138
Universal Studios 59
HOW IT WORKS More Storage for Your INSIDE THE INDUSTRY Mobile Data
Tablet 74 Caps 100
TREND Mobile App Builders 81 HOW IT WORKS Geofencing 113
TECHNOLOGY AND YOU High-Tech
Workouts 120
Expert Insight on TREND The Internet of Things (IoT) 124
Hardware 90
Expert Insight on
Chapter 3 The Internet and the World Software 140
Wide Web 92
Overview 93
Evolution of the Internet 93
> From ARPANET to Internet2 93
XIV
Chapter 4 Network and Internet > Online Pornography 178

Security 142 Protecting Against Cyberbullying,
Overview 143 Cyberstalking, and Other Personal Safety
Why Be Concerned About Network Concerns 178
and Internet Security? 143 > Safety Tips for Adults 178
Unauthorized Access and Unauthorized > Safety Tips for Children and Teens 179
Use 144 Network and Internet Security Legislation 179
> Hacking 144 Summary 180
> War Driving and Wi-Fi Piggybacking 146 Review Activities 182
> Interception of Communications 147 Projects 184
Protecting Against Unauthorized Access
and Unauthorized Use 147
> Access Control Systems 147 HOW IT WORKS Securing a Wireless
> Firewalls, Encryption, and Virtual Private
Home Router 153
Networks (VPNs) 152 INSIDE THE INDUSTRY Securing
> Additional Public Hotspot Precautions 157 BYOD 158
> Sensible Employee Precautions 157 TREND Beyond Fingerprint Readers—
Computer Sabotage 160 Digital Tattoos and More 167
> Botnets 160 TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Online
> Computer Viruses and Other Types of Financial Alerts 175
Malware 160
> Denial of Service (DoS) Attacks 163
> Data, Program, or Web Site Alteration 164 Expert Insight on Networks
Protecting Against Computer and the Internet 186
Sabotage 165
> Security Software 165
> Other Security Precautions 166 Chapter 5 Computer Security and
Online Theft, Online Fraud, and Other Privacy 188
Dot Cons 166 Overview 189
> Theft of Data, Information, and Other Why Be Concerned About Computer
Resources 167 Security? 189
> Identity Theft, Phishing, Social Media Hardware Loss, Hardware Damage, and
Hacks, and Pharming 168 System Failure 189
> Online Auction Fraud 172 > Hardware Loss 190
> Other Internet Scams 172 > Hardware Damage 190
Protecting Against Online Theft, Online > System Failure and Other Disasters 190
Fraud, and Other Dot Cons 173 > Protecting Against Hardware Loss,
> Protecting Against Data and Information Hardware Damage, and System
Theft 173 Failure 191
> Protecting Against Identity Theft, Phishing, Software Piracy and Digital
Social Media Hacks, and Pharming 173 Counterfeiting 200
> Protecting Against Online Auction Fraud > Software Piracy 200
and Other Internet Scams 176 > Digital Counterfeiting 201
Personal Safety Issues 177 > Protecting Against Software Piracy and
> Cyberbullying and Cyberstalking 177 Digital Counterfeiting 202
XV
Why Be Concerned About Information > Ethical Use of Resources and

Privacy? 204 Information 244
Databases, Electronic Profiling, Spam, and > Computer Hoaxes and Digital
Manipulation 247
Other Marketing Activities 205
> Ethical Business Practices and Decision
> Databases and Electronic Profiling 205
Making 249
> Spam and Other Marketing Activities 208
Related Legislation 253
> Protecting the Privacy of Personal
Information 209 Summary 254
Electronic Surveillance and Monitoring 214 Review Activities 256
> Computer Monitoring Software 215 Projects 258
> Video Surveillance 217
> Employee Monitoring 219
> Presence Technology 220
> Protecting Personal and Workplace
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY New
Privacy 221 Applications for Digital Watermarking 236
Computer Security and Privacy TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Virtual
Legislation 222 Currency—Real or Not? 239
Summary 224 HOW IT WORKS Digital Copy
Review Activities 226 Movies 244
Projects 228 TREND Social Commerce 249
TREND Self-Healing Devices 192

Expert Insight on
HOW IT WORKS Self-Destructing
Systems 260
Devices 194
TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Protecting
Your PC 198 Chapter 7 Health, Access, and the
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY Data Environment 262
Killers 215 Overview 263
Computers and Health 263
> Physical Health 263
Expert Insight on Web-Based > Emotional Health 270
Multimedia and E-Commerce 230 Access to Technology 275
> The Digital Divide 275
> Assistive Technology 277
Chapter 6 Intellectual Property Rights Environmental Concerns 279
and Ethics 232 > Green Computing 279
Overview 233 > Recycling and Disposal of Computing
Intellectual Property Rights 233 Equipment 282
> Copyrights 234 Related Legislation 285
> Trademarks 235 Summary 286
> Patents 237
Ethics 238 Projects 290
> Ethical Use of Copyrighted Material 240
XVI
Summary 322
TECHNOLOGY AND YOU Tablet
Docks 267
Projects 326
HOW IT WORKS Augmented
Reality 273
TREND Power to Go 282 TREND Perceptual Computing 297
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY E-Paper 283 TECHNOLOGY AND YOU “Magic”
Glass 305
INSIDE THE INDUSTRY Wireless
Expert Insight on Power 311
Computers and Society 292 HOW IT WORKS Self-Driving Cars 315
Chapter 8 Emerging Technologies 294

Overview 295 References and Resources Guide R-1
The Computer of the Future 295 Computer History Timeline R-2
> Emerging Hardware 296 Guide to Buying a PC R-8
> The Impact of Nanotechnology 304
> Analyzing Needs R-8
> Quantum and Optical Computers 306
> Listing Alternatives R-9
Emerging Networking Technologies 307 A Look at Numbering Systems R-11
> Monitoring Systems 307 > The Decimal and Binary Numbering
System R-11
> New Wireless and Cloud Applications 308
> The Hexadecimal Numbering
> Wired Networking Standards 308
System R-11
> Wireless Networking Standards 310
> Converting Between Numbering
Artificial Intelligence (AI) 313 Systems R-12
> What Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? 313 > Computer Arithmetic R-13
> AI Applications 314 > Using a Calculator R-14
Technological Advances in Medicine 318 Coding Charts R-15
> Brain-to-Computer Interfacing (BCI) 319 > ASCII and EBCDIC R-15
> Telemedicine and Telesurgery 319 > Unicode R-16
Technological Advances in the Military 320 Answers to Self-Quiz R-17
> Battlefield Robots 320
> Exoskeleton Systems 321
Glossary/Index I-1
Societal Implications of Emerging
Technology 321
6th Edition
UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS
IN A CHANGING SOCIETY
chapter 1
outline
Introduction to the Overview
World of Computers Computers in Your Life

Why Learn About Computers?
Computers in the Home
After completing this chapter, you will be Computers in Education
able to do the following: Computers on the Job
1. Explain why it is essential to learn about Computers on the Go
computers today and discuss several ways What Is a Computer and What
computers are integrated into our business Does It Do?
Data vs. Information
and personal lives.
Computers Then and Now
2. Define a computer and describe its primary Hardware
operations. Software
Computer Users and Professionals
3. List some important milestones in computer Computers to Fit Every Need
evolution. Embedded Computers
4. Identify the major parts of a personal com- Mobile Devices
Personal Computers (PCs)
puter, including input, processing, output,
Servers
storage, and communications hardware. Mainframe Computers
5. Define software and understand how it is Supercomputers
used to instruct the computer what to do. Computer Networks and the
Internet
6. List the six basic types of computers, giv- What Are the Internet and the
ing at least one example of each type of World Wide Web?
computer and stating what that computer Accessing a Network or the Internet
might be used for. Surfing the Web
Searching the Web
7. Explain what a network, the Internet, and E-Mail
the World Wide Web are, as well as how Computers and Society
computers, people, and Web pages are Benefits of a Computer-Oriented
identified on the Internet. Society
Risks of a Computer-Oriented
8. Describe how to access a Web page and
Society
navigate through a Web site. Differences in Online
9. Discuss the societal impact of computers, Communications
including some benefits and risks related to The Anonymity Factor
Information Integrity
their prominence in our society.
© Datacraft/Getty Images
OVE RVI EW
C omputers and other forms of technology impact our daily lives in a multitude of
ways. We encounter computers in stores, restaurants, and other retail establish-
ments. We use computers and the Internet regularly to obtain information, experience
online entertainment, buy products and services, and communicate with others. Many
of us carry a mobile phone or other mobile device with us at all times so we can
remain in touch with others on a continual basis and can access Internet information
as we need it. We also use these devices to pay for purchases, play online games with
others, watch TV and movies, and much, much more.
Businesses also use computers extensively, such as to maintain employee and
customer records, manage inventories, maintain online stores and other Web sites,
process sales, control robots and other machines in factories, and provide business
executives with the up-to-date information they need to make decisions. The govern-
ment uses computers to support our nation’s defense systems, for space exploration,
for storing and organizing vital information about citizens, for law enforcement and
military purposes, and for other important tasks. In short, computers and computing
technology are used in an endless number of ways.
Understanding Computers in a Changing Society is a guide to computers and
TI P
related technology, how they are being used in the world today, and their impact on our
society. It will provide you with an introduction to computer concepts and terminology Most of the computer concepts
and give you a solid foundation for future computer-related courses. It will also provide introduced in this chapter are
you with the basic knowledge you need to understand and use computers in school, discussed in more detail in
on the job, and in your personal life, as well as give you an understanding of the vari- subsequent chapters of this text.
ous societal issues related to technology, such as security and privacy issues, ethical
considerations, and environmental concerns.
Chapter 1 is designed to help you understand what computers are, how they
work, and how people use them. It introduces the important terms and concepts that
you will encounter throughout this text and in discussions about computers with oth-
ers, as well as includes an overview of the history of computers. It also takes a brief
look at how to use a computer to perform basic tasks and to access resources on the
Internet and the World Wide Web in order to provide you with the knowledge, skills,
and tools you need to complete the projects and online activities that accompany this
textbook. The chapter closes with an overview of the societal impact of computers. ■
COMPUTERS IN YOUR LIFE

Computers today are used in virtually every aspect of most individuals’ lives—at home,
at school, at work, and while on the go. The next few sections provide an overview of the
importance of computers and some of the most common computer-related activities that
individuals may encounter every day.
Why Learn About Computers?

Fifty years ago, computers were used primarily by researchers and scientists. Today, com-
puters are an integral part of our lives. Experts call this trend pervasive computing, in
which few aspects of daily life remain untouched by computers and computing technol-
ogy. With pervasive computing—also referred to as ubiquitous computing—computers are
found virtually everywhere and computing technology is integrated into an ever-increasing

number of devices to give those devices additional functionality, such as enabling them to
communicate with other devices on an ongoing basis. Because of the prominence of com-
puters in our society, it is important to understand what a computer is, a little about how a
computer works, and the implications of living in a computer-oriented society.
Prior to about 1980, computers were large and expensive, and few people had access to
them. Most computers used in organizations were equipped to do little more than carry out
high-volume processing tasks, such as issuing bills and keeping track of inventories. The
average person did not need to know how to use a computer for his or her job, and it was
uncommon to have a computer at home. Furthermore, the use of computers generally required
a lot of technical knowledge and the use of the Internet was reserved primarily for research-
ers and educational institutions. Because there were few good reasons or opportunities for
learning how to use computers, the average person was unfamiliar with them.
Beginning in the early 1980s, things began to change. Microcomputers—inexpensive
TI P
personal computers that you will read about later in this chapter—were invented and com-
More than half of all U.S. puter use increased dramatically. The creation of the World Wide Web (WWW) in the late
mobile phone users today are 1980s and the graphical Web browser in the early 1990s started the trend of individuals
smartphone users; that is, their buying and using computers for personal use. Today, portable computers and mobile phones
mobile phones include Internet have brought personal computing to a whole new level—nearly 90% of all U.S. households
capabilities and the ability to run have a computer or mobile phone, and most individuals use some type of computer on the
mobile programs or apps. job. Whether you become a teacher, attorney, doctor, engineer, restaurant manager, salesper-
son, professional athlete, musician, executive, or skilled tradesperson, you will likely use a
computer to obtain and evaluate information, to facilitate necessary on-the-job tasks, and to
communicate with others. Today’s computers are very useful tools for these purposes; they
are also taking on new roles in our society, such as delivering entertainment on demand.
In fact, computers and the traditional communications and entertainment devices that we
use every day—such as telephones, televisions, gaming devices, and home entertainment
FIGURE 1-1
systems—are converging into single units with multiple capabilities. For instance, you can
<
Convergence.
check your e-mail (electronic messages), watch videos, and view other Internet content on
Many devices today
your living room TV; you can make telephone calls via your personal computer; and you
include computing or
can view Internet content and watch TV on your smartphone or other mobile device (see
Internet capabilities.
Figure 1-1). As a result of this convergence trend, the computer is no longer an isolated pro-
ductivity tool; instead, it is an integral part of our daily lives.
Just as you can learn to drive a car with-
out knowing much about car engines, you can
Used with permission from Microsoft Corporation
learn to use a computer without understanding

the technical details of how a computer works.
However, a little knowledge gives you a big
advantage. Knowing something about cars
can help you make wise purchasing decisions
and save money on repairs. Likewise, knowing
Courtesy Netflix
something about computers can help you buy

the right one for your needs, get the most effi-
cient use out of it, be able to properly upgrade it
as your needs change, and have a much higher
TELEVISIONS SMARTPHONES
level of comfort and confidence along the way.
Can be used to access Web pages, e-mail, Can be used to access Internet
streaming movies, and other Internet content, content, play music and games, take Therefore, basic computer literacy—knowing
in addition to viewing TV content. photos, watch TV shows, and more, about and understanding computers and their
in addition to making phone calls. uses—is an essential skill today for everyone.
>Computer literacy. The knowledge and understanding of basic computer fundamentals.
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD OF COMPUTERS 5
Computers in the Home

Home computing has increased dramatically over the last few years as comput-
© tokyoimagegroups/Shutterstock.com
ers and Internet access have become less expensive and as a vast array of online
consumer activities have become available. Use of the Internet at home to look
up information, exchange e-mail, shop, watch TV and videos, download music
and movies, research products, pay bills and manage bank accounts, check
news and weather, store and organize digital photos, play games, make vacation
plans, and so forth is now the norm for many individuals (see Figure 1-2). Many
individuals also use a computer at home for work-related tasks, such as to review
work-related documents or check work e-mail from home.
As the Internet, wireless technology, and devices such as computers, tele- REFERENCE
visions, mobile phones, digital video recorders (DVRs), and gaming consoles Retrieving information, obtaining news, viewing
continue to converge, the computer is also becoming a central part of home enter- recipes, shopping online, and exchanging
e-mail are popular home computer activities.
tainment. Wireless networking allows the use of computers in virtually any loca-
tion and both online and offline content to be sent wirelessly from one device to
another. Both voice and video telephone calls can be made over your Internet
connection, and your TV can display Internet content.
Computing technologies also make it possible to have smart appliances—
traditional appliances (such as refrigerators, thermostats, or ovens) with some type
© micro10x/Shutterstock.com
of built-in computer or communications technology that allows them to be con-
trolled by the user via a smartphone or the Internet, to access and display Internet
information, or to perform other computer-related functions. Smart homes—
homes in which household tasks (such as watering the lawn, turning the air condi-
tioning on or off, making coffee, monitoring the security of the home and grounds,
and managing home entertainment content) are controlled by a main computer
in the home or by the homeowner remotely via a smartphone—have arrived, and PRODUCTIVITY
they are expected to be the norm in less than a decade. Some believe that one pri- Home computers are frequently used for editing
mary focus of smart appliances and smart homes will be energy conservation—for and managing digital photos and home videos,
creating and editing work-related documents,
instance, the ability to perform tasks (such as running the dishwasher and watering paying bills, and other productivity tasks.
the lawn) during nonpeak energy periods and to potentially transfer waste heat
from one appliance (such as an oven) to another appliance (such as a dishwasher)
as needed.
Computers in Education
© iStockphoto.com/Ridofranz
Today’s youth can definitely be called the computing generation. From handheld
gaming devices to mobile phones to computers at school and home, most chil-
dren and teens today have been exposed to computers and related technology all
their lives. Although the amount of computer use varies from school to school and
from grade level to grade level, most students today have access to computers at
school—and some schools have completely integrated computers into the curricu-
lum, such as by adopting e-book (electronic) textbooks that run on school-owned ENTERTAINMENT
portable computers, or allowing students to bring in devices to use in class (referred Home computers and gaming consoles are
becoming a central hub for entertainment, such as
to as BYOD or Bring Your Own Device). Many schools (particularly college cam- the delivery of photos, videos, music, games,
puses) today also have wireless hotspots that allow students to connect their per- TV shows, instant messages, and social networking
sonal computers or mobile devices wirelessly to the Internet from anywhere on updates.
campus. Today, students at all levels are typically required to use a computer to
FIGURE 1-2
<
some extent as part of their normal coursework—such as for preparing papers, practicing
Computer use at
skills, doing Internet research, accessing Internet content (for instance, class Web pages or
home.
their campus YouTube channel), or delivering presentations—and some colleges require a
computer for enrollment.
Computers are also used to facilitate distance learning—an alternative to traditional class-
room learning in which students participate, typically at their own pace, from their current
location (via their computers and Internet connections) instead of physically going to class.
Consequently, distance learning gives students greater flexibility to schedule class time around
Denver Makle, 7th Army JMTC

© Goodluz/Shutterstock.com
© iStockphoto.com/sturti
COMPUTER LABS AND CLASSROOMS CAMPUS WIRELESS HOTSPOTS DISTANCE LEARNING
Many schools today have computers and Many students can access the Internet With distance learning, students—such as these
Internet access available in the classroom from anywhere on campus to do research, U.S. Army soldiers—can take classes from home
and/or a computer lab for student use. check e-mail, and more, via a campus hotspot. or wherever they happen to be at the moment.
FIGURE 1-3
<
Computer use in their personal, family, and work commitments, as well as allows individuals located in very
education. rural areas or stationed at military posts overseas to take courses when they are not able to
attend classes physically. Some examples of computer use in education are shown in Figure 1-3.
FIGURE 1-4 Computers on the Job

<
Computer use on Although computers have been used on the job for years, their role is continually evolving.
the job. Computers were originally used as research tools for computer experts and scientists and
then as productivity tools for office
workers. Today, computers are used
by all types of employees in all types
of businesses—including corporate
executives, retail store clerks, trav- © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock.com
eling sales professionals, artists and

musicians, engineers, police offi-
cers, insurance adjusters, delivery
© iStockphoto.com/sturti
workers, doctors and nurses, auto

mechanics and repair personnel, and
professional athletes. In essence, the
computer has become a universal
tool for on-the-job decision mak-
DECISION MAKING PRODUCTIVITY
ing, productivity, and communica-
Many individuals today use a computer to help Many individuals today use a computer to perform
them make on-the-job decisions. on-the-job tasks efficiently and accurately. tions (see Figure 1-4). Computers
are also used extensively for access
control at many businesses and
organizations, such as authentica-
tion systems that allow only autho-
rized individuals to enter an office
building, punch in or out of work,
or access the company network via
an access card or a fingerprint or
© iStockphoto.com/fstop123
hand scan, as shown in Figure 1-4

Courtesy Ingersoll Rand
and discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

In addition to jobs that require
the use of computers by employ-
ees, many new jobs have been cre-
ated simply because computers
OFF-SITE COMMUNICATIONS AUTHENTICATION exist, such as jobs in electronics man-
Many individuals use portable computers or Many individuals are required to use authentication
ufacturing, online retailing, Internet
mobile devices to record data, access data, or systems to punch in and out of work, access
communicate with others when they are out of facilities, or log on to company computers. applications, and technology-related
the office. computer support.
T E C H N O L O G Y A N D YO U
Restaurant iPad Ordering Systems More than 7,000 e-menu-enabled iPads are also arriving at
airport restaurants in three airports in North America. They will
You may have used your iPad or other device to place a pickup be used not only for placing orders but also for providing travel-
order at your local eatery; you may also have had a server use ers with free access to Facebook, Twitter, e-mail, games, news,
an iPad to take your order at a restaurant. Nice innovations, but and flight updates while they wait (for security purposes, all per-
guess what’s next? Placing your order yourself at a restaurant sonal information is wiped from the device as soon as the home
using an iPad. button is pressed).
This new trend of using iPads and e-menus to have cus- The two biggest risks for restaurants introducing iPad order-
tomers place their orders in restaurants is growing rapidly. In ing systems is customer acceptance (most offer assistance from
addition to enabling customers to place their orders at their servers if the customer desires to help alleviate any customer
convenience without waiting for a server, it also allows the res- concerns about using the devices) and technology issues. To
taurant to provide more resources to customers (such as pho- avoid network or Internet outage issues, some restaurants are
tographs of menu items, pairing suggestions for appetizers and implementing redundant systems, such as multiple routers that
drinks, and so forth). The overall goal is to allow customers to can be used if the main router goes down or a 4G Internet con-
control their dining experience from the time they are seated nection that the system can use to access the Internet via a cel-
until they choose to pay the check. And, yes, they pay via the lular connection if the main Internet source goes down.
iPad as well (see the credit card reader at the top right of the
iPad shown in the accompanying photo).
iPad ordering systems work especially well for restaurants
that offer customized menu items. For example, Stacked, one
of the first large-scale adopters of restaurant iPad ordering sys-
tems, offers typical American food (such as pizza, burgers, and
salads) at its Southern California restaurants but everything on
the menu is customizable—customers choose from a wide variety
of ingredients, toppings, and sauces. The iPad systems enable
customers to build their selections, adding or removing ingredi-
ents, until they are satisfied with the order (the price adjusts as
Courtesy of Square, Inc.

they change their selections). This allows customers to build their
orders at a comfortable pace without having to remember them
until a server arrives, or having to make that many decisions with
a server waiting.
Computers are also used extensively by military personnel for communications and
navigational purposes, as well as to control missiles and other weapons, identify terror-
ists and other potential enemies, and perform other necessary national security tasks. To
update their computer skills, many employees in all lines of work periodically take com-
puter training classes or enroll in computer certification programs.
Computers on the Go
In addition to using computers in the home, at school, and on the job, most people encounter
and use all types of computers in other aspects of day-to-day life. For example, it is common
for consumers to use consumer kiosks (small self-service computer-based stations that
provide information or other services to the public, including those used for ATM transac-
tions, bridal registries, ticketing systems, and more), point-of-sale (POS) systems (such as
those found at most retail stores to check customers out—see the Technology and You
box for a look at how you may soon be using iPads to order at restaurants), and self-
checkout systems (which allow retail store customers to scan their purchases and pay
for them without a salesclerk) while

in retail stores and other public loca-
tions. Individuals may also need
to use a computer-based consumer
authentication system to gain access
to a local health club, theme park,
or other membership-based facility
© iStockphoto.com/JohnnyGreig
(see Figure 1-5).

In addition, many individuals
carry a portable computer or mobile
Courtesy RedBox
device with them on a regular basis
to remain electronically in touch with
others and to access information (such
PORTABLE DEVICES CONSUMER KIOSKS as stock quotes, driving directions, air-
Many people today carry a portable computer or Electronic kiosks are widely available to view con- line flight updates, movie times, news
smartphone with them at all times or when they ference or gift registry information, print photo- headlines, and more) as needed while
travel in order to remain in touch with others and graphs, order products or services, and more.
to access |nternet resources.
on the go. These portable devices
are also commonly used to watch
TV, download and listen to music,
access Facebook pages and other
social networking sites, and perform
other mobile entertainment options.
Smartphones can also be used to pay
for products and services (refer again
to Figure 1-5), as well as remotely
deposit checks, transfer money to
Courtesy Ingersoll Rand others, pay bills electronicially, and
Courtesy Intel
perform other mobile banking applica-

tions. GPS (global positioning system)
capabilities are frequently built into
MOBILE PAYMENT SYSTEMS CONSUMER AUTHENTICATION SYSTEMS smartphones, cars, and other devices
Allow individuals to pay for purchases using a Allow only authorized members, such as theme to provide individuals with driving
smartphone or other device. park annual pass holders as shown here, access to directions and other navigational aids
facilities. while traveling or hiking.
FIGURE 1-5
<
Computer use while

on the go.
WHAT IS A COMPUTER AND WHAT DOES IT DO?
A computer can be defined as a programmable, electronic device that accepts data, per-
forms operations on that data, presents the results, and stores the data or results as needed.
The fact that a computer is programmable means that a computer will do whatever the
instructions—called the program—tell it to do. The programs used with a computer deter-
mine the tasks the computer is able to perform.
The four operations described in this definition are more technically referred to as
input, processing, output, and storage. These four primary operations of a computer can be
defined as follows:
➤ Input—entering data into the computer.
➤ Processing—performing operations on the data.
>Computer. A programmable, electronic device that accepts data input, performs processing operations on that data, and outputs and stores
the results. >Input. The process of entering data into a computer; can also refer to the data itself. >Processing. Performing operations on data
that has been input into a computer to convert that input to output.
2+5=7
© Tatiana Popova/Shutterstock.com; Copyright © 2015 Cengage Learning®

2
5 7 7 7
INPUT PROCESSING OUTPUT STORAGE

User types in the Computer adds Computer displays Computer saves the
numbers 2 and 5. 2 and 5. the results (output). output for future use.
FIGURE 1-6
<
The information
processing cycle.
➤ Output—presenting the results.
➤ Storage—saving data, programs, or output for future use.
For example, assume that you have a computer that has been programmed to add two
numbers. As shown in Figure 1-6, input occurs when data (in this example, the numbers 2
and 5) is entered into the computer, processing takes place when the computer program
adds those two numbers, and output happens when the sum of 7 is displayed on the com-
puter screen. The storage operation occurs any time the data, a change to a program, or the
output is saved for future use.
For an additional example, look at a supermarket barcode reader to see how it fits this
definition of a computer. First, the grocery item being purchased is passed over the bar-
code reader—input. Next, the description and price of the item are looked up—processing.
Then, the item description and price are displayed on the cash register and printed on the
receipt—output. Finally, the inventory, ordering, and sales records are updated—storage.
This progression of input, processing, output, and storage is sometimes referred to as
the IPOS cycle or the information processing cycle. In addition to these four primary com-
puter operations, today’s computers almost always perform communications functions, such
as sending or retrieving data via the Internet, accessing information located in a shared com-
pany database, or exchanging data or e-mail messages with others. Therefore, communica-
tions—technically an input or output operation, depending on which direction the information
is going—is often considered the fifth primary computer operation.
Data vs. Information

As just discussed, a user inputs data into a computer, and then the computer processes it.
Almost any kind of fact or set of facts can become computer data, such as the words in a
letter to a friend, the numbers in a monthly budget, the images in a photograph, the notes in
a song, or the facts stored in an employee record. When data is processed into a meaningful
form, it becomes information.
>Output. The process of presenting the results of processing; can also refer to the results themselves. >Storage. The operation of saving data,
programs, or output for future use. >Communications. The transmission of data from one device to another. >Data. Raw, unorganized facts.
>Information. Data that has been processed into a meaningful form.
Information is frequently generated to

ASK THE EXPERT answer some type of question, such as how
many of a restaurant’s employees work less than
20 hours per week, how many seats are avail-
Courtesy Sony Pictures Imageworks
Rob Bredow, CTO, Sony Pictures Imageworks

able on a particular flight from Los Angeles to
What position might a college student San Francisco, or what is Hank Aaron’s lifetime
graduating with a computer degree qualify for home run total. Of course, you don’t need a
at Sony Pictures Imageworks? computer system to process data into informa-
tion; for example, anyone can go through time
We employ a number of talented engineers (typically
cards or employee files and make a list of peo-
computer science or computer engineering majors) ple who work a certain number of hours. If this
at Sony Pictures Imageworks whose specialties work is done by hand, however, it could take
range from developing completely new computer a lot of time, especially for a company with a
graphics techniques to focusing on our high perfor- large number of employees. Computers, how-
mance networking and disk configurations. A recent ever, can perform such tasks almost instantly,
graduate with experience in computer graphics with accurate results. Information processing
rendering might, for example, help write shaders to (the conversion of data into information) is a
simulate the lighting in the surface of a new challeng- vital activity today for all computer users, as
ing material like skin or cloth used for both animated well as for businesses and other organizations.
and live-action films. We recently hired an engineer
who first joined us as an intern and, because of her Computers Then and Now
enthusiastic attitude and technical abilities, is now on The basic ideas of computing and calculating
the front lines of our Linux support team deploying are very old, going back thousands of years.
new hardware and supporting artists working on our However, the computer in the form in which it is
films. In summary, a great attitude—along with strong recognized today is a fairly recent invention. In
fact, personal computers have only been around
computer, math, and engineering skills—are qualities
since the late 1970s. The history of computers
we love to see in our technology teams at Sony
is often referred to in terms of generations, with
Pictures Imageworks. each new generation characterized by a major
technological development. The next sections
summarize some early calculating devices and
the different computer generations.
Precomputers and Early Computers (before approximately 1946)

Based on archeological finds, such as notched bones, knotted twine, and hieroglyph-
ics, experts have concluded that ancient civilizations had the ability to count and com-
pute. The abacus is considered by many to be the earliest recorded calculating device;
it was used primarily as an aid for basic arithmetic calculations. Other early computing
devices include the slide rule, the mechanical calculator, and Dr. Herman Hollerith’s
Punch Card Tabulating Machine and Sorter. This latter device (see Figure 1-7) was the
first electromechanical machine that could read punch cards—special cards with holes
punched in them to represent data. Hollerith’s machine was used to process the 1890 U.S.
Census data and it was able to complete the task in two and one-half years, instead of
the decade it usually took to process the data manually. Consequently, this is considered
to be the first successful case of an information processing system replacing a paper-
and-pen-based system. Hollerith’s company eventually became International Business
Machines (IBM).
First-Generation Computers (approximately 1946–1957)

The first computers were enormous, often taking up entire rooms. They were powered
by thousands of vacuum tubes—glass tubes that look similar to large light bulbs—which
needed replacing constantly, required a great deal of electricity, and generated a lot of heat.
First-generation computers could solve only one problem at a time because they needed to
be physically rewired with cables to be reprogrammed (see Figure 1-7), which typically took
several days (sometimes even weeks) to complete and several more days to check before
the computer could be used. Usually paper

punch cards and paper tape were used for
input, and output was printed on paper.
Two of the most significant examples
of first-generation computers were ENIAC
and UNIVAC. ENIAC, shown in Figure 1-7,
was the world’s first large-scale, general-
purpose computer. Although it was not com-
pleted until 1946, ENIAC was developed
during World War II to compute artillery-
firing tables for the U.S. Army. Instead of
the 40 hours required for a person to com- PRECOMPUTERS AND EARLY COMPUTERS FIRST-GENERATION COMPUTERS
Dr. Herman Hollerith’s Punch Card Tabulating First-generation computers, such as ENIAC
pute the optimal settings for a single weapon Machine and Sorter is an example of an early shown here, were large and bulky, used
under a single set of conditions using man- computing device. It was used to process vacuum tubes, and had to be physically wired
ual calculations, ENIAC could complete the the 1890 U.S. Census data. and reset to run programs.
same calculations in less than two minutes.
UNIVAC, released in 1951, was initially
built for the U.S. Census Bureau and was
used to analyze votes in the 1952 U.S. pres-
idential election. Interestingly, its correct
prediction of an Eisenhower victory only
45 minutes after the polls closed was not
publicly aired because the results were not
trusted. However, UNIVAC became the first
computer to be mass produced for general
commercial use.
SECOND-GENERATION COMPUTERS THIRD-GENERATION COMPUTERS
Second-generation computers, such as Third-generation computers used integrated
Second-Generation Computers the IBM 1401 mainframe shown here, circuits, which allowed the introduction of
(approximately 1958–1963) used transistors instead of vacuum smaller computers such as the IBM System/
The second generation of computers began tubes so they were smaller, faster, 360 mainframe shown here.
when the transistor—a small device made and more reliable than first-generation
Courtesy IBM Corporate Archives, Courtesy U.S. Army; Courtesy of IBM Corporation
of semiconductor material that acts like computers.
a switch to open or close electronic cir-
cuits—started to replace the vacuum tube.
Transistors allowed second-generation
computers to be smaller, less expensive,
more powerful, more energy-efficient, and
more reliable than first-generation com-
puters. Typically, programs and data were
input on punch cards and magnetic tape,
output was on punch cards and paper print-
outs, and magnetic tape (see Figure 1-7)
was used for storage. Hard drives and pro- FOURTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS FIFTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS
Fourth-generation computers, such as Some aspects of fifth-generation computers,
gramming languages (such as FORTRAN
the original IBM PC shown here, are such as the natural language input and artificial
and COBOL) were developed and imple- based on microprocessors. Most of intelligence used by the IBM Watson computer
mented during this generation. today’s computers fall into this category. shown competing on Jeopardy! here, already exist.
FIGURE 1-7
<
Third-Generation Computers (approximately 1964–1970) A brief look

The replacement of the transistor with integrated circuits (ICs) marked the beginning of at computer
the third generation of computers. Integrated circuits incorporate many transistors and generations.
electronic circuits on a single tiny silicon chip, allowing third-generation computers to be
even smaller and more reliable than computers in the earlier computer generations. Instead
of punch cards and paper printouts, keyboards and monitors were introduced for input and
output; hard drives were typically used for storage. An example of a widely used third-
generation computer is shown in Figure 1-7.
Another random document with
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beams terminated in front in shafts; in neither the cart of India nor of
France were there any sides or ends. The French cart is called
haquet, and it is probable that the French, who were in India as well
as ourselves, may have given the term hackery to the native cart
which was so like their own. The native name, however, is gharry.
Other carts have sides made by stakes driven into the side beams;
the wheels are sometimes of solid wood or even of stone. Wheels
are also made by a plank with rounded ends and two felloes fitted on
to complete the circle. Again wheels are made like ours, and also
with six or eight spokes, which are placed in pairs, each pair close to
and parallel with one another. If a carriage for the rich is required the
underworks are like those of a cart, but the pole is carefully padded
and ornamented with handsome cloths or velvet; the sides of the
body are railed or carved, and the top is of a very ornamental
character, similar to the howdah of state that is placed on an
elephant. It has a domed roof supported upon four pillars, with
curtains to the back and sides. The passengers ride cross-legged
under the dome on pillows. The driver sits on the pole, which is
broad at the butt end, and he is screened from the heat by a cloth
which is fastened to the dome roof, and supported upon two stakes
which point outwards from the body. A variety of different shaped
native vehicles may be seen in elaborate models in the Indian
Museum at South Kensington, although they do not show much
originality of design or beauty of execution, and are said to be really
creaking and lumbering affairs. When the Hindoos wish for a four-
wheeled vehicle, the plan appears to be to hook on one two-wheeled
carriage behind another, connecting them with a perch bolt, and on
the hindermost they place the body. There is a singular addition to
their vehicles outside the wheels; a piece of wood curved to the
shape of the wheels is placed above it, frequently supported by two
straight uprights from the end of the axletree outside the wheel. This
acts as a wing or guard to keep any one from falling out of the
vehicle, and also the dress of the passengers from becoming
entangled in the wheel. In addition, a long bar of wood, rather longer
than the diameter of the wheel, curved to the shape, called ‘Cupid’s
bow,’ is fastened to the axletree, the linch-pin being outside of it, and
the ends of the bar tied to the ends of the wing by cords. I imagine it
to be placed in order to be a safeguard for the people in crowded
streets, who might be pushed by the throng against the wheel. It will
be seen in many of the models, and also in ancient drawings of
Indian and Persian vehicles. Many of the carts which are designed to
carry heavy loads have a curved rest from 20 to 30 inches long
attached to the lower side of the front end of the pole; this serves not
only as a prop while the vehicle is being loaded, but should the oxen
trip and fall it supports the cart and prevents the load, yoke, and
harness from weighing down the poor animals, as they struggle to
recover themselves. In England we have very few of these humane
contrivances; we have, however, short rests to prop up a hansom
cab when not at work. In India there are several huge unwieldy
structures on wheels called ‘idol cars;’ the name of the car of
Juggernaut must be familiar to many. The wheels of some of these
are of enormous blocks of stone, shaped and drilled for the work. In
the Indian Museum is a photograph of an idol car from South India,
in the district of Chamoondee and the province of Mysore, which
deserves examination. The car appears well proportioned, and the
ornamental carvings are beautiful in design and would bear
comparison with most European work.
“The hecca, or heka, is a one-horse native car, resembling an Irish
car. It consists of a tray for the body fixed above the wheels on the
shafts, and has a canopy roof; the driver sits on the front edge of the
tray, and the passenger cross-legged behind him. The shampony is
the usual vehicle for women, which resembles the former, but it is
larger; the wheels are outside the body, and it is drawn by two
bullocks; the canopy roof is furnished with curtains that are drawn all
round, and the driver sits on the pole in front of the body. All these
native vehicles have wooden axles, which until recently, I am told,
were used without grease, from the prejudices of the people
forbidding them to use animal fat. Some used olive oil or soap, but in
most large towns there are now regulations obliging the natives to
use some substance to avoid the noise and creaking of the dry
axles. The commonest carriages in Central India are called ‘tongas,’
but the universal native word for a vehicle is ‘gharry.’”
In 1860 a carriage was made for one of the ladies of the Sultan of
Turkey’s harem. It was built, I believe, from a design by the late
Owen Jones—a great authority upon Oriental art—and cost £15,000
of English money—a very expensive present for the Commander of
the Faithful to make to one out of many wives.
The following is given in an American trade periodical, under the
heading of “Are they Competent Judges?”—
“Carriage-makers who seldom if ever take the lines into their
hands and ride out in carriages of their own manufacture, are they
competent judges of the merits or the demerits of the vehicles which
they with confidence recommend to others? We think not. It is one
thing to oversee and pay well for the building of a fine buggy or any
other kind of vehicle, and quite another to experience the sensations
produced by putting them into actual wear. A buggy may be
handsome in general appearance and composed of the best
material, yet defective in ease of motion and comfort to the
occupants. The set of the axle may cause the vehicle to run heavy,
and communicate to the rider an unpleasant jarring motion, and at
the same time add unnecessary labour to the horse. The springs
may be too stiff for their length, and fail to vibrate sufficiently under
the greatest weight they may be called upon to sustain. The seat
may be too low, the back placed in such a position or so trimmed as
to be a continual source of uneasiness, and the foot-room be
cramped. These and other defects may exist while the carriage-
maker who seldom rides out remains in total ignorance of them, in so
far as his own personal experience extends. Now an individual
having purchased a buggy of such a one, might drive up to his door
and inform him that this or that defect existed and needed to be
remedied, and fail to convince the maker that such was the case. He
would probably plead the skill of his workman, the care with which
every buggy was carried forward to completion, and thus fortify
himself in his own opinions, through gross ignorance of what
constituted comfort while seated in a vehicle carried along over
roads of different degrees of smoothness.
“The tendency of such a course is toward a standstill point in the
way of needed improvement, and must certainly work adversely to
the carriage-makers’ interests. So far as our observation extends, we
are well satisfied that the builder who adopts an opposite course is
by far the most successful. Becoming sensible of defects by
personal experience, he is keenly sensitive and anxious to remove
any cause of complaint brought to his notice by others. With such a
one the customer feels that he is dealing with a manufacturer alive to
his convenience and comfort, and will not be apt to go elsewhere to
purchase, although he may have had occasion to point out several
weak points.”
“The truly progressive carriage-maker tests his own work by
frequently taking airing and criticisms of those who ride a great deal
and are competent to speak on such points, and to any little defects
that may be shown he gives the most careful examination and
attention. No matter who may suggest a new idea of value, he puts it
away as so much gained. He gathers here a little and there a little,
which, in the aggregate, when applied as little things, amount to
something so important as to give to his work an indescribable
something which marks it as superior, and in short gives it a
distinctive character.”
It is too often the case that we look upon success in business as
that condition only in which a man has secured to himself sufficient
income to retire and lead a life of comparative ease and pleasure.
While we would say nothing against an individual choosing to retire
from active pursuits and enjoy the fruits of his labour, nevertheless
the example thus set has a tendency to create in others a desire to
speedily arrive at such a position careless of the means used to
attain the end, and bringing into the business other elements than
industry and the other good qualities necessary for the safe conduct
of business, viz. grasping avarice, cunning deceit, and at times
heartlessness, or, in fact, any legal means by which they can follow
the American’s advice to his son: “Get money, honestly if you can,
but get money.” These mean, sordid feelings of course react upon
the employés, and they feel them in the shape of reduced wages
and having the greatest amount of work literally ground out of them.
We hear occasionally of a man who, by a bold speculation, has
“made a fortune” in a few months, but the majority of business men
are not gifted with that keen foresight and courage which are so
essential to the speculator, and must therefore be content with small
gains, accumulating slowly year by year.
It is well that it is so, for the cares and disappointments attendant
on the conducting of any business keep down pride of heart, and
secure to society a majority of that class of men who can sympathise
with the unfortunate and down-trodden, and who give more liberally
to the rearing of those institutions which benefit and improve the
masses.
Success depends in a great measure on the knowledge of the
business engaged in, the proper application of industry to the
materials required, frugality, promptness in meeting engagements,
and good moral character.
In no occupation are the above qualities more essential than that
of the manufacture of carriages, yet how few out of the whole
number who claim to be carriage-makers have a good general
knowledge of the business. Four distinct branches have to be looked
after—woodwork, blacksmithing, painting, and trimming. The
materials used by the respective branches are entirely dissimilar and
costly, and require the utmost vigilance on the part of the proprietor
to see that there is no unnecessary waste.
We shall close this chapter with the following remarks on “Taste”
from W. Bridges Adams’s valuable book on “English Pleasure
Carriages:”—
“There is a notion prevalent amongst uninstructed people that the
quality called taste is a peculiar gift which an individual is endowed
with at birth, and which cannot be acquired by any amount of
application. Some portion of this belief is founded on reason,
inasmuch as the physical faculties of some individuals at their birth
are more perfect than those of others. Some are born with weak and
some with strong eyes, and the same difference may exist in the
perceptive faculties generally, on which faculties the quality of taste
must depend. But even as weak eyes may be strengthened by
judicious treatment, and strong eyes may be weakened by
injudicious treatment, so inferior perceptive faculties may be
improved by cultivation, and those which might have been first-rate
may disappear by neglect. Even in those nations where the germs of
taste are developed in but few individuals, where the mass of the
community cannot discover beauty for themselves, they are yet
susceptible of its influence when it is placed before them by others.
“Taste may be considered as another word for truth or proportion,
both morally and physically. Much false taste exists in the
community, and always has existed, but the total amount is
continually lessening. The reason of the false taste is the imitative
nature of man, which in an uncultivated state follows without
examining. But even as it is the nature of water to attain a state of
rest after violent oscillation, so it is the tendency of truth and
proportion to grow out of the chaos of either thought or matter.
“Carriages constructed for the purposes of pleasure are works of
art, in which taste may be widely developed in form, colour, and
proportion, but the former is of course subservient to the mechanical
construction. The hitherto defective mechanism of carriages, in
which ‘a large wheel is made to follow a small one,’ has to a great
extent destroyed proportion, and given a general license to all kinds
of heterogeneous devices and barbarous ornaments, as if to overlay
defects which there were no apparent means of obviating. Custom
has reconciled the public to this discrepancy, which, were it now to
appear for the first time, would excite universal distaste and ridicule.
“In an ordinary coach the side form of the body is composed of
elliptic lines, from which the supporting iron brackets or loops are
continued into reversed curves. This contrivance keeps the centre of
gravity low. The four C springs from which the body is suspended
are each, or ought to be, two-thirds of a circle, with a tangent to it to
form a base or support. The perch beneath the body, which connects
together the framework supporting the spring, is curved into a
serpentine line corresponding to the bottom of the body and the
loops; and thus an agreeable form is preserved. But the double
framework in front and the unequal wheels entirely discompose the
whole effect, and from an art point of view it is extremely
disproportioned, and consequently unsightly.
“Now the manufacturer possessing taste steps in, and by
lightening the heavy parts by beading, carving, &c., fine lines of
colour, and the arrangement of the hammercloth, redeems the
vehicle from positive ugliness, and produces a work of art by the
harmony of the various curves as a whole, though to produce this
harmony there are no well-ascertained rules. Therefore it is that the
builder who possesses taste produces combinations pleasing to the
eye, and he who is without taste produces unsightly works, which he
is necessarily obliged to sell at a low rate of profit as mere articles of
convenience, not of refinement. And even as articles of convenience
they are imperfect, inasmuch as the harmony of form arises from the
due proportion of parts to each other, and that very proportion
produces a greater amount of convenience. The size and weight of a
carriage ought to be proportioned to that of the horse or horses
intended to draw it, as well as the locality in which it is to be used
and the persons who are likely to use it; and the proportion of parts
having once been accurately settled, the same rule of proportion
must be observed, whether on an increasing or diminishing scale.
“After settling on the preliminary of form, the next consideration is
that of colour. Taste in the latter can do much towards amending
defects in the former, or at least can divert the attention of ordinary
observers from dwelling upon them. Certain colours produce their
effect by contrast, as green and red, purple and yellow, orange and
blue, &c.; others produce their effect by harmony, as green and drab,
or brown and amber; others again by gradation, as the differing
shades of green and brown in almost endless variety. Colours are
divided into two chief classes, the warm and the cold. Red and
yellow and their varying gradations are warm colours. Green and
blue and their varying gradations are cold colours. The intermingling
of opposite colours produces neutrals. In choosing the colour for a
carriage, it should be considered whether durability or appearance is
the first consideration. For this country the warm colours are the
most appropriate, as we hardly have enough of summer weather to
render the adoption of cold colours general, except to such people
as can afford carriages for each different season. The richest looking
colours are not those which wear the best as a rule; but as an
exception to this the yellows, which are both rich and showy, are
amongst the most durable colours. For bright sunny days the straw,
or sulphur yellow, is very brilliant and beautiful. Dark greens have a
very rich appearance, but they do not wear well, the slightest specks
being magnified by the dark surface. The olive greens are
preferable, more especially for the summer, as they show the dust
less, and are very good wearing colours. The shades of brown are
even more numerous than those of the greens, and equally durable,
though some of the lighter shades have a rather unpleasing effect,
far too homely for varnish. Some of the darker browns become
exceedingly rich with the admixture of a reddish tint, from the first
faint tint up to the deep beautiful chocolate colour, the intermediate
shades between which and a decided lake afford perhaps the very
richest ground colours used in carriage-painting. Blues were formerly
a great deal used to contrast with a red carriage part and framework.
Very dark blues are now often used, but they soon become worn and
faded, the least speck of dust disfiguring them. Drabs are scarcely
ever used for body painting, though for some peculiar purposes they
might be advantageously applied.
“In addition to the ground colour other colours are used to relieve
it, the framework of the body being generally painted black; and in
the case of a very dark colour being used for the ground, it becomes
necessary to run a fine line of a lighter shade in order to mark the
inner edges of the framework. The same process is applied to the
carriage parts and under framework for the purpose of making it look
lighter to the eye. Were the perch, beds, and wheels painted of one
colour they would look exceedingly heavy and clumsy; but the skilful
management of the fine lines, or ‘picking out,’ as it is technically
called, produces a pleasing optical illusion. The same effect is
sought also in the carved work, which would look very bare were it
not heightened and brought into relief by the judicious application of
black and coloured lines. Heraldic bearings used to be painted very
large on the panels; in fact they formed the principal ornament, as
they were painted in their proper heraldic colours. With bright
grounds, such as yellow, the effect is often very good, but with most
other colours it destroys the general harmony, and on this account it
has been the custom of late years to paint them very small, and very
often of the same colour as the ground, only lightened up to give
relief. This is of course the other extreme.
“Proportion in carriages applies to both form and colour; as
regards form, it regulates the sizes of the various parts so that the
whole may harmonise, and dictates the adoption of contrivances for
lessening the apparent size of those parts which would otherwise be
unseemly. Thus, the total height which is necessary in the body for
the comfort of the passengers is too great for the length which it is
convenient to give it; therefore the total height is reduced, and to
give sufficient leg room a false bottom is affixed by means of convex
rockers, and which, being thrown back and painted black, cease to
form a portion of the elevation; they are, like a foundation, out of
sight, and thus the proportion of the front view (the side is called the
front in coach-builder’s parlance) is preserved. In painting the body
of a coach or chariot, it is customary to confine the ground colour to
the lower panels and to paint the upper ones black, all except some
stripes on the upper part of the doors. Now, inasmuch as colour in
this case constitutes form by means of outline, and as that outline
gives an irregular figure, it is a decidedly defective arrangement,
making the upper part of the structure look heavier than the base.
But the fact is, this defect has not been caused by intentional bad
taste; it is a mere result of imitation, of following up old practices
when the motive for them has ceased. It was formerly the custom to
cover the roofs and upper panels with greasy leather in order to
make them water-tight, the edges of the leather being fastened down
with rows of brass nails. This leather was black, and thus the eye
became gradually reconciled to an unsightly object from a
consideration of utility. After it was discovered that undressed leather
could be strained on and painted, it was still considered necessary to
paint it black, as the surface was not smooth enough to show well
with bright colours; and now that wooden panels are used to the
upper as well as the lower part, long custom has made the black
colour of the upper part appear indispensable.
“As by the present mode of constructing bodies various joints are
left exposed to view, where leather unites with wood or two varieties
of wood join in the same surface, it becomes necessary to resort to
some means of covering them, and this is usually done by beading,
as previously described. This is not altogether satisfactory as usually
done, as it gives the side lines a broken and unfinished appearance.
Where the beading is blacked it does not show much and scarcely
matters, but the polished beading should go over the whole of the
outline, as is done in some of the best carriages, or else it should not
show at all. The elegance of a carriage depends on the perfection of
the outlines, and anything which tends to disturb those outlines
should be avoided.
“The handles of the doors are always made conspicuous, being of
brass or plated metal. Necessity dictates this, as the constant action
of the hand in opening or shutting the doors prohibits the use of paint
on account of its rapid wear. The side of the carriage would look
better without this prominent projection if it could be avoided, but as
that is impracticable it is generally placed at the intersection of the
central vertical and the central horizontal lines, where it interferes
less with the outlines than it would in any other position.
“In the lining and trimming of a carriage, form, colour, and
proportion are all requisites. All dress carriages have hammercloths
or coloured drapery surrounding the driver’s seat. This forms a most
prominent object, and if it does not harmonise with the rest of the
vehicle the proportion of parts will be destroyed. The general form of
the outline must be regulated by the lines of the ironwork or
framework on which it is supported. There is great room for the
display of taste in arranging that the colour of the hammercloth and
lace, &c., shall harmonise or effectively contrast with the colour of
the body. Yellow carriages are sometimes fitted with blue
hammercloths and sometimes with drab ones, and the effect is
equally good in both cases when well managed.”
Careful attention to the above points will enable the practical
coach-builder to produce a vehicle as near artistic perfection as the
present shapes will allow.
CHAPTER XV.
INVENTION.
English carriage constructors are certainly not an inventive race, if
we allow that the names by which carriages are known are indicative
of their origin. Coach is derived from the Hungarian kotsee, chariot is
French, chaise is French, landau is German, cabriolet is French, and
so on with many other names.
But mere invention—mere original conception—does not
constitute excellence; and if foreigners may fairly lay claim to the
greatest originality, English artists have the merit, perhaps still more
important, of gradually improving the original designs, and so
contriving all the details that, in their state of comparative excellence,
the carriages can be scarcely recognised as constructions of the
same principle as their models.
That English artists are not remarkable for the invention of new
carriages is no proof of their want of talent; they have invention in
abundance if there were sufficient motives to call it forth, and as a
matter of fact invention is but poorly paid for. England possesses
abundance of mind and matter, and there is no country in which a
union of the two is just now more indispensable, and yet there is no
country which throws greater obstacles in the way of the
development of its minds. On an English patent lasting fourteen
years the stamp duties amount to £175, whilst on an American
patent lasting seventeen years the duty is only £7, or ¹⁄₂₅th of the
English stamp duty. Under such a system no one will be surprised to
find that on December 31st, 1879, there were only 15,755 patents in
force in England, as against more than 200,000 in the United States.
(These figures, of course, refer to patents of all kinds.) It has been
calculated that about 10 per cent. of patentees manage to survive
the seventh year of their patents, at which time the £100 duty is
payable; that is to say, as far as their patents are concerned.
English artists and artisans are little more than merchants in their
trades and methods of doing business; they cannot afford to lose
time, and their principal object is to make as large an annual return
as possible, and as large a profit as possible on that return.
Continental men are more enthusiastic lovers of their arts and
sciences. They aim at improvement from mere liking for it, and when
they fail it is mostly from want of efficient workmen to further their
designs. The demand with them is not sufficient to make every
branch of their art a manufacture. In England, on the contrary, the
manufacture of carriages is a work of many trades, and greater skill
is produced in manipulation by the division of labour. If chance brings
in a new fashion, competition is aroused, which does not subside
until some degree of improvement or excellence be obtained.
The ordinary measure of talent is held to be success, i.e. the
acquisition of property; though it is quite clear the qualities which
insure success are not those which tend to produce excellence or
improvement in carriages more than in any other arts. The inventor
may produce, but it is for the most part the mere merchant or
tradesman who profits by the inventions. Carriages are made to sell
as plays are written to fill theatres, and the English carriage-builder
takes a French or German carriage to improve upon because it
saves his time and trouble, just as the English play-writer freely uses
a French play to save the labour of his brains. Improvements are
rarely the voluntary productions of English carriage-builders; they are
forced on them by the purchasers—first individuals and then the
mass—who desire some mere novelty, others greater ease, and
others a more rapid rate of motion. Almost all the changes and
improvements in carriages may be traced in their origin to the
carriage users and not the carriage-builders. The carriage-builders
do not lead, but they have always the means of pressing talent
enough into their service whenever a sufficient demand offers them
a remunerating return. Coaches were first invented on the Continent,
but it was in England that they were improved into public stages,
capable of being run 10 miles and upwards per hour for days and
weeks together.
This was not done at once, or by any one man: it was the
combined result of numberless small improvements, forced on by the
necessity of overcoming practical difficulties. Coach-builders have
not been remarkable as a scientific body. They have been, strictly
speaking, “practical men;” and as the knowledge they have gained
by experience has not been carefully hoarded in books, carriage
construction has remained a sort of occult matter, without any
specific theory attached to it. Each one, as he is freshly initiated,
gains his knowledge as best he can—from verbal instruction or from
a new series of experiments—and thus a considerable portion of his
time must elapse ere he can have verified his judgment. Enough of
this knowledge exists in various brains which might suffice for the
construction of a sound theory, but it would be a difficult operation to
gather it together, for many petty feelings would be at work.
Many experimentalists understand the word theory as
synonymous with falsehood or absurdity, as the very opposite of
practice. It is clear that practice must be the ultimate verification of
theory; but every true practice must have a true theory belonging to
it. The theory of a subject is the science or philosophy of that
subject; practice is the positive knowledge or proof of the soundness
of the theory. But as theories are more plentiful than practices, and
as many of them are not verified, there are of course many false
ones. On this ground unscientific experimentalists have acquired the
habit of regarding all theory as false, which is about as reasonable
as it would be to assert that because falsehood exists in the world,
all truth must therefore be extinct. This peculiarity is not confined to
carriage-building; engineering and architecture abound with it; and
law and medicine are not wanting in it. The truth is, that human
knowledge is only got together by small portions at a time in the
school of experiment, and when that knowledge is considerable in
any one branch, a true and verified theory may be constructed from
it. And when a great number of subjects have thus been analysed
and theorised, it is comparatively easy to construct theories by
analogy on new subjects by sound principles. Newton’s theory of the
universe was just as true when he first developed it in thought as
after he had verified it by calculation.
It is a common notion that a mechanical inventor must necessarily
be a man of genius; but, if the matter be analysed, it will be found
that though inventors are occasionally men of genius it is not by any
means a general rule. Invention, in its ordinary sense, as the word
implies, is the art of finding out. By genius is meant a species of
creative power, like that of the poet, for example, in his highest state
of excellence. Invention is of two kinds—one resulting from a quick
habit of observation, which detects the applicability of various forms
of matter to similar objects. Of this an example may be given in the
case of Dr. Wollaston, who, in a hurried experiment needing some
lime which was not at hand, suddenly cast his eye on his ivory
paper-cutter, and with some scrapings from its surface accomplished
his object. This quick habit of observation, when it goes to the
production of beautiful forms, is akin to fancy. The other and higher
kind of invention is that which results from bringing a theory into
practice—from first imagining a desirable result, and then bringing it
to bear by the exercise of the judgment and constant persevering
efforts steadily directed through a long period of time. The names of
Brindley and Watt are examples of this quality. When Brindley set to
work upon canals he did not create, he merely formed the plan of
levelling the surfaces of natural streams by drawing off the water into
new channels of sufficient depth, and thus preventing the water from
being wasted. The process of forming locks was a continued series
of mechanical contrivances with purpose aforethought. When Watt
first imagined the steam engine he did not invent the power of
steam; that was known long before, and had existed from the time
that fire and water had existed. But he formed to himself the plan by
which he hoped to realise the result of making steam an efficient
human servant through the agency of a perfect machine. The
general idea of this machine existed in his mind a long time before
he brought it into practice; and the slow process by which this was
accomplished is evidenced by the fact that the term of his patent
right was extended by Act of Parliament, on the ground that he had
not had sufficient time to reap benefit from it. An anecdote of Watt
serves not only to prove this, but also his high-minded philosophy,
which was far beyond the miserable vanity of ordinary inventors, who
aim at astonishing their fellows rather than instructing or benefiting
them. After success had elevated Watt to the public eminence he so
deserved, a nobleman who dined in his company expressed himself
in terms of wonder on what Mr. Watt had accomplished. Watt coolly
remarked, “The public look only on my success, and not on the
intermediate failures and uncouth constructions which have served
as steps to climb to the top of the ladder.”
The power of mechanical conception is very widely extended; it is
a modification of the same power which composes romances. The
magic horse in the fairy tale, which turned and was guided by means
of a pin in the neck, was a mechanical conception. If the same
person who conceived that had worked it out into practice it would
have been an evidence of genius, viz. imagination discovering truth
by analogical inference. Invention, then, of the highest kind must be
composed of four qualities—imagination, to conceive a new and
complicated machine; knowledge, to gather materials; judgment, to
select and combine them; and perseverance without wearying till the
truth be obtained. Those things which commonly go by the name of
new inventions are very often mere modifications of what has been
done before. “Improvements” is the technical term applied to them.
The task a man has to go through in conceiving, designing,
perfecting, and patenting a complicated mechanical invention is by
no means inviting. Even when he possesses the hand to execute
what the head has contrived, only a portion of his difficulties are
overcome. A first idea is fascinating, and apparently easy of
execution. It is thought over again and again; all difficulties are
apparently surmounted and all obstacles removed; it is, in the
imagination of the inventor, perfect. He may, perchance, know how
to draw; but if not, he must employ some one to make his drawings
for him. In this case, to avoid piracy, he must take out a provisional
patent. For this he has to pay some considerable sum, and for a
purpose whose success is uncertain.
Having secured his patent, our inventor sets his draughtsman to
work and the drawings are made. Then follows the model, and ere
that is completed it is discovered that there occur unexpected
difficulties in the material construction which did not present
themselves on paper. New contrivances must be resorted to, and the
model is made and re-made many times over. It is at last completed,
perhaps within a very few days of the time allowed for depositing the
specifications, and fresh expenses are incurred by the necessity of
paying highly those whose business it is to work against time. When
all is ready the specification is deposited, and the inventor, perhaps,
discovers that the title he has first taken will not cover his invention
on account of its being different from his first contemplation. The title
must, therefore, be altered, and the fees paid over again. He now
sets to work to construct a full-sized sample of his invention, and all
his patience is needed. At length the invention is in a state for
practical trial. Up to this point all seems well; but practice soon
discovers a defect, not in principle, perhaps, but in detail. A second
experiment is made without success; and many more follow ere the
invention is completed alike in principle and execution. Then begins
the task of getting it before the public. Perhaps the inventor has been
sanguine, and has attempted to introduce it to the public in an
imperfect state, and the consequent failures have excited a prejudice
unfavourable to his object. This prejudice has to be overcome by
repeated and unceasing exertions, and at length, perhaps when half
the period of the patent right has expired, the inventor begins to reap
the fruits of his skill and industry. Public rumour is ever fond of
exaggeration, and he is soon supposed to be realising a large
fortune, though most likely he is only beginning to pay his expenses.
Competition is then at work, and rivals who have been at no expense
or trouble imitate his invention, or make just so much alteration in it
as they think necessary to evade his patent right. He goes to law
with the pirates, and then, perhaps, makes the discovery that his title
or specification is imperfect, and that he has been labouring for
years to bring to perfection an invention from which he can reap no
more pecuniary advantage than if he had confined himself to an
ordinary trade in which imitation alone was necessary.
It is evident, therefore, that a man who possesses a good trade as
a coachmaker has little inducement to embark in the perilous field of
invention. His time is mostly taken up with his ordinary business, and
unless under very peculiar circumstances he has little or no time to
study improvements. Those who have too little business to fill up
their time are interested in producing new things in order to attract
public attention. First ideas very often originate with mechanics and
artisans, who have not the means of putting them into practice,
unless in comparatively trifling improvements. Established
tradesmen generally consider it their interest to discourage such
things, as interfering with their plans and giving them more trouble
without extra profit. Thus, when under-springs were first adapted to
carriages, it was prophesied that they would be the ruin of the coach-
making trade, by making carriages too durable. When the streets
were Macadamised, wheelwrights and coachmakers alike
complained that it was destruction to their trade. It is the same in
other things. The Manchester cotton-spinner, who has a mill and
machinery already erected, does not feel very benevolently disposed
towards an inventor who contrives new machinery of a better class,
by which he can underwork him and take away his trade. It may be
taken as a general rule that new inventions are viewed with jealousy
by all established tradesmen, on the ground that they are an
individual advantage, and not in the outset advantageous to the
trade in general. Therefore, they keep them down all in their power,
and when they succeed it is by the circumstance that they are
valuable in themselves, and that the customers of the tradesmen
insist on having them.
Sound mechanical knowledge is less necessary to the fashionable
coachmaker than taste. Taste is the one requisite, without which he
cannot thrive, and which therefore constitutes his real business
qualification. Taste is exhibited in form, colour, and proportion, and
having this he can employ other persons to fill up the details. The
general mechanism of carriages does not vary, and the mechanism
serves as a skeleton framework which may be clothed according to
fancy. Therefore, to produce what is commonly called a new carriage
is a work of composition, and not invention. It is a combination of
already existing parts to form a new arrangement. The tasteful
combiner may know nothing of his wheels or axles, or their due
proportion of strength, but he has the wheelwright to take the
responsibility for him. He may know nothing of the construction of
springs, but the spring-maker is at hand ready to calculate the
requisite strength according to an estimated weight; and if the weight
should prove more than was expected it is easy to apply an extra
plate. He gives a general drawing of the framework, and a skilful
workman knows how to apportion the scantling, and build it strongly
together. A skilful smith makes his ornamental ironwork to a given
form, and takes all the responsibility of understanding and duly
working the metal. The employer directs the painter what portions to
put in colours and what in ground colours; what to make
conspicuous and what to hide; what to lighten by lines and what to
leave heavy. The preparation of the colours and the laying of them
on are the work of the painter alone. The enterprising maker also
directs the trimmer as to the general effect of the lining, and
arranges the harmony of the colours; but the trimmer has to study
the best mode of performing his work. The braces and other leather
work are left to the skill of the workman, who is mostly left to select
his own materials and apportion their strength; and the ornamental
metal-work is the province of the plater, who is responsible for its
wear. It is clear, however, that in addition to taste, it is necessary that
the carriage constructor should know how to draw, in order to
effectually direct those whom he employs, and also to facilitate
operations with the purchasers who may employ him to build for
them.
To be a complete carriage constructor a man ought to be familiar
with all the branches before alluded to. But there are few mechanics
of such universal knowledge, and still rarer is it that they combine
such knowledge with taste. Even it would be scarcely possible for a
single individual to carry on a large business and do everything in his
own factory. It would require a very large capital and very large
premises, and also an extensive mercantile knowledge and skill—
which last is based on qualities the direct opposite of those which
nourish the faculty of taste. Mercantile skill depends on calculation;
taste is a combination of imagination and observation. There are
three modes in which carriage-building on a large scale may be
successfully conducted: first, by a single individual whose only
business is to combine parts, and who employs tradesmen for every
separate branch; secondly, by a single individual, who employs
responsible superintendents in every branch at high salaries; and,
thirdly, by a combination of partners, one possessing taste, another
mechanical knowledge, a third mercantile knowledge, and so on.
This last mode would assuredly produce the most certain result,
provided the partners possessed the necessary moral qualities to
assure the absence of suspicion, jealousy, &c., amongst themselves.
If these evil qualities existed they would destroy unanimity, and thus
render the business unproductive by preventing efficient
arrangements.
It is probable that at a future time the workmen themselves will
enter into some such combination, but it must be after the lapse of
many years, as the principle of caste must be first eradicated
amongst them, which is at present so fruitful a source of jealousy
amongst the different branches. Ere that takes place the increasing
plenty of capital will probably induce many capitalists to invest
money in carriage-building, as they now do in house-building, giving
shares and salaries to men of undoubted skill and probity in order to
insure efficiency and perseverance.
CHAPTER XVI.
REMARKS ON KEEPING CARRIAGES.

With very few exceptions, it is to be supposed that the greater
number of those who can afford to indulge in the luxury of carriages
are desirous of enjoying them on the most economical terms
consistent with good taste, not merely as an economy of money, but
also of time and convenience.
There are three ways of obtaining the use of carriages: 1. By hiring
them for a short period, as a few days or weeks. 2. By taking them
on lease for a term of years. 3. By purchasing them ready made or to
order. The first two ways are now going out of date as a general rule.
They are, of course, the most expensive. Any one requiring a
conveyance for a few days, or a week or two, had better have a cab;
and as for taking them on lease, well, about four years’ hire-money
would purchase the vehicle outright. So, all things considered, it
would appear the most economical and convenient to purchase the
carriage to start with, and when it is no longer of any use there will at
least be a second-hand carriage to dispose of.
As a rule, carriages are not built to order. The customer either
chooses one from the stock, or selects one very nearly completed
and has it finished to suit his own taste. This, of course, requires a
very large capital to be invested in the business of a coach-builder,
and, as competition has of late years greatly reduced the price of
vehicles without a corresponding reduction in the cost of their
production, the manufacturer naturally desires that his business
should be as nearly as possible a ready-money one, otherwise he
will have to do as many small, and even makers with a fair business,

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Understanding Computers in a

Changing Society 6th Edition Deborah

Computers and Society 1st Edition Ronald M. Baecker

Australian Sociology A Changing Society 4th Edition

Understanding Hospitals in Changing Health Systems

The Healthcare Professional Workforce Understanding

Understanding Food 6th Edition Amy C. Brown

Professions And Metaphors Understanding Professions In

Teaching Music in American Society A Social and

Work Psychology Understanding Human Behaviour in the

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Notice to the Reader

Printed in the United States of America

Currency and Accuracy

Comprehensiveness and Depth

Raspberry Pi and Chromecast, GPUs, immersion cooling systems, tablet and

CHAPTER 8 EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 297

add an event to an online calendar. Augmented reality is another emerging smartphone

wearable. A wearable display usually projects the image from

ASK THE EXPERT

Should my next computer have a magnetic

References and Resources Guide

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Preface iii Chapter 6

Preface iii > The Anonymity Factor 37

> Differences in Online Communications 36 > Memory 60

Output Hardware 62 > The Internet Community Today 96

> Optical Discs and Drives 69

Chapter 4 Network and Internet > Online Pornography 178

Why Be Concerned About Information > Ethical Use of Resources and

TREND Self-Healing Devices 192

Chapter 8 Emerging Technologies 294

World of Computers Computers in Your Life

COMPUTERS IN YOUR LIFE

Why Learn About Computers?

found virtually everywhere and computing technology is integrated into an ever-increasing

learn to use a computer without understanding

something about computers can help you buy

>Computer literacy. The knowledge and understanding of basic computer fundamentals.

Computers in the Home

Denver Makle, 7th Army JMTC

FIGURE 1-4 Computers on the Job

eling sales professionals, artists and

workers, doctors and nurses, auto

hand scan, as shown in Figure 1-4

and discussed in detail in Chapter 4.

Courtesy of Square, Inc.

for them without a salesclerk) while

(see Figure 1-5).

perform other mobile banking applica-