In order to find out more about the characteristics of a group

of people, households, enterprises etc.,

one can either conduct a census or a sample survey.
In a census
Census is the process of collecting data from every
member of a population ( include demographic
information, such as age, gender, race, and income, as
well as information about housing and employment)
In a survey,
data are only collected for a sub-part of the
population; this part is called a sample.
Note-Censuses are usually conducted every 10 years
What is Sampling?
Sampling may be defined as the procedure in
which a sample is selected from an individual
or a group of people of certain kind for
research purpose.
This aggregate or the totality of all members is
known as Population
The selected part, which is used to ascertain
the characteristics of the population, is
called Sample
A sample must have the following qualities in order to arrive
at unbiased and right conclusions.
(i) Representative:
All characteristics of the universe must be represented by
sample. It is possible only when each unit of the universe
stands an equal chance of being selected in the sample.
(ii) Independence:
All units of the sample must be independent of each other
,i.e., one item of the sample should not be dependent
upon the other item of the universe.
(iii) Homogeneity:
All selected samples should be homogeneous to each other
and not contradictory
(iv) Adequacy:
The number of items selected as sample should be fairly
adequate so that some reliable conclusions are drawn for
the universe as a whole.
ADVANTAGE /NEED OF SAMPLING
1. COST EFFECTIVE
If data were to be collected for the entire population, the cost will
be quite high. A sample is a small proportion of a population. So,
the cost will be lower if data is collected for a sample of
population which is a big advantage.
2TIME SAVING
It consumes less time than census technique. Tabulation, analysis
etc., take much less time in the case of a sample than in the case
of a population.
3. SCOPE OF SAMPLING IS HIGH
The investigator is concerned with the generalization of data. To
study a whole population in order to arrive at generalizations
would be impractical.
Some populations are so large that their characteristics could not be
measured. Before the measurement has been completed, the
population would have changed. But the process of sampling
makes it possible to arrive at generalizations by studying the
variables within a relatively small proportion of the population.
 4. ACCURACY OF DATA IS HIGH
 A sample represents the population from which its is drawn. It permits
a high degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operations.
Moreover, careful execution of field work is possible. Ultimately, the
results of sampling studies turn out to be sufficiently accurate.
 5. ORGANIZATION OF CONVENIENCE
 Organizational problems involved in sampling are very few. Since
sample is of a small size, vast facilities are not required..
 6. INTENSIVE AND EXHAUSTIVE DATA
 In sample studies, measurements or observations are made of a limited
number. So, intensive and exhaustive data are collected.
 7. SUITABLE IN LIMITED RESOURCES
 The population can be satisfactorily covered through sampling. Where
limited resources exist, use of sampling is an appropriate strategy
while conducting marketing research.
 8. BETTER RAPPORT
 An effective research study requires a good rapport between the
researcher and the respondents. When the population of the study is
large, the problem
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay
attention to the following points-
(i) Type of universe:
(ii) Sampling unit:
(iii) Source list:
(iv) Size of sample:
(v) Parameters of interest
(vi) Budgetary constraint:
vii) Sampling procedure:


 (i) Type of universe:

(ii) Sampling unit:

(iii) Source list:

(iv) Size of sample:

(v) Parameters of interest

(vi) Budgetary constraint:

vii) Sampling procedure:

 (i) Type of universe:

 The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly

define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to
be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite.

 In finite universe the number of items is certain.Eg number

of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio programme
etc.
 infinite universe the number of items is infinite, the number
of workers in a factory

 (ii) Sampling unit:

 The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units
that he has to select for his study
 Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state,
district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house,
flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club
,school, etc., or it may be an individual.
 (iii) Source list:
 It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from
which sample is to be drawn. It contains the
names of all items of a universe (in case of
finite universe only).
 Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely
important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
 (iv) Size of sample:
 This refers to the number of items to be
selected from the universe to constitute a
sample. The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small.
 (v) Parameters of interest
 In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest. For
instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion of
persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may be
interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning
the population.
 (vi) Budgetary constraint:
 Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
 impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but
also to the type of sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a
non-probability sample.
 (vii) Sampling procedure:
 Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the
items for the sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for
the sample design itself.
 There are different sampling techniques available to
get relevant results from the population. The two
different types of sampling methods are::
A-Probability Sampling
B-Non-probability Sampling

 A-Probability Sampling-
 The probability sampling method utilizes some form
of random selection.
 In this method, all the eligible individuals have a
chance of selecting the sample from the whole
sample space.
 This method is more time consuming and expensive
than the non-probability sampling method.
 The benefit of using probability sampling is that it
guarantees the sample that should be the
representative of the population.
 1-Simple Random Sampling
 In simple random sampling technique, every item in
the population has an equal and likely chance of
being selected in the sample. Since the item
selection entirely depends on the chance, this
method is known as “Method of chance Selection”.
As the sample size is large, and the item is chosen
randomly, it is known as “Representative Sampling”.
 The random sampling method is one of the simplest
and most common forms of collecting data, as it
provides an unbiased representation of a group.
 Example:
 For example, if you wanted to conduct a survey
about food preferences in a school of 1000 students,
and you wanted to sample 100 students. You could
use simple random sampling by assigning each
student a number from 1 to 1000, then using a
random number generator to pick 100 numbers..
2-Systematic Sampling
 In the systematic sampling method, the
items are selected from the target
population by selecting the random selection
point and selecting the other methods after
a fixed sample interval. It is calculated by
dividing the total population size by the
desired population size.
 Example:
 For example, if you were conducting a survey
in a cafeteria, you could give a survey to
every sixth customer that comes into the
cafeteria.
3-Stratified Random Sampling
 Researchers divide a population into homogeneous sub
populations called strata (the plural of stratum) based on
specific characteristics (e.g., race, gender identity,
location, etc.). Every member of the population studied
should be in exactly one stratum.
 Each stratum is then sampled using another probability
sampling method, such as cluster sampling or simple
random sampling allowing researchers to estimate
statistical measures for each sub-population.

 .
 For example, there are three bags (A, B and C), each with
different balls. Bag A has 50 balls, bag B has 100 balls, and
bag C has 200 balls. We have to choose a sample of balls
from each bag proportionally. Suppose 5 balls from bag A,
10 balls from bag B and 20 balls from bag C.
4-Cluster Random Sampling
 In cluster sampling, researchers divide a population into
smaller groups known as clusters. They then randomly
select among these clusters to form a sample.
 Cluster sampling is a method of probability sampling that
is often used to study large populations, particularly those
that are widely geographically dispersed. Researchers
usually use pre-existing units such as schools or cities as
their clusters.

 Examples-.
 An educational institution has ten branches across the
country with almost the number of students. If we want to
collect some data regarding facilities and other things, we
can’t travel to every unit to collect the required data.
Hence, we can use random sampling to select three or four
branches as clusters
B-Non-Probability Sampling
 The non-probability sampling method is a technique in
which the researcher selects the sample based on
subjective judgment rather than the random selection. In
this method, not all the members of the population have a
chance to participate in the study.
 1-Convenience Sampling
 In a convenience sampling method, the samples are
selected from the population directly because they are
conveniently available for the researcher. The samples are
easy to select, and the researcher did not choose the
sample that outlines the entire population.
 Example:
 In researching customer support services in a particular
region, we ask your few customers to complete a survey on
the products after the purchase. This is a convenient way
to collect data. Still, as we only surveyed customers taking
the same product. At the same time, the sample is not
representative of all the customers in that area.
2-Quota Sampling
- This is most commonly used Non probability sampling
 In the quota sampling method, the researcher forms a sample that
involves the individuals to represent the population based on specific
traits or qualities(age,gender,income). The researcher chooses the
sample subsets that bring the useful collection of data that
generalizes the entire population.
 Example-
 Let us assume that we need to know about the career goals of
university students. More particularly. Now, we have to divide our
population of 10,000 students into categories such as freshers,
juniors and seniors. Suppose we find that there are 3000 freshers
(30%), 2500 junior students (25%) and 2000 senior students (20%).
Our sample must have these proportions. It means that if we sample
1000 students, then we must consider 300 freshers, 250 juniors and
200 seniors. Lastly, we may start collecting samples from these
students based on our proportion.
3-Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
 In purposive sampling, the samples are selected only based on the
researcher’s knowledge. As their knowledge is instrumental in
creating the samples, there are the chances of obtaining highly
accurate answers with a minimum marginal error. It is also known as
judgmental sampling or authoritative sampling.
 Eg-Find out fresh vegetable near village.
4-Snowball Sampling
 Snowball sampling is also known as a chain-
referral sampling technique. In this method, the
samples have traits that are difficult to find. So,
each identified member of a population is asked
to find the other sampling units. Those sampling
units also belong to the same targeted
population.
 -Snowball sampling may be used to find
participants with a hidden identity, drug users,
or those taking part in illegal activity.
1. Inappropriate sampling frame:
2. Defective measuring device:
3. Non-respondents:
4. Indeterminancy principle:
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data
1. Inappropriate sampling frame:
If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the
universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device:
If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in systematic
bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or
the interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is
defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such
a measuring device.
3. Non-respondents:
If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample,there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a
situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response
from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to
be estimated.
 4. Indeterminancy principle:
 Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations.
For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them
in course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of
time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the
quota will be set for piecework, they generally tend to work slowly in
comparison to the speed with which they work if keptunobserved.
 Thus, the indeterminancy principle may also be a cause of a
systematic bias.

 5. Natural bias in the reporting of data:

 Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the
cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries.
 There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by
government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in
the
 income data collected by some social organisation. People in general
understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they
overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.
 Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they
think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.