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Best practices for implementing industrialized construction projects: Lessons

from nine case studies

Article in Construction Innovation · November 2022

DOI: 10.1108/CI-04-2021-0070

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Best practices
Best practices for implementing for IC Projects
industrialized construction
projects: lessons from nine
case studies
Ibrahim Yahaya Wuni, Geoffrey Qiping Shen and Amos Darko Received 16 April 2021
Revised 16 June 2021
Department of Building and Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Accepted 23 July 2021
Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR of China

Abstract
Purpose – Industrialized construction (IC) leverages manufacturing principles and innovative
processes to improve the performance of construction projects. Though IC is gaining popularity in the
global construction industry, studies that establish the best practices for implementing IC projects are
scarce. This study aims to benchmark practical lifecycle-based best practices for implementing IC
projects.
Design/methodology/approach – The study used a qualitative research design where nine IC cases
from Australia, Singapore and Hong Kong were analysed to identify best practices. The methodological
framework of the study followed well-established case study research cycle and guidelines, including
planning, data collection, data analysis and reflection on findings.
Findings – The study identified and allocated key considerations, relevant stakeholders, best practices,
typical deliverables and best indicators to the different construction lifecycle phases of IC projects. It also
developed a lifecycle-based framework of the best practices for IC projects.
Practical implications – The study provides practitioners with practical insight into how best to
effectively implement, manage and evaluate the performance of the IC project lifecycle phases. The
proposed framework can serve as a practical diagnostic tool that enables project partners to evaluate
the performance upfront progressively and objectively in each project lifecycle phase, which may
inform timely corrective actions.
Originality/value – The study’s novelty lies in developing a framework that identifies and demonstrates
the dynamic linkages among different sets of best practices, typical outputs and best practice indicators
across the IC project lifecycle phases.
Keywords Best practices, Framework, Case studies, Lessons learned, IC projects,
Industrialized construction
Paper type Research paper

Introduction
Industrialized construction (IC) is a construction technology that uses more advanced
manufacturing techniques, automation and innovative processes in construction, where
projects are designed for substantial portions to be manufactured offsite as modules in a
specialized controlled factory environment and then transported to a site for installation
(Goodier and Gibb, 2007). IC with associated supply chain arrangements and digital

The paper constitutes a part of a Ph.D. research project currently being conducted at the Hong Kong Construction Innovation
Polytechnic University and fully funded under the Hong Kong Ph.D. Fellowship Scheme, HKPFS © Emerald Publishing Limited
1471-4175
(PF17-00649) by the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. DOI 10.1108/CI-04-2021-0070
CI technologies are pursued as part of the integrated solutions to the ills of the traditional
construction approach (Farmer, 2016). It is considered an innovative approach to improve
the performances of construction projects and a strategic path to advance the
competitiveness of the architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) industries. IC
improves productivity, safety, schedule, quality and sustainability performances of
construction projects (Jaillon and Poon, 2008).
It is also considered as a means of addressing the “skills crisis” in the AEC industries
(Farmer, 2016) and a practical solution to the affordable housing crises and the skyrocketing
costs associated with rebuilding cities (Wuni and Shen, 2019a). These benefits have spurred
the increased adoption of industrialized solutions for construction projects in many
countries (Hwang et al., 2018b). However, IC projects are not immune to failure and have
generated mixed outcomes, where some encountered implementation problems and even
failed to achieve planned objectives (Blismas, 2007; Wuni and Shen, 2020a). In some cases,
IC projects have performed poorly in terms of costs compared to the stick-built approach
(Mao et al., 2016). When IC projects are poorly implemented, they fail to realize their
performance improvement manifestos. Therefore, additional research commitment is
required to understand how best to effectively implement IC projects.
Despite the risks of failure, there are limited studies that address the implementation and
management deficiencies of IC projects. There has been a call for IC promoters, practitioners
and researchers to examine representative cases and benchmark best practices for
implementing IC projects (Hwang et al., 2018b). However, prevailing IC management studies
have mainly focused on critical success factors for IC projects, based on largely quantitative
methods (Choi et al., 2016; Wuni et al., 2020; Wuni and Shen, 2020b). The predominant use of
questionnaire surveys in these studies does not provide detailed evidence of the challenges,
lessons learned and best practices for implementing IC projects. Additionally, existing
research has mostly focused on the overall success of IC projects and failed to explicitly
allocate more specific best practices across the different lifecycle phases of IC projects.
Case study research has been proven as a more appropriate alternative to surveys and
interviews when seeking detailed information about specific aspects of construction projects
(Cepeda and Martin, 2005; Yin, 2018). As such, this study aims to develop a framework of the best
practices for implementing IC projects drawing on lessons learned from diverse representative IC
cases. It seeks to answer the research question: how best can the different phases of IC projects be
effectively implemented? Thus, this study is different from those of Choi et al. (2016), Wuni and
Shen (2020a) and Wuni et al. (2020) because it examines practical lessons learned from multiple
real-world IC projects to inform the benchmarking of best practices. Using the case study
approach, the study considers the specific characteristics of IC projects, leading to a dynamic
framework that captures different best practices across the different phases and then links the best
practice indicators of each phase with the subsequent phase. This approach improves the practical
relevance of the framework because the lifecycle phases of IC projects are interconnected.
The novelty of this research lies in analysing lessons learned from diverse,
representative real-world cases in a long temporal scale to develop lifecycle-based best
practices for implementing IC projects and establishing the dynamic linkages among them.
The study outcomes have relevant scientific and practical implications. It provides a more
in-depth understanding of specific lifecycle-based best practices from completed IC projects,
which could enhance the ability of practitioners and stakeholders to achieve more desired
outcomes in future projects. The proposed framework of lifecycle-based best practices can
serve as a practical diagnostic tool that enables project stakeholders to progressively and
objectively evaluate the performance very early in each project lifecycle phase to inform
timely corrective actions.
Background Best practices
Overview of industrialized construction for IC Projects
The interchangeable use of modern construction methods such as industrialized building
systems and IC suggests a proliferation of these terms. Though there are blurry boundaries
between the two concepts, they have subtle differences that must be clarified. Industrialized
building systems is a production system involving the use of standardized mass produced
building components, which are transported to a construction site and assembled into a
structure (Ayinla et al., 2019). IC is a construction approach that uses more innovative
processes, techniques and technologies, whereby projects are designed with enhanced
manufacturing and assembly characteristics to support offsite production and onsite
assembly of the components of a project. It describes construction methods that use
manufacturing principles, intelligent production and automation techniques in the design
and construction of projects (Qi et al., 2021). IC is an all-encompassing concept describing the
use of innovative processes in the design, manufacture, transportation and assembly of
components and structures. Hence, it includes all levels of prefabrication, modular
construction, industrialized building systems and offsite construction practices that deploy
innovative processes and techniques in the delivery of construction projects (Wuni and
Shen, 2020c). IC is not a mutually exclusive alternative to the traditional construction
method. It describes a spectrum of innovative processes, techniques, technologies and
methods that are implemented to varying degrees in construction projects.
However, IC projects are considerably different from traditional projects in various
aspects, including project objectives, design, permitting, supply chain configuration,
stakeholder composition and delivery chains (Qi et al., 2021; Wuni et al., 2019). The
significant disparities between the delivery processes of the traditional construction
approach and IC call for a modification of the traditional implementation frameworks to
enable the relevant stakeholders to implement, manage, deliver and evaluate the
performance of IC projects in an objective and consistent manner. Lifecycle-based
management facilitates the effective delivery of IC projects through partitioning the project
delivery process into distinct phases based on the technical work packages, the relevant
project participants, expected deliverables and how these are controlled and approved
(Project Management Institute, 2017). This paper conceptualizes the construction lifecycle
phases of IC projects to include conceptualization, planning, design, production,
transportation and storage/buffer, installation and termination/closure stages. This reified
lifecycle framework is consistent with the typical delivery chain and the cycle of IC projects
(Luo et al., 2019).

Problems and challenges of implementing industrialized construction projects

Existing scholarships have recognized that there are some conditions, decisions, challenges
and problems that could inhibit IC from generating the required performance improvements
(Mao et al., 2016; Wuni and Shen, 2020a). Hence, there is considerable documentation of the
problems and challenges of implementing IC projects in the literature.
An earlier study revealed that weather disruptions such as excessive winds and
typhoons can halt the onsite installation of building components, resulting in delays that
significantly affect the tighter schedules of IC projects (Gibb and Neale, 1997). A UK-based
study revealed that late commitment, design freezing and involvement of manufacturers in
the design constitutes significant problems of implementing IC projects (Gibb and Isack,
2003). The late commitment generates delivery complications because the design often does
not explicitly internalize offsite production and onsite assembly requirements and
constraints into the working drawings at the outset (Blismas, 2007). Failure to freeze the
CI design early increases the production lead time, translating into delays in the project
delivery cycle (Gibb and Isack, 2003). The late involvement of manufacturers and suppliers
in the project design constitutes a missed opportunity to incorporate their knowledge to
proactively design out downstream factory production constraints (Wuni and Shen, 2020a).
It is the chief source of defective design, component dimensional and geometric variabilities,
change orders and site-fit reworks (Shahtaheri et al., 2017). The cost of installation errors on
site is prohibitive, imposing the need for precision and working under tight tolerances and
alignment of modules. Similarly, the double wall and double slab problem make precision
grouting a critical activity to prevent leakages and structural vulnerabilities.
Another problem of implementing IC projects is supply chain disruptions and
disturbances (Wuni et al., 2019). The IC project supply chain segments are linked and
interdependent (Luo et al., 2020). Hence, errors, disruptions and disturbances in any
upstream segment (e.g. design) propagates detrimental risks, vulnerability and uncertainties
throughout the supply chain. For instance, a defective design translates into error-laden
component production, geometric inconsistencies and potential on-site installation errors.
As such, IC project delivery requires extensive coordination and seamless integration of the
supply chain segments, especially when cross-border transportation of components is
arranged (Wuni and Shen, 2020c). Supply chain management also encompasses the
management of varied stakeholders throughout the entire chain (Luo et al., 2020). This
requirement is problematic because the addition of offsite production, transportation of
heavy building components and onsite installation of modules into the traditional
construction project delivery chain introduces a host of new stakeholders with varied goals,
value systems and objectives that need to be managed. As such, IC presents both
opportunities and unique challenges in delivering construction projects, corroborating the
need for best practices to guide project participants towards achieving desired outcomes.

Research methodology
This study implemented a qualitative research design where lessons learned from diverse
representative IC cases are reviewed and analysed to benchmark best practices for
implementing IC projects. Case studies are widely used in management research to produce
findings that have direct practical and scientific relevance (Cepeda and Martin, 2005). In
construction management, case study strategy is considered a robust and suitable method
for conducting practice-based investigations, where contexts matter and cases have
specificities (Cepeda and Martin, 2005). In this study, a “case” refers to a distinct IC project
rather than the narrower perspective of the case study research method.
This study used the case study research design due to four reasons. Firstly, it provides a
framework for examining IC project delivery practices in a natural setting and enables the
evaluation of practically effective practices (Yin, 2018). Secondly, the case study method
allows researchers to obtain answers to the “how” and “why” questions to understand the
nature and complexity of the IC project delivery processes (Cepeda and Martin, 2005).
Thirdly, it constitutes an appropriate strategy to examine management areas that have
received limited research (Yin, 2018). Fourthly, it provides a deeper understanding of the
complex interactions of people, processes and technology in the IC project delivery process.
In achieving the research aim, this study implemented a well-established set of
guidelines for conducting case study research, including planning, data collection, data
analysis and reflection (Cepeda and Martin, 2005; Yin, 2018). In a period of nine months, the
study planned and searched for diverse construction project types that implemented
industrialized solutions. Using diverse IC project types provided an opportunity to identify
best practices that are shared and less sensitive to geography or varied industry climates.
The study identified nine representative cases of wide-ranging IC project types, including Best practices
housing, hotel, educational, transportation, stadium and other project types in Australia, for IC Projects
Hong Kong and Singapore. The choices of the cases were largely influenced by time scale,
project types and accessibility of relevant data. Seven of the projects were from Australia,
one from Singapore and one from Hong Kong. After identifying the representative cases, the
study planned the method of data collection, recording, processing, analysis and reporting.
Particularly, the study developed a codebook to record the relevant data of each case.
Table 1 summarizes the codes used to guide the data collection.
The main sources of data for the cases were detailed project completion reports, post-
mortem reports, workshops and group discussions. The researchers critically reviewed
the project completion reports and took notes based on the relevant issues outlined in the
codebook. The Cooperative Research Centre for Construction Innovation earmarked the
seven Australian projects as high-profile IC cases in Australia and produced their detailed
post-mortem report for experiential learning in Australia. As such, the data for the
Australian cases were extracted from the detailed post-mortem report because it provided
enough information about the processes, lessons learned, challenges encountered and
outcomes of the seven projects. Workshops, completion reports and discussions with project
participants, including project managers, engineers and directors of the implementing
organizations were used to collect data of the Hong Kong and Singapore cases. The two
projects from Singapore and Hong Kong are considered signature IC projects by the
Construction Industry Council and Building and Construction Authority, respectively, in the
two economies. Hence, they were considered appropriate for benchmarking the best
practices. During the workshops and focus group discussions with project participants, the
researchers also recorded the implementation issues, challenges encountered and lessons
learned from the projects. For confidentiality, the details of the project reports and specific
organizations are not disclosed in this paper. Table 2 summarizes the main characteristics of
the nine cases.
The codebook contained all the relevant themes to capture the required data for a
detailed analysis of each case and guided the data collection process. The data collected
from each project based on the codebook provided structured records for the analysis. The
study used thematic content analysis to organize, summarize and cluster the relevant data
into key considerations, relevant project players, typical deliverables, best practices
(including challenges encountered and lessons learned and best practice indicators for each
case. A best practice refers to a process or strategy that through experience and research,
has proven reliably to lead to the desired results (World Health Organization, 2017). A best
practice should not be construed as a state of perfection, gold standard or exclusive strategy
for delivering IC projects but be understood as practices that reliably lead to desired
outcomes and contributes to success. The study extracted the practices that delivered highly

Code Definitions of codes

IC stages Specific IC applications in the lifecycle of a project

Considerations Key considerations in each phase of the IC project
Supporting technologies Supporting technologies used in delivering each phase of the project
Key project players Relevant project partners and stakeholders in each phase Table 1.
Deliverables Typical outputs from each phase Codebook for the
Lessons learned Mistakes, errors and poor decisions and processes in each phase content analysis of
Best practices Delivery strategies that guarantee consistent good results the cases
 CI

Table 2.

nine IC cases
Salient details of the
Case # detail 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Location Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Australia Hong Singapore
Kong
Project type Railway New Hotel/ Schools and Stadium Residential Housing Residential Residential
station freeway serviced classroom condominium
link apartments
Development New New Mixed – Mixed – new New New New New New
type new build builds and
and refurbishments
adaptation
Project 14 months 42 months N/A 30 months 24 months N/A N/A 22 months 36 months
duration
Main IC Bridge Bridge Volumetric Kitchen, Structural steel frame, Precast skeletal Whole Hybrid Volumetric
solutions spans, wall beams and modules – storage, concrete seating plats, frame, floor slabs, wall volumetric (six-sided)
abutment assorted Bathroom facilities, concrete beams, precast beams, stairs and panels modules concrete
systems, sound Kitchen sloping roof, planks, wall panels, landings, wall Steel modules
lifts, barriers or Laundry floor beams, stair shafts, lift shafts, panels, cantilevered frame
escalators noise walls Ensuite rails and vomitories floors and balcony
and balustrades units
balustrade
Project stage Completed Completed Completed Completed Completed Completed Completed Completed Completed
Delivery N/A PPP/design Design – Design build Design – build Design – build Design – Design – Design –
method – build build build build build
Main Hybrid – Prestressed Hybrid – Hybrid – steel Hybrid – steel and Hybrid – steel and Hybrid – Hybrid – Concrete
construction concrete and concrete Steel and and wood concrete concrete steel and steel and
material steel reinforced concrete concrete
concrete
desired outcomes in each project (Table 3). Subsequently, it filtered practices that delivered Best practices
desired outcomes in at least two projects and integrated those sets to develop the best for IC Projects
practice framework (Figure 2). Two of the authors allocated the findings of the themes
across the different IC project lifecycle and disagreements were resolved by the third author.
The study proposed a lifecycle-based framework of the best practices and invited an IC
expert to validate relevance, representativeness and practicality. Feedbacks from the expert
were used to improve and validate the final framework.

Cases studies
Case #1: This is a railway station project within a major interchange in Australia that
implemented industrialized concrete solutions. It was constructed of precast bridge spans,
wall abutment systems, lifts, escalators and balustrades. The contractor used locally
manufactured precast concrete T-Roffs weighing between 120 and 145 tons, but due to their
weights, they were transported to the site with police escort outside traffic hours. They were
subsequently installed using two cranes and working to an accuracy of 2 mm.
Case #2: This is an industrialized transport project in Melbourne of Australia. An existing
but abandoned steel fabrication plant was retrofitted to manufacture the industrialized
components. However, the retrofitting generated bespoke problems. Consequently, precast
facility managers were employed to oversee the precast operation with the support of factory
staff and seasoned engineers with technical experience in manufacturing prestressed concrete.
The plant produced prestressed concrete bridge beams, with some exceeding 90tons. The
components were transported to the site by road and installed.
Case #3: This is a 14-storey industrialized apartment project in Newcastle of Australia,
comprising a new building and adaptation of an existing structure. A bespoke factory was
established in China to produce the modules. The planned private apartments were changed
to hotel/serviced apartments and accordingly, the design of the modules was altered to
accommodate the new branding and use of the project. The overseas modules were shipped
to Australia in standard shipping containers, transported to the site and the modules were
craned out of the containers directly to the floor in which they were fitted. However,
integrating the modules into the 50-year existing structure generated critical problems
which are discussed in the next section.
Case #4: This is a large-scale industrialized educational construction project in
Queensland of Australia, aimed at providing classrooms and facilities required for the start
of the first cohort of children under Prep; a new school year introduced. Considering the
scale and tighter deadlines, the client requested the use of transportable industrialized
buildings to deliver the facilities and classrooms. However, no IC of such scale had been
implemented in Queensland and so, the solution was considered a test case, with the
concomitant pressure to succeed. Two separate contractors were engaged to carry out the
site works and deliver the classrooms. The developer engaged two manufacturers to
produce the basic design, engineering design and resultant production drawings. The two
fabricators collaborated to produce the modules, fully assembled the classrooms in the
factory and installed them on site without any interface discrepancies and associated delays.
Case #5: This is a sports stadium constructed in Australia using both industrialized steel
and concrete solutions. At the outset, the principal of the project engaged a local experienced
stadium construction company to assist in the design development process, who was
subsequently awarded a design-build contract. However, the company subcontracted the
design to a local specialist stadium design architect but retained the responsibility of
managing the design development and construction process. The principal of the project
engaged an experienced managing contractor and the main steel fabricator early upfront
 CI

Table 3.

nine IC cases
practices from the
Lifecycle-based best
Cases
Lifecycle phase Best practices #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9

Conceptualization stage Engaging contractor, developer and consultant X X X X

Consultation with client/developer/end-user X
Considering both IC and traditional solutions X X
Obtaining a clear understanding of the IC project environment X X
Planning stage Formation of the specialist planning team X X X X X
Ascertaining the suitability of IC for the project X X
Selection of suitable structural system and construction material X X
Module’s transportation planning X X
Detailed production planning X X X
Effective planning for tight demand for cash inflows X
Selecting a collaborative procurement system X X X
Upfront planning to integrate IC into the design layout X
Establish a clear scope of work X
Involvement and consultation with key stakeholders X
Configuring and planning for the crane(s) usage
Design stage Early design completion and freezing X X X
Considering lifting capacity and size of tower crane X X X
Effective use of BIM X X X
Active engagement of the main contractor, business partners, fabricators and end users X X X X X X
Referencing local building codes and specifications X X X
Specifying and considering allowable tolerances X X
Detailed design and engineering specification through a collaborative approach X X X X
Early coordination among developer, architect, engineers and IC specialist X X X
Considering structural integrity and robustness for high-rise IC projects X X
Early upfront coordination of design and MEP services in junction with structural components X X
Early upfront consideration of constraints for installation and maintenance X X
Consideration of the dimensions of existing structures or in situ elements X
Use of experienced design team X X
Allocating enough time to design team X X X
Production stage Early engagement of certification body and registered inspector for factory inspection X X X
Allow adequate time for quality assurance (QA)/quality control (QC) of modules X X X
Trial assembly of the moulds or shell offsite to check the vertical and horizontal alignments X X
Consideration of manufacturing tolerances X X
Prototyping, mock-ups and trial assembly of modules X X X
Use of experienced manufacturer or supplier with adequate workshop space and accessibility X X X X
Careful product handling X X X
Inventory management and control X X X
Setting up a temporary production plant X
(continued)
 Cases
Lifecycle phase Best practices #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8 #9

Adequate strength and robustness of modules to resist transportation damages X

Transportation and storage stage
Installation stage
Overall
Completion or closure stage
Adequate access and safe working platform X
Setting up a realistic transportation plan
Leveraging JiT delivery arrangement X X
Inspection, packaging, labelling and protection of the modules during transport X X
Providing adequate storage space and accessible orientation X
Traffic, logistics and transportation management X X
Considering economic transport modes X
Managing and controlling inventory X X
Effective use of BIM X
Developing site safety management plan X X
Use of JiT delivery arrangement X X X
Inspecting/verifying modules prior to installation X
Site planning for sequencing and installation X X X
Working within statutorily allowable tolerances X X X
Use of management team with experience and technical knowledge of connection systems X X X X X
Effective consultation and frequent communication with all relevant stakeholders X X
Providing adequate site accessibility and a safe working platform for rigging and unrigging load X
Use of powerful cranes commensurate with the weight of the IC modules X
Use of assembly contractor or installers with expertise in working with tight tolerances X X
Coordination of the IC supply chain X X X
Early and frequent communication with all stakeholders, especially client X X X X X
Coordinating onsite and offsite work packages X X
Use of document management system X X
Use of collaborative procurement systems X X X
Enabling trust between the builder and supplier X X
Adequate provisioning for project closure X X X X
Use of a competent project manager(s) X X X X X X
Effective consultation with key stakeholders X X X X X X
Best practices

Table 3.
for IC Projects
CI who was responsible for the fabrication and erection of the steelworks. The main structural
frame was constructed of steel, whereas the seating plats (i.e., main beams that support the
stadium seating), wall panels, stair shafts, lift shafts and vomitoria were constructed of
concrete.
Case #6: This is an industrialized six-level glass-façade building which was constructed
next to a historic building in the centre of Melbourne. The consulting engineer and
manufacturer proposed the use of cantilevered floors on three sides due to the glass façade
and the lack of sheer walls to provide lateral stability. The project used basic precast
columns, beam and hollow-core skeletal frame solution and solid cantilevered planks, lift
shaft walls, stair shafts and flights within the original building as precast members.
Case #7: This is a residential IC project in Australia. The client engaged an experienced
contractor and manufacturer with a track record to construct the project. The main
contractor and manufacturer produced the required volumetric transportable modules, fully
completed in the factory with all plumbing, electrical, internal and external wall lining and
finished floors. The modules also incorporated wet room modules, including bathrooms,
toilets, ensuites, laundry rooms and line cupboards. These modules were installed on site
without any interface discrepancies and tolerance problems.
Case #8: This is a high-rise IC project in Hong Kong. The client engaged a design-build
contractor who owned a fabrication plant in Mainland China. The contractor completed the
design, produced the volumetric modules overseas and transported them to Hong Kong. All
completed overseas factory works were inspected and authorized by the building authorities
from Hong Kong. The contractor used a semi-precast slab in the structural connection to
generate a rigid diaphragm, prevent progressive collapse, improve waterproofing and
accommodate the adverse impact of wind loads from typhoons. The contractor used tower
cranes to hoist and install the modules.
Case #9: This is a high-rise IC project in Singapore delivered using a reinforced concrete
composite sheer wall system in the prefabricated prefinished volumetric construction
technology. The developer appointed a specialist main contractor with experience in IC to
deliver the project. The design-build contractor engaged a specialist architect to design the
project to incorporate 65% of IC, consistent with local building regulations. The six-sided
volumetric concrete modules were 85% completed offsite with painting, windows frame and
glazing, doors, wardrobes and mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) including water
and sanitary pipes, electrical conducts and ducting. Weighing between 26 and 31 tons, two
48-ton capacity flagship tower cranes were used to install 1,866 volumetric concrete modules
and delivered 505 apartments in 30 months (6 months ahead of schedule).

Findings
Lifecycle-based key considerations for industrialized construction projects
Analyses of the cases revealed that certain critical considerations must be made in each
phase of the IC project delivery process. Figure 1 summarizes the commonest scope of
works, deliverables and relevant parties involved in the various lifecycle phases of IC
projects. It demonstrates that the IC project delivery requires some critical key decisions and
early involvement of relevant project partners at various stages of the lifecycle. Although
some of the considerations are applicable to traditional projects, there are several practices
that are peculiar to IC projects. One notable observation in Figure 1 is that the work
packages in the different lifecycle phases are interconnected, with dynamic interlinkages in
the decisions made. Figure 1 shows that each phase of the IC project delivery has a network
of multi-disciplinary stakeholders with their unique goals, value systems and roles (Luo
et al., 2019). Thus, it is essential to use collaborative procurement systems that encourage
 Key considerations Relevant stakeholders
Conceptualization stage
(a). Identify the needs and specification of the client or (a) Clients/developer; (b)
owner; (b) Develop and evaluate project alternatives; Consultant; (c) Project manager;
(c) Develop business case; (d) Develop decision (iv) Project engineers; (d)
support Engineering managers
Planning stage
(a) Evaluate project feasibility; (b) Plan and address (a) Clients/developer; (b)
risk; (c) Develop project scope; (d) Estimate and Consultant; (c) IC planning
mobilize required resources; (e) Mobilize support and specialist; (d) Planning
commitment; (f) Commitment to the use of IC; (g) authorities; (e) Project manager;
Decide structural systems; (h) Decide building (f) Crane Specialist
materials; (i) Selection of procurement system; (j)
Selection of suitable crane (s)
Design stage
(a) Formation of the design team; (b) Engage (a) Client/developer; (b)
contractor, fabricator, suppliers, business partners, and Designer; (c) Architect; (d)
logistics companies; (c) Engineering and design scope Engineer; (e) Contractor; (f)
specification; (d) Detailed design with BIM and early Manufacturer/supplier; (g)
design freeze; (e) Considering allowable tolerance Project manager
Factory production stage
(a) Selection of module supplier (s) or manufacturer (a) Developer/Owner; (b)
(s); (b) Review of design; (c) Consideration of Suppliers; (c) Manufacturers; (d)
manufacturing tolerances; (d) Checking, mock-ups, Building authorities/ Inspectors
trial assembly and prototyping; (e) Curing of concrete
modules; (f) Concurrent execution of onsite work
packages
Transportation/Storage stage
(a) Considering Just-in-Time (JIT) delivery (a) Logistics company; (b)
arrangement; (b) Arranging temporary storage or Customs and highway
buffer location, subject to the delivery and programme; authorities; (c) Contractor
(c) Special traffic arrangement for transportation of
modules exceeding allowable dimensions
Onsite Assembly Stage
(a) Forming project management team and managing (a) Crane operators; (b) Crane
relationships; (b) Review and revise project plan and specialist; (c) Traffic controller;
kick off project; (c) Carry out the project activities as (d) Assembly contractors; (e)
planned; (d) Controling project budget and schedule; Project manager; (f) Site
(e) Monitor, evaluate and report project progress and operatives; (g) Building
performance; (f) Final selection and configuration authorities/ Inspectors; (h) Site
planning of suitable crane (s); (g) Review of assembly managers; (i) Project control
sequence; (h) Considering onsite assembly tolerance; managers; (j) Operation
(i) Coordinating onsite and offsite work packages managers
Completion/closure stage
(a) Final test and inspection of the project; (b)
(a) Owner/Client/developer; (b)
Project manager; (c) Contractor;
Preparing completion report; (c) Settling all financial
(d) Building authorities/
transactions; (d) Commissioning the project; (e)
Inspectors
Contract termination
Deliverables Best practices
for IC Projects
(a) Needs assessment report; (b)
Project proposal or concept
paper; (c) Construction method
selection
(a) Feasibility report; (b) Risk
management plan; (c) Selection
of structural system and
building materials; (d)
Procurement system selection;
(e) Suitable cranes selected
(a) Detailed design freeze; (b)
Working drawings; (c) BIM
models; (d) Prototypes
(a) Prototypes of modules; (b)
Production materials procured;
(c) Produced modules; and (d)
Temporary storage of modules
(a) Transportation contract
awarded; (b) Required modules
delivered; (c) Modules buffered
or stored
(a) Resources mobilized; (b)
Modules installed; (c) MEP
reports; (d) Progress reports; (f)
Outputs produced and
delivered; (g) Inspection
certifications; (h)
environmental quality
certification; (i) Completion
report
Figure 1.
(a) Final project completion Lifecycle phases of IC
report; (b) Settled financial
claims; (c) Deliverables
projects with key
considerations
transferred
CI effective integration, coordination, collaboration and communication between participants
to avoid potential ephemeral shifting coalition of participants from which divergent goals,
value systems and objectives may emerge.
Figure 1 also suggests that the effective delivery of IC projects hinges on effective
governance of the early lifecycle phases. For instance, the scope of the project, structural
system selected (panelised or modularized), selected building materials (wood, steel, concrete
or hybrid options) and the selected procurement system during the early stages significantly
influence the cost, quality, safety and sustainability performance of IC projects.

Lifecycle-based best practices framework for implementing IC projects

Table 3 Summarizes the lifecycle-based best practices for implementing IC projects
identified from the nine cases. These best practices formed the basis for developing
the lifecycle-based best practice framework for implementing IC projects in Figure 1.
Although not all the best practices in Table 3 have been incorporated into the
framework, the various practices reported have delivered desired results in some of
the analysed cases and should be considered when implementing IC projects.
Considering the continuum and ecosystem of the lifecycle phases of IC projects, the
best practice indicators in each phase provides favourable preconditions for
implementing the subsequent phase. As such, the best practice indicators for each
stage constitute best practices for the next phase (Khang and Moe, 2008). The
components of the lifecycle-based best practice framework are described.
Conceptualization phase. This is the earliest phase of the IC delivery chain where a fact
sheet or concept document is prepared, containing clear statements of needs, scope,
influential issues, preliminary budget and schedules for the project (Project Management
Institute, 2017). Decisions at this stage already matter and have cascading implications on
subsequent phases. It is a best practice to recruit an IC specialist or consultant to advice on
the suitability of using IC the project, based on the needs and specifications of the client,
project objectives, characteristics, risks, site attributes and conditions (Blismas et al., 2005;
Hwang et al., 2018b). Though recent advancement allows for the modification of a site-built
design to IC design (Modular Building Institute, 2017), the cases showed that this practice
can be inefficient, expensive and detrimental to the main contractor or manufacture who has
to deliver the project at contract cost that was signed-off before realizing the full extent of
the design conversion.
Several reasons influence the decision to implement IC in a project (Wuni and Shen,
2019b). For instance, IC was implemented in Case #5 because the project had an under-
resourced labour market with the tighter schedule to meet the needs of a seasonal event,
reduce onsite works and minimize quality and safety risks. Also, the original traditional
design for Case #6 was converted to an IC design because the proposed site was in a
confined central city location and associated with access and time constraints that rendered
cast-in situ construction inappropriate. IC was also considered suitable for Case #6 because
there was the need to overcome the technical difficulties of cantilevered floors on three sides
and the lack of sheer walls to provide lateral stability for the glass-façade. However, several
delivery challenges were encountered in Cases #6 and #7 because IC was not considered at
the outset. These cases demonstrated that IC is not suitable for every project and instructs
the need to ascertain the suitability and compatibility of IC for the project for early
commitment.
Planning phase. This is the stage where the technical and economic feasibility of using IC
is ascertained. It is a best practice to undertake upfront planning to integrate IC in the design
(Choi et al., 2016). Decisions at this stage are usually based on limited available data, but
Phase Best practices Typical deliverables
•
Best practice indicators
Identifying the needs and specification
Best practices
Conceptualization

•
•
Engaging contractor, developer, and consultant
Consultation with client/developer/end-user
•
•
Needs assessment report
Project proposal or concept •
of client
Developing a business case
for IC Projects
phase

• Considering IC and traditional solutions paper • Decide to use IC

• Obtaining clear understanding of the IC project environment • Construction method selection • Identified a specialist contractor for the
project
Linkage

• Formation of specialist planning team • Feasibility report • IC feasibility determined

• Consulting and engaging key stakeholders • Risk management plan • Risks planned and managed
Planning phase

• Ascertaining suitability of IC for the project • Selection of structural system • Advanced working packaging
• Upfront planning to integrate IC in the design and building materials • Resources mobilized
• Selecting structural system and materials • Procurement system • Commitment to the use of IC
• Establishing clear scope of work • Suitable cranes selected • Structural system selected
• Selecting a suitable procurement system • Production and transportation • Building material selected
• Detailed production and transportation planning plans • Procurement system selected

Linkage
• Forming and coordinating the design team • Specialist design team used
• Allocating enough time to the design team • Detailed Architectural,
• Key stakeholders actively engaged
Design phase

• Use of building information modelling structural and building services

• Detailed design specification, early
• Active engagement of owner, main contractor, fabricator, engineering design
approval and freezing
and business partners • Working drawings
• • Designed for manufacture and assembly
Referencing local building codes and specifications • BIM models (e.g. 3D to 7D)
• Upfront consideration of upstream supply chain constraints • Prototypes
• Allowable manufacturing tolerances
• Considering allowable tolerances considered

Linkage

• Use of experienced manufacturer or supplier with adequate

•
Factory production phase

workshop space Experienced fabricator selected

• Factory production plan and
• Early engagement of certification body and registered • Working drawings reviewed
sequence
inspector to conduct factory inspection • Assembly tolerances considered
• Production materials procured
• Considering installation tolerances • Prototypes, checking, mock-ups, factory
• Prototypes of each module
• Prototyping, mock-ups, and trial assembly of modules trial stacking completed
• • Production of Required
Allow adequate time for Modules’ QA/QC • Curing of concrete modules
• Modules
Inventory management and control • Concurrent execution of onsite work
• Ensuring adequate structural of modules to resist • Temporary storage of modules
packages
transportation damages

Linkage

•
Transportation/storage phase

Setting up a realistic transportation plan

• Just-in-Time delivery arrangement
• Leveraging just-in-time delivery, if possible
deployed
• Inspection, packaging, labelling and protection of the • Transportation contract awarded
• Required undamaged modules delivered
modules during transport • Realistic transportation plan and
to site
• Providing adequate storage space and accessible orientation arrangement
• Protection of the delivered modules against extreme • Inventory management system
• Adequate space provided for temporary
storage, subject to the Special traffic
weather and climatic exposure • Required modules delivered
• arrangement, including Police escort
Traffic, logistics and transportation management • Modules buffered or stored
• Considering economic transport routes made for transporting allowable
• Inventory management and control modules with excessive dimensions

Linkage
• Use of experienced onsite team with expertise in working
• Use of experienced project manager
with tight tolerances and technical knowledge of connection
• Use of competent and experienced
systems
• modules installer
• Effective communication, information sharing and Resources mobilized
• Modules installed • Allowable alignments and tolerances
collaboration within the team
Installation phase

considered
• Using BIM models and digital twins • MEP reports
• Adherence to the installation sequence
• Providing adequate site accessibility and safe working • water tightness, cable
plan
platform for rigging and unrigging load continuity, and earthing merger • Suitable cranes planned, configured and
• Accurate setting-up, configuration and use of suitable cranes tests reports used
• Site planning for sequencing and installation • Inspection certifications • Onsite and offsite works effectively
• Critical consideration of alignments and installation • Indoor air quality certification integrated and coordinated
tolerances • Progress and completion report • Use of safety management plan
• Carefully integrating and coordinating onsite and offsite
• Project delivered to desired quality and
work packages
met objectives
• Monitoring and evaluating progress and performances
Linkage

• Coordination of the IC supply chain

•
Overall project

Minimal supply chain disruptions and

• Early and frequent communication with all stakeholders, • Supply chain management plan
disturbances
especially client • Stakeholder management plan
• Minimal disruptive stakeholder conflicts
• Coordinating onsite and offsite work packages • Advanced work packaging
• Streamlined work process flows
• •
•
Fully established document management system
Enabling trust between the builder and supplier
Documents management system
• Effective document management Figure 2.
Linkage Lifecycle-based best
• Project tested and inspected practices model for
Closure phase
Completion/

• Adequate provisioning for project closure • Final project completion report • Completion report accepted implementing IC
• Use of a competent project manager (s) • Settled financial claims • Financial transactions settled
• Effective consultation with key stakeholders • Deliverables transferred • Project commissioned projects
• Contract terminated
CI with greater influence on subsequent decisions. For instance, at the planning stage of Case
#5, structural steel was selected for the main structural frame of the facility because it is
easier and quicker to fabricate the many repetitive sections offsite. This decision dictated the
project design. The cases showed that engaging client, consultants, IC planning specialist,
building authorities, contractor, crane specialist and project managers during the planning
stage help to establish a clear scope of work, obtain statutory approval and permitting,
develop relevant production and transportation plans and informs the selection of a suitable
procurement system, structural systems and building materials. For instance, Case #8
showed the relevance of planning and selecting materials for IC projects because there was
the need to change the floor finishes from timber floor to tiles and the door panel finishes
from veneer to plastic laminated sheet to reduce possible damages during installation and to
ensure less susceptibility to weather changes.
Nearly all cases used integrated delivery methods. Cases #1, #2, #4, #8 and #9 used the
design-build delivery method where the main contractor and manufacturer or supplier were
responsible for the design, fabrication and installation of the modules. The cases
emphasized getting the process right up front, necessitating early involvement of relevant
players (e.g. contractors, suppliers, engineers, crane specialists and architects) to incorporate
their expertise into the IC project planning. The specialist architect engaged during the
planning of Case #9 improved the layout and buildability. The engagement of a crane
specialist in the production and transportation planning of Case #9 enabled the team to
accurately determine the weight of the heaviest (29 tons) and lightest (17 tons) concrete
modules to be used in the project. This prompted the main contractor to check the crane
market to find suitable products. The planning team with the crane specialist selected and
configured the layout of two commanding flagship cranes with a maximum lifting capacity
of 40 tons, commensurate with the weight of the heaviest concrete modules and height of the
project. Though powerful cranes were ideal for hoisting the heavy concrete modules in Case
#9, Case #8 revealed that bigger tower cranes not only cost more but also the mast may not
fit in the re-entrance area and may be less effective for lifting. Thus, crane planning and
configuration constitute an integral part of IC project (site) planning (Taghaddos et al., 2018).
For instance, the location of the heavy-duty tower crane in Case #9 influenced the
requirements of the cranes’ foundation and their tie-back to the main towers, which affected
the overall structural design of the towers and the strength of the modules to cater for this
additional loading.
Finally, Cases #4, #8 and #9 revealed that the shorter construction time in IC projects
generates tight demand for upfront cash inflows to fabricate the modules. For instance, the
manufacturer of Case #4 received an initial 80% payment to start fabrication due to the
large upfront investment requirement and the retentions released when the project is
completed. As such, the planning of IC projects should consider the potential tight demand
for funding.
Design phase. The design phase is the highest end of the early stages of IC projects with
increasing inflexibility whereby changes become prohibitively expensive to implement
(Wuni and Shen, 2020d). Although critical, this phase is usually executed with limited
knowledge based on highly uncertain data. The associated epistemic uncertainties may
generate systemic errors propagated in downstream phases and fatally derail the success of
the entire project. The case demonstrated the importance of allocating and committing
enough time to get the design right and freeze the detailed working drawings early to
facilitate the fabrication of the modules. Despite the significant pressure on the design
consultants to develop designs and provide production documentation at a much earlier
stage when IC is used, the design team should be provided with commensurate time to
complete the drawings and ensure compliance with required standards and regulations. For Best practices
instance, the architects and engineers in Cases #5, #8 and #9 were dazzled at the speed of for IC Projects
installation on site.
Additionally, Cases #4, #5, #6, #8 and #9 demonstrated that the design-build delivery
method facilitates a robust IC project design and provides a collaborative platform where
relevant project partners (e.g. manufacturers, designers, contractors and clients) work
together to develop the design. Even in cases where the design-build contractor subcontracts
any of the phases, it should usually involve companies or subcontractors that they know
and have previously worked with (Blismas, 2007). The manufacturers of the design-build
teams in Cases #4, #5 and #6 were responsible for the engineering design and resultant
production drawings, prior to the fabrication of the components; an arrangement that
allowed the fabricators to produce components based on their own design (Building and
Construction Authority, 2017). Cases #5, #8 and #9 actively engaged business partners,
fabricators, end users and regulators early in the design and construction process to enable a
smooth experience and increased transparency for all.
The cases also showed the need to engage an experienced team to develop the detailed
design and working drawings. Cases #1, #5, #8 and #9 revealed that design engineers with
technical knowledge of best production design principles (e.g. design for manufacturing and
assembly [DFMA]), fastening of precast elements and connection systems can provide more
effective design solutions. All the cases showed that engaging experienced manufacturers,
assemblers, clients, crane specialists and design managing contractors early in the process
enables the team to explicitly consider buildability, assembly, transportation, health and
safety, tolerance issues and other downstream constraints at the design phase. For instance,
the inputs of the fabricator into the value engineering process during the design of Case #5
enabled options for key steel design elements to be reviewed and resolved efficiently. The
inputs of the fabricator informed the design team to place bulk steel ordering of key
structural elements from industry suppliers whilst concurrently allowing the refinement of
the design details prior to commencing the shop drawings for manufacture.
Similarly, the inputs of the manufacturer during the design of Case #7 enabled the team
to consider and incorporate cranage points, durability for transportation and balance points
in the design. This avoided downstream challenges during the transportation and
installation of the modules. The inputs of installers, crane specialists and manufacturers
during the designs of Cases #8 and #9 enabled the design team to consider the double wall
and double slab effects in IC projects and the lifting capacity of cranes, especially the mast
size. The manufacturers and structural engineers of Case #8 developed a semi-precast slab
in the structural connections to provide a rigid diaphragm, prevent progressive collapse and
provide better water proofing. This collaborative design approach enabled the design team
to explicitly consider the structural integrity and robustness of the high-rise IC project to
accommodate the impact of higher wind loads from seasonal typhoons.
The findings revealed that failure to incorporate the inputs of the relevant project
partners at the design phase could incubate and propagate intractable downstream
constraints. For instance, the contractor of Case #1 did not engage experienced building and
services and mechanical and electrical engineers early upfront during the design stage,
resulting in several design inconsistencies and issues when the steel was delivered on site.
The design team did not provide the internal cavity within the steel components to be a
conduit for the electrical wiring, and thus the access points were overlooked during the
production of the modules. The oversight necessitated a fresh consultation with electrical
services engineers to resolve the inconsistencies and resulted in significant fabrication
delays and additional costs of rectifications. The faulty design resulted in a poorly delivered
CI project and the fabricator made various on-site rectifications to meet design specifications
(Blismas, 2007). The lesson learnt was that effective communication and information
sharing between the design and production teams could avoid several problems (Choi et al.,
2016; Wuni and Shen, 2020b). Consequently, Cases #8 and #9 showed that building
information modelling (BIM) becomes mandatory for some project and its roles exceed clash
detection analysis and visualizations purposes at the design stage. These two cases used
BIM to coordinate the design and MEP services together with the industrialized elements
early upfront. BIM was used for construction lifecycle management of the projects,
including front-end planning, design of each individual module, formwork, rebar and even
tile pattern.
Production phase. Factory production of industrialized items constitute a significant
component of the construction cost. The study demonstrated that bespoke manufacturing
yards or reliable suppliers are necessary, as the modules are usually engineered-to-order or
made-to-order, consistent with the unique design specifications, dimensions, sizes and
material types for each IC project. The modules are usually ordered or manufactured in an
offsite yard. For large-scale projects, it may be economical to set-up a temporary production
yard close to the project. With a requirement for large-scale production of the modules
coupled with readily available labour, an abandoned steel fabrication plant close to the site
was retrofitted to a temporary manufacturing yard in Case #2. The temporary yard proved
highly successful and economical than anticipated and produced high-standard components
at a rate exceeding demand (Blismas, 2007). This outcome demonstrated that IC is not
restricted to fixed, long-standing facilities, but its effective implementation depends on a
technical understanding of the principles of production engineering and manufacturing.
However, retrofitting the existing plant generated challenges such as significant work
requirements for ground consolidation, provision of new gantries and production of assorted
casting beds for both internal and external areas (Blismas, 2007).
It was also found that adequate access and a safe working platform are required to
ensure the manoeuvrability of the modules in manufacturing yards. For instance, large
access space was required in Case #2 for the manoeuvrability of the heavy prestressed
beams and to accommodate the 85-ton straddle carrier, 50-ton rail-mounted portal gantry
cranes and 70-ton mobile sling crawler for handling the beams from the moulds and various
operations leading up to loading and dispatch. Similarly, large space was required in Case
#5 to accommodate the overhead cranes for easily moving the larger components in the
factory. The study also revealed that the selection of moulds types and module curing
methods could make significant differences. Case #2 demonstrated that battery moulds
operate exceptionally efficient and minimize space requirements. They developed a boiler
system to pump hot water through pipes outside the moulds to accelerate the curing of the
concrete elements and significantly reduced curing time.
Furthermore, the study corroborated the importance of allowing enough time and
arranging for inspection of offsite manufacturing works for quality assurance and control.
The contractors of Cases #8 and #9 arranged local certification bodies and the team of
inspectors to inspect modules in the overseas production plants for adherence to local
building codes and standards. This practice is necessary, especially in cross-border
production, fitting-out and transportation of the modules to avoid the cost associated with
rejecting the modules by building authorities after delivery to the site.
Transportation/storage phase. It is essential to manage the transportation, buffer and
storage arrangements in IC projects. The study revealed that developing comprehensive
transportation planning helps to identify the economically and technically suitable mode of
transport. For instance, following transportation planning, the developer of Case #2
transported the industrialized items to the site through road instead of rail due to the Best practices
prohibitive cost associated with the latter. The transportation planning should consider the for IC Projects
local transport and highway restrictions regarding the allowable sizes and weights of the
modules because violations could trigger transport challenges and demand police escort.
The manufacturer of Case #8 restricted the head room of each module to at most 3.0 m
because the local Transport Department limits the sizes of the modules to 2.5 mW  4.5 mH,
but now accepts a width less than 3.0 m, subject to traffic management plan (Construction
Industry Council, 2019). Adherence to the transport regulation in Case #8 was prudent
because modules with head room exceeding 3.0 m require night-time movement and police
escort, which increases costs. The precast T-Roffs beams weighing between 120 and 145
tons in Case #1 were transported to the site with police escort outside traffic hours,
incurring additional costs. The heavy prestressed beams in Case #2 were transported to the
construction site at night due to local highway weight and size limitations.
The findings also demonstrated the significance of inventory management during
transportation, including inspection, packaging, labelling and protection of the modules.
Case #5 showed that effective labelling of the modules facilitates easy identification and
later referencing back to the shop drawings when needed. The poor handling and protection
of modules during transportation in Case #1 resulted in some damages to the steel
components and required onsite rectification and touch-up painting of the damaged areas
(Blismas, 2007). Temporary protection prevented damages and ensured water tightness of
modules during transportation in Case #8. Real-time monitoring and control of the modules
through labelling and electronic tracking are essential, especially during longer or cross-
border transportation. The contractor of Case #2 planned to use radio frequency
identification (RFID) but later abandoned it due to high cost. RFID in Case #2 proved
expensive because of the smaller scale of the project. The contractor of Case #8 successfully
integrated RFID, blockchain and BIM to track, monitor and manage real-time cross-border
transportation of the modules.
Moreover, the study revealed that using a just-in-time (JiT) supply chain arrangement is
economical in some circumstances and conditions. Cases #7, #8 and #9 showed that JiT
delivery saves significant storage costs in high-density cities, where storage spaces are
scarce and expensive. Where JiT arrangement is considered, commensurate buffer or
temporary onsite storage space must be provided to accommodate the modules. The
adequate space provided in Case #1 allowed the beams to be offloaded, stored and later
installed. Additionally, the delivered components must also be packed in a manner to
facilitate ease of accessing the components during installation. Due to storage area
shortages, the delivered beams in Case #2 were stored on top of other beams and resulted in
significant accessibility problems during the installation.
Onsite assembly/installation phase. This constitutes the highest end of the IC delivery
chain. Using technologies such as the internet of things, RFID, BIM and virtual reality
provides the collaborative working teams and decision makers with the physical and
functional digital representations of the project (Li, Xue, et al., 2018). They provided site
managers, operatives and workers of Cases #8 and #9 with a collaborative platform that
enabled real-time capture and exchange of accurate data, traceability and visibility
functions. These arrangements improved the efficiency and effectiveness of daily
operations, decision-making, collaboration and supervision throughout on-site assembly
processes of IC projects. It is crucial to ensure integration, coordination and communication
among the participants to avoid dysfunctional conflicts. For instance, the developer of Case
#3 engaged an external consultant to resolve the conflicts between the Chinese and
Australian stakeholders due to cultural differences.
CI The findings further revealed the necessity of crane management for the onsite assembly
of modules. Cases #1, #8 and #9 demonstrated the need for selecting, configuring,
positioning and managing cranes on site, especially when dealing with heavy modules in
constrained sites. The developer of Case #9 used two powerful cranes with adequate height
and lifting capacities to hoist, lift and install the 17–29 tons concrete modules up the 140 m-
tall twin-towers. Case #8 showed the efficiency of situating the crane closer to the
designated location of the modules, especially at the re-entrance area. The crane usage also
requires effective management of alignments and tolerances of the complex interfaces. The
two tower cranes used in Case #9 were configured to Micro-move fine positioning mode,
allowing the modules to be installed to an accuracy of 2 mm. Similarly, the two cranes used
in Case #1 installed the beams to an accuracy of 2 mm. The higher accuracy requirements of
IC projects demand precision in the onsite and offsite elements fabrication, thorough shop
drawing coordination, accurate survey and set out work because larger discrepancies could
adversely affect the alignment of the entire building. The contractor of Case #8 conducted
thorough site planning, factory mock-ups and trial liftings and reviewed the entire delivery
process, including setting out, mould design and production, dimension checking, safety
measures and installation to adhere to locally regulated allowable tolerance of 63 mm.
Moreover, the study highlighted the lower risks associated with engaging experienced
contractors, installers and crane operators with technical competencies in tolerance
management, modules’ alignment and sequencing and experience in working with tight
tolerances. For instance, the experienced installers of Case #1 used two mobile cranes to
install the imported escalators without problems. The crane providers in Case #9 trained
personnel of the main contractor as crane operators who successfully operated the cranes
and accurately installed the modules. Additionally, technical engineering skills are required
to manage the installation phase, especially when integrating IC into an existing site-built
structure. The developer of Case #3 encountered several challenges when the industrialized
solutions were incorporated into the 150-old site-built structure. The excess thickness of the
floor slabs in the existing site-built structure was chiselled out to accommodate the floors of
the modules and required the pouring of a new screed when the modules were installed.
Overall project. The study showed that some best practices are shared and required
throughout the delivery chain. For instance, a fully established documentation system is
required for recording all aspects of delivery processes. For large-scale IC projects, a steady
supply chain and stakeholder management are because disturbances and disruptions at one
stage propagated systemic failure and constraints throughout the delivery chain. A large
amount of trust is required throughout the delivery chain. Thus, it is a good practice to
engage people who have worked together to reduce stakeholder risks. It is found that
collaborative working is efficient and economical in IC projects. Particularly, Case #7
showed that a certain degree of confidence and trust between the clients, contractor and
supplier is required for smooth delivery of IC projects. Notably, it is a good practice to
discuss all options, aspects and decisions with the client throughout the project. It is
essential to manage risks at every stage of the project lifecycle. Also, the study corroborated
existing findings that IC has economies of scale and works best on large-scale projects with
many standard and repetitive units.
Completion/closure phase. The cases showed the importance of making adequate
provisioning for the project closure by arranging for the completion of all testing and
certifications to ensure compliance to local building regulations and specifications of the
client (Building and Construction Authority, 2017). The success of this stage demands
effective consultation with key stakeholders and settlement of all financial transactions. It is
also crucial to invite stakeholders to inspect the delivered project and tentatively accept all Best practices
the deliverables prior to the official closure. for IC Projects
Discussions of key findings
Analysing IC project delivery from a lifecycle perspective is crucial because it provides a
structured approach to obtain a detailed understanding and insights into how best to
effectively deliver each phase and provides avenues for continuous improvement. The study
made some dazzling revelations that diverge from popular scholarships.
Contrary to implicit connotations in existing studies (Blismas et al., 2005; Hwang et al.,
2018a; Wuni and Shen, 2020c), this study revealed that IC is not a mutually exclusive
alternative to traditional solutions but represent a spectrum of applications and methods
that are implemented to varying degrees on most construction projects. Thus, when
determining the suitability of IC for the project, the evaluation should be treated as an
integration solution rather than a mutually exclusive alternative construction method. As
Building and Construction Authority (2017) recommends, it is useful to consider the local
minimum threshold of IC required of the project type, if any. Engaging an IC expert or
consultant at the outset is a good practice to understand the realistic benefits of using IC in
the proposed project and inform early commitment to the approach (Blismas et al., 2005).
The study also revealed that the complex requirements of IC projects render its
implementation as an environment of multi-disciplinary challenges. Though IC provides a
streamlined approach to project delivery (Wuni and Shen, 2020b), systems thinking and
collaborative front-end planning enabled the different players to anticipate different
downstream challenges and constraints for early consideration and resolution in the design.
Engaging and coordinating project partners, IC specialist, planning consultant and building
authorities enable the team to proactively plan for excellence throughout the delivery chain.
It informs the selection of suitable construction material(s), structural system(s) and
procurement system.
Consistent with existing studies (Yuan et al., 2018), the study revealed that IC project
design must draw on DFMA principles to facilitate offsite production and onsite assembly
of component parts. It is found that converting a site-built design to an IC alternative is
possible and feasible, but the practice has proven to be inefficient, costly, inhibits optimal
performance improvements in IC projects and detrimental to the manufacturer or general
contractor. It is further established that the design-build delivery method provides a
congenial collaborative working environment for generating high-performance optimal
design solutions, minimizing delivery constraints and improving productivity. As Building
and Construction Authority (2017) noted, it enables the relevant project partners to work
together early upfront to consider and operationalize buildability, logistical, crane,
installation and maintenance constraints in the design stage.
At the production stage, the study revealed high-profile practices that are rarely reported
in existing scholarships. It is found that production planning for large-scale IC projects must
decide whether to set up a new manufacturing yard or submit the working drawings to
commercial manufacturers or suppliers to deliver the modules. As Blismas (2007) noted, a
bespoke temporary yard may prove economical in a large-scale project because IC is not
restricted to permanent workshops, but a proper understanding of manufacturing principles
and production engineering. Another unique finding is that in cases of overseas production
of the modules, early engagement of local registered inspector(s) and certification authority
to complete inspection of factory works enables adherence to local building codes,
standards, traffic regulations and fire safety requirements. Though undocumented in
CI existing scholarships, proper handling and inventory management during production prove
economical in later stages when dealing with a large stock of modules in large-scale projects.
Best practices for implementing the transportation phase are non-existent in the
literature (Luo et al., 2020). This study revealed that developing a comprehensive
transportation plan will enable the mitigation and management of logistical and
storage challenges, whilst adhering to traffic regulatory requirements. It corroborates the
importance of proactive, front-end and extensive planning in IC project delivery (Li, et al.,
2018; Wuni and Shen, 2020d). The plan must provide adequate protection of the modules to
prevent potential damages, deformation or deterioration of the modules during loading,
transit, unloading and hoisting for installation. Consistent with existing scholarships (Kong
et al., 2018; Zhang and Yu, 2020), where feasible, the JiT supply chain arrangement ensures
timely delivery of the modules, reduces site storage costs and facilitates optimal crane
usage.
Though rarely reported in the literature, effective handling of the modules during onsite
assembly is essential to avoid damages whilst protecting the safety of workers. Using a
comprehensive assembly plan and sequencing of modules, along with JiT improves
efficiency and productivity. Consistent with Blismas (2007), it is a best practice to provide
enough space for unloading and storing of the modules where JiT arrangement is not
feasible. When hoisting and installing the components, it is critical to consider the
alignments and tolerances during the installation of the modules to avoid external gaps that
may require additional works such as hacking and plastering. Thus, installers with
expertise in working with tight tolerances should be deployed (Blismas, 2007; Fraser et al.,
2015). Developing a site management plan with traffic management arrangement should
enable adequate space provision for trailers with heavy cargo in the IC projects. It is found
that engaging a traffic controller to ensure smooth traffic management within the site
mitigates potential hazards when heavy cargo are navigating the site.
Though extremely important, existing scholarships have not documented site safety
management practices in IC projects. A useful site safety management plan must embody a
comprehensive fall prevention plan with safety work procedures and appropriate control
measures such as safety barricades for all open sides where a person may fall (Building and
Construction Authority, 2017). The study revealed that training the onsite team working at
height in the proper use of the system and providing them with appropriate personal protective
equipment such as a personal fall arrest system improves site safety performance. As Building
and Construction Authority (2017) recommended, enough space should be reserved in the
project to install anti-fall buckles and protective fences to ensure that workers have enough
space and equipment for high-altitude work. It is crucial provide enough access space for
workers to move in and out during an installation. The study revealed how digital technologies
have been used to improve site safety management. Smart protective helmets with positioning
devices improve advanced safety management by notifying the site manager to implement
immediate action when a worker cannot move for more than predefined duration (e.g., minutes)
due to heatstroke or an accident. Similarly, in the case of large sites in the wilderness without
safety gates and electricity, technologies capable of detecting both authorized and unauthorized
people facilitate proactive site safety management.

Conclusions, practical implications and limitations

This study developed a lifecycle-based best practices framework for implementing IC
projects based on nine diverse, representative real-world cases. It constitutes the first to
develop a framework that identifies and demonstrates the dynamic linkages among
different sets of lifecycle-based best practices, typical outputs and best practice indicators
across the project construction lifecycle phases. Based on the typical expected output of each Best practices
phase, the study delineated best practice indicators that constitute a result-based framework for IC Projects
to evaluate success at each phase. The dynamic linkages between the best practice
indicators and practices in successive phases could be leveraged to evaluate the current and
future status of the project in each phase.
Through the proposed framework, this study has addressed the knowledge and practice
gap of lifecycle-based management of IC projects. The study has practical and managerial
implications. Firstly, the research provides some practical and technical considerations to
practitioners on how IC projects are designed, fabricated, inspected, delivered and installed
to achieve its functional requirements and workmanship standards. The proposed
framework emphasizes early commitment and the need to “start right” because the effective
management of early phases has an influence on the success of downstream stages.
Secondly, allocating the best practices and indicators across the different lifecycle phases
provides IC practitioners with practical insight into how best to effectively deliver, manage
and evaluate the performance of the lifecycle phases. Thirdly, the proposed framework can
serve as a practical diagnostic tool that enables project stakeholders to evaluate the
performance upfront progressively and objectively in each project lifecycle phase and can
facilitate timely corrective actions.
Despite the fulfilment of the objectives, there are some limitations. Firstly, the complete
granular practices required to implement IC projects from start to finish are voluminous,
vary considerably across countries and cannot be exhaustively covered within the limited
words’ restriction of any journal. Nevertheless, this study may constitute a bridge between
academic research and industry practice of IC project delivery. Secondly, although the
research analysed several different IC project types, the vast diversity of IC projects may
limit the direct practical application of the framework. Notably, there are different
connotations of IC among difference countries in the world. Nevertheless, best practices
have a core attribute of being adaptable to a different context for the same technology. Thus,
the components of the framework may need to be further adapted and contextualized for
specific IC projects. Thirdly, considering that the IC approach is an evolving technology, the
proposed lifecycle-based best practice model is not meant to be a definitive reference
resource on how IC projects must be delivered. Effectively, this study does not constitute a
cookbook or a prescriptive method for implementing IC projects, but a framework within
which IC industry practitioners, innovators, experimenters and researchers can reference in
selecting contextually relevant best practices. So, it is recommended that practitioners use
this framework to innovate and improve the governance of IC projects. For effective delivery
of IC projects, practitioners are encouraged to seek early professional advice from designers,
manufacturers, suppliers and consultants of IC projects.

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Further reading
Blismas, N.G., Pasquire, C. and Gibb, A.G.F. (2006), “Benefit evaluation for off-site production in
construction”, Construction Management and Economics, Vol. 24 No. 2, pp. 121-130.

Corresponding author
Ibrahim Yahaya Wuni can be contacted at: ibrahim.wuni@connect.polyu.hk

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