Unit 4

Network Topologies:

Network topology refers to the arrangement of nodes, devices, and connections in

a computer network. It defines how devices are physically or logically connected
to each other and how data flows between them.

Network Criteria:

A Network is a group of connected devices capable of communicating. The device

can be a computer, printer, or scanner that either receives or transmits data. The
devices connected in the Network are called "Nodes," and the means of connection
can be wired or wireless.

There three basic yet important criteria to be fulfilled for a network:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

Performance

➢ It measures how well a network can support communication between two

nodes in the Network or with nodes of other networks.
➢ We need to focus on how fast a message is transmitted and how fast a node
can receive a request and find the needed information.

Reliability

➢ It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and dependable.

➢ The Reliability of a network is measured by the frequency of failures it is
undergoing and the time it takes to recover from the failures.

Security

It measures how the Network secures the data failures and attacks and the policies
and procedures it implements to protect itself from damages and unauthorized
access.
Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There
are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree
Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology
 o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the
message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access).
o CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost.

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable.
Therefore, the initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot
of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine
the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes.

2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will
retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having
no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed
from one node to another node.
Advantages of Ring topology:

o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network

operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the
installation cost is very low.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.

3) Star Topology
 o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached
to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star
topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

 o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to
the open ports on the hub.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount
of routing is required.

4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected
with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
 o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Failure: Failure in main cable will damage the overall network.

o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult
to reconfigure.

5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are

interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a
central point of communication.
 o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.

Mesh topology is divided into two categories:

o Fully connected mesh topology

o Partially connected mesh topology

o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to

all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they communicate
frequently.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown
will not affect the communication between connected computers.

Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices and

router
 o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failure goes undetected.

6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will
not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in
one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices
without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.

Bus: such as small office setups.

Ring: To connect different nodes or neighborhoods within a city.

Star: It's commonly seen in office networks, campus networks,

Tree: in large-scale enterprise environments with complex structures.

Mesh: Wi-Fi networks, and industrial automation.

Hybrid: For example, a company might use a combination of star and mesh
topologies, with a star configuration for each department's local network and mesh
connections between departments

Network Connecting Devices

Hub:

➢ A hub is a device used in computer networking that serves as a central

connection point for multiple devices, allowing them to communicate with
each other.
➢ It receives data from one device and broadcasts it to all other devices
connected to the hub.
➢ They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
 ➢ A hub has many ports in it and is used to create a network by connecting
multiple devices such as computers, printers, and other network devices
together.
➢ Hubs are simple and inexpensive devices, but they have limitations in terms
of network performance and security.

Switches:

➢ A switch is a device used to connect multiple devices together within a local

area network (LAN).
➢ Switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model and use
MAC addresses to determine where to forward data packets.
➢ They maintain a table known as a MAC address table or forwarding table,
which maps MAC addresses to the physical ports on the switch.
➢ When a data packet arrives at a switch, it examines the destination MAC
address and forwards the packet only to the port associated with that address.

.
 Difference between Hub and Switch

Key Hub Switch

Objective Unlike a hub, which A switch intelligently forwards

broadcasts data to all data only to the device that
devices connected to needs it,
it
Layer Hubs operate at the Switches function at the Data
Physical Layer. Link Layer.
Transmission Hubs use broadcast Switches use unicast, multicast
Type type transmission. as well as broadcast type
transmission.

Ports Hub can have Switch can have 24 to 28 ports.

maximum 4 ports.
 Key Hub Switch

Address Hub: Does not learn Switch: Learns MAC addresses

learning MAC addresses and from the data packets it receives
does not maintain a and maintains a forwarding
forwarding table. table, which it uses to forward
packets only to the appropriate
port.
Packet Hubs do not provide Switches provide packet
Filtering packet filtering. filtering.

Transmission Hub uses half duplex Switch uses full duplex

Mode transmission mode. transmission mode.

Router:

➢ A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between

computer networks.
➢ One or more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected
using a router.
➢ By sending data packets to their intended IP addresses, it manages traffic
between different networks and permits several devices to share an Internet
connection.
➢ They use routing tables and algorithms to make decisions about the most
efficient route for data packets to reach their destination.
➢ Router is used in LAN (Local Area Network) and WAN (Wide Area
Network) environments. For example, it is used in offices for connectivity,
and you can also establish the connection between distant networks such as
from Bhopal to.
➢ It shares information with other routers in networking.
➢ It uses the routing protocol to transfer the data across a network.
➢ Furthermore, it is more expensive than other networking devices like
switches and hubs.
 ➢
Repeater:

➢ Repeaters are defined as a networking device that is used to amplify and

generate the incoming signal. Repeaters work at the physical layer of the
OSI model.
➢ The main aim of using a repeater is to increase the networking distance by
increasing the strength and quality of signals.
➢ The performance of Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area
Networks (WANs) repeaters are used. Using repeaters helps to reduce
error, and loss of data and provides with delivery of data at specified
locations only.
➢ The major advantage of using a repeater is that it provides with transfer of
data with more security and over a long distance.

In Simple terms

➢ A repeater is like a signal booster for a network.

➢ It takes weak signals from one part of the network, makes them stronger, and
sends them out again.
➢ This helps extend the range of the network, allowing devices to
communicate over longer distances without losing the signal.
➢ Repeaters are handy when you need to cover a large area or when cables are
too long and the signal gets weak.
Working of Repeaters
➢ Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can
be a mobile phone, laptop or radio.
➢ This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it’s wireless
network or through the cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes
away from the source it’s strength gets weak.
➢ The signal received to the repeater is not the actual signal sent by source
system but a weak signal. Therefore repeater amplifies this weak signal to
get it strengthen.
➢ The strengthen signal is now being sent from the repeater to its destination.
This signal is more stronger and can travel at longer distance. In short, it
extends the network without losing the quality of signal.

Bridges:

➢ Interconnecting two LAN’s working on same protocol.

➢ A bridge operates at the data link layer.
➢ A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering
content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and destination.
➢ It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same
protocol
➢ It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port
device.

Gateway:

➢ Passing data to the networks and different networking models

➢ Gateways as the name suggests are one kind of gate (passage) that
connects two networks(application and the server ) operating with different
transmission protocols.
➢ It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows
across the networks should pass through the gateway. Only the internal
traffic between the nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.
➢ Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that
inflows or outflows from that network.
Types of Gateways

➢ Unidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in only one direction.

Changes made in the source node are replicated in the destination node, but
not vice versa. They can be used as archiving tools.
➢ Bidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in both directions. They
can be used as synchronization tools.
➢

Modem:

➢ Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator.

➢ The modem is defined as a networking device that is used to connect
devices connected in the network to the internet.
➢ Modulator converts digital signal to analog signal were as demodulator
converts digital to analog signals.
 ➢ The main function of a modem is to convert the analog signals that come
from telephone wire into a digital form.
➢ In digital form, these converted signals are stored in the form of 0s and 1s.
➢ The modem can perform both the task of modulation and demodulation
simultaneously.

Ex: It allows computer to connect internet.

Advantages of Modem
• A modem converts digital signals into an analog signal.
• The modem helps to connect the LAN to the internet.
• Modem performs both modulation and demodulation processes
simultaneously
Disadvantages of Modem
• The modem cannot track the traffic between the LAN and the internet.
• When using a modem a limited number of network devices can be connected
to the internet.
• The modem does not provide maintenance of traffic.

Wireless infrastructure components

Wireless computer networks rely on various infrastructure components to
facilitate communication between devices without the need for physical cables.
These components work together to provide wireless connectivity and enable
seamless data transmission.
Here are some key wireless infrastructure components commonly found in
computer networks:
1. Wireless Routers:
- Wireless routers combine the functionality of a traditional wired router with
that of a wireless access point. They serve as the gateway between a local
network and the internet, providing both wired and wireless connectivity to
devices.

2. Wireless Bridges:
- Wireless bridges are devices used to connect two separate networks
wirelessly, typically over longer distances where laying cables is impractical or
cost-prohibitive.
- They establish a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint link between two or
more locations, extending network connectivity without the need for physical
wires.

3. Wireless Repeaters/Range Extenders:

- Wireless repeaters, also known as range extenders, are devices used to
expand the coverage area of an existing wireless network by amplifying and
rebroadcasting the wireless signal.