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Wind Power Technology
THIRD EDITION

JOSHUA EARNEST
Dean
Planning and Monitoring
Professor of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training & Research
(Under Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India)
Shamla Hills, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh

STHUTHI RACHEL
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics Engineering
Ramrao Adik Institute of Technology
D.Y. Patil University, Nerul
Navi-Mumbai

Delhi-110092
2019
WIND POWER TECHNOLOGY, Third Edition
Joshua Earnest and Sthuthi Rachel

© 2019 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from
the publisher.

Disclaimer
Every effort has been made to give the correct information and details obtained from various sources believed
to be reliable. However, any inadvertent error or discrepancy, which may have crept in, if brought to the author’s
notice is most welcome. This shall be taken into cognisance in future editions. However, the publisher and the
author are supplying the information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services
and thereby will not be responsible for any errors, omissions, damages or losses caused to anyone due to the use
of information from this book. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should
be sought.

ISBN-978-93-88028-49-3 (Print Book)

ISBN-978-93-88028-50-9 (e-Book)

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Third Printing (Third Edition)   . . . . . .    . . .    . . . July, 2019

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mudrak, D-61, Sector 63, Noida, U.P.-201301.
 To

GOD
Who is Omniscient, Omnipresent and Omnipotent
and
Bindhu Joshua
Koshy Earnest
Mariamma Thomas
Late John A. Earnest
Late Achamma Earnest
Late Saramma Earnest
Late M.T. Thomas
 Preface

HE let loose the East wind from the heavens and by HIS power made the South wind blow
—Psalms 78:26 (Bible)

The enthusiastic response to the earlier editions motivated us to bring forth the new
edition with improved and significant changes. The speciality of this edition is that
apart from the significant updation of the 1st chapter of this book, a new Chapter 15
has been added which will be of great interest as it deals with the Electronics
in Renewable Energy Systems. We are thankful to all those who encouraged us
by giving tremendous responses about the book. At the same time, the readers’
feedback and suggestions have been incorporated in several chapters and at the
same time retaining the systematic flow of contents, visuals and pagination of the
1st edition for the readers’ convenience. However, the readers can also note all the
other significant improvements made in the book while reading through the book.
One of the key features of this book is the lucidity of the diagrams and images,
which have been carefully chosen in order to develop a clear understanding of the
various concepts of wind power technology.
Today, wind energy is the world’s fastest growing source of renewable energy.
To abate the global climate change, commercialisation of the renewable energy
technologies and wind power in particular, are growing quite fast across the world.
More and more windy areas are being discovered and every year, grid connected wind
power is growing in leaps and bounds and India is one such happening place, where
the world is watching. Among the renewable energy sources, the cost of producing
one kilowatt hour (kWh) of electrical energy from the wind power is the cheapest.
It is competing almost at par with the other fossil fuel power plants. All this has
become possible because of the recent advancements in electrical, mechanical, power
electronics, digital electronics, materials and other branches of engineering, which
are used in renewable energy technologies.
v
vi l Preface

Although the earlier jointly authored book Wind Power Plants and Project
Development along with Tore Wizelius was written to cater to industrial need, it was
also well received by the academia and training organisations, as such information
was not available in other Indian books. Therefore, it dawned on the author that
there was a niche for an additional book on “wind” to fulfil the needs of the Indian
universities. It is in this backdrop that this book Wind Power Technology got
evolved and now revised to the third edition. Along with the former, this book has
been proved as a good additional resource material to satisfy the needs of various
curricula of different universities and also for those who are interested in developing
a deeper understanding of modern wind power plants.
With the race hotting up, China overtook the USA to occupy the top slot with
the largest capacity of installed wind power plants in the world, a position long held
by the USA for the last several decades. India is also not far behind and is in the
fourth position. In this changed industrial scenario of renewable energy, a number
of universities across India have revised their curricula to give a greater focus to
wind power and renewable energy courses and also to include exclusive wind power
courses in various short and long term engineering and training programmes.
As a result of research and development, the capacities of the large wind turbines
are continuously increasing, the largest one today being the 7.58 MW Enercon wind
turbine, they behave almost similar to the conventional power plants and therefore,
the term wind power plant (WPP) is more relevant. Since the modern WPP integrates
the technologies from various branches of engineering, all the chapters of this book
focus on the various technological principles of these branches that govern the
functioning of a typical modern wind turbine. The concepts and principles have
been written in such a manner that most of the students of the various branches
of engineering would be able to acquire the requisite knowledge to understand the
broad-based technology of the wind turbine.
A unique feature of this book is that along with every figure title, a brief
explanation that follows helps the reader to understand without referring to the
relevant paragraphs again and again. Another salient feature is that the learning
outcome expected to be developed in the student is provided on the title page of
every chapter, thereby helping the reader to focus better on how to learn. Moreover,
worked-out examples are given at relevant places and exercises are given at the
end of the chapters to cement the learning further.
To address some specific curricular needs, Chapter 1 of this book begins by
explaining the basic working principles of the various types of electricity generating
renewable energy technologies and the tremendous potential that they have in India
including the significance of wind power. Chapter 2 discusses the wind characteristics
that are necessary to be understood in the context of electricity generating WPPs.
The WPP being a classic example of a mechatronic machine, Chapter 3 describes
the functions of various components of this state-of-the-art electricity producing
WPP. Chapter 4 explains the working principles on the basis of which the WPPs
are designed to convert most efficiently the wind energy into useful electrical energy.
For safety and to maximise electricity production, Chapter 5 elaborates the
various strategies that can be adapted to aerodynamically control the WPP. Apart
 Preface l vii

from the aerodynamic control, there are electrical and electronic control strategies
for additional control of the WPP that are explained in Chapter 6.
WPPs are broadly classified as constant speed and variable speed WPPs. With
considerable amount of research and development being undertaken across the world,
state-of-the-art wind power technologies are adapted for these different categories
of WPPs and explained lucidly using relevant visuals and diagrams in Chapter 7
and Chapter 8.
Chapter 9 discusses about the electrical power quality produced by the different
types of WPPs, while Chapter 10 explains how the different issues are resolved to
integrate this green power into the electrical grid network supported by worked-out
examples and some software simulations as well.
The rest of the chapters will also be of special interest to the students. Chapter 11
on Wind Resource Assessment Technologies describes the different types of wind
related sensors necessary to determine the wind potential at a particular site.
Chapter 12 discusses some of the major Design Considerations of WPPs supported
by some worked-out examples as well.
All those enthusiasts of small wind turbines will be very happy to read Chapter 13.
It explains in detail the essentials related to various types of small wind turbine
technologies hardly found in a single book. Wind Project Life Cycle a concept in the
curricula of some Indian universities is discussed in Chapter 14.
Chapter 15 on Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems is a new chapter in this
edition and will help all students interested in the electronics related to this area.
Finally, to solve the energy crisis, the authors wish that this book may serve
to advance in the greater use of renewable energy and wind power technology in
particular.
Best wishes for a smooth sailing through this book.

 
Joshua Earnest
Sthuthi Rachel
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, the authors would like to thank Jesus GOD and LORD, who
empowered them and taught them wind power technology, and spurred them to
write this, much needed book for the university students, a unique book of its kind.
The first author thanks to one of his mentors and friend Tore Wizelius, the ‘Guru
of Swedish Wind Power’ and co-author of his first book Wind Power Plants and
Project Development for the encouragement to write this book to cater to the needs
of the university system and for some unique ideas that are reflected in different
sections of this book.
The authors are grateful to all those wind power plant manufacturers, individuals
and other websites who have extended their cooperation directly or indirectly in
permitting them to use the pictures duly acknowledged under each visual and
thus, help in the cause of spreading the knowledge of this green and clean energy.
The authors also thank the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and
DOE—Subcontract Report NREL/SR-500-35524, entitled Northern Power Systems
WindPACT Drive Train Alternative Design Study Report; Period of Performance:
April 12, 2001 to January 31, 2005, by G. Bywaters, V. John, J. Lynch, P. Mattila,
G. Norton, J. Stowell, M. Salata, O. Labath, A. Chertok, and D. Hablanian for use
of their pictures.
The first author extends his thanks to the feedback of his students spread
over different continents of the globe who have attended his wind power training
programmes over the past several years, whom he taught in the face-to-face sessions,
conference rooms during the wind farm visits and also in the e-classroom of the
distance mode training programmes offered by National Institute of Technical
Teachers’ Training and Research (NITTTR) Bhopal.
Here, the authors would like to admit that the concepts, ideas and discussions
contained in this book are also the result of the interactions with various wind
power plant manufacturers, their brochures, Websites, wind farm developers and
ix
x l Acknowledgements

authors of wind related books. They are also thankful to the authors of various
journal papers, research reports, conference proceedings, and monographs which
they have referred to extensively and duly acknowledged them in the bibliography.
The first author is also grateful to Thomas Ackerman, author of Wind Electric
Systems and founder, Energynautics GmbH, Germany as well as to his close friend
Sven Ruin, CEO of Teroc, Sweden, who has given him valuable feedback regarding
the earlier wind power book. He also owes his sincere thanks to his friend Henk
Polinder of Delft University, The Netherlands, whose numerous papers, articles and
discussions have considerably educated him about wind power. His thanks also go
to his close friends Lars Hallen, Founder & Chairman, LIFE Academy, Sweden and
Bo Gillgren for their encouragement. Special thanks are due to his friends of the
Union of Evangelical students of India, whose encouragement and prayers spurred
him on in this endeavour. He would also like to thank his colleagues Ms. Susan
S. Mathew, A.S. Walkey, Shashikant Gupta, N.P. Patidar and other friends and
well-wishers who have directly or indirectly supported him in this book writing
project. He also grateful to Aditya Patil, PRDC, Bangalore, and Dr. Vinod Kumar of
Maharana Pratap Univesity, Udaipur, Rajasthan for their valuable academic inputs.
The authors would also like to thank Dr. C. Thangaraj, Director of National
Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training Institute, Bhopal, India, for his constant
support to academics, writing and publishing.
The authors appreciate the work of Ms. Shivani Garg, Ms. Babita Mishra,
Ms. Lakshmi, Mr. Suman Kumar and Mr. Ajai Kumar Lal Das of PHI Learning
for their meticulous work in meeting the publishing deadline.
Last, but most important, the authors thank to the unstinting support of
Mrs. Bindhu Joshua, who has greatly sacrificed many of her precious hours and
encouraged them in completing this book during these long years. They would like
to express their deep gratitude to her from the bottom of their hearts.

Joshua Earnest
Sthuthi Rachel
 Contents

Preface v
Acknowledgements ix
List of Symbols/Notations xix
Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii

1. Renewable Energy Technologies 1–36

1.1 Introduction   2
1.2 Renewable Energy Sources Bridging the Energy Gap   3
1.3 Small Hydel Power Plants   5
1.3.1 Types of Impulse Turbines   6
1.3.2 Types of Reaction Turbines   6
1.4 Geothermal Power Plants   7
1.5 Solar Power Plants   8
1.5.1 CSP Technology   9
1.5.2 Solar PV Technology   12
1.6 Biomass Power Plants   21
1.6.1 Solid Biomass   22
1.6.2 Liquid Biomass   22
1.6.3 Biogas   22
1.7 Ocean Energy Power Plants   23
1.7.1 Tidal Energy   23
1.7.2 Wave Energy   24
1.7.3 Ocean Current Energy   25
1.7.4 Ocean Thermal Energy   26
1.8 Wind Power Plants   27
1.8.1 Historical Background   28
1.8.2 Global Wind Power Growth   29
1.8.3 Indian Wind Power Growth   31
1.9 Drivers and Bottlenecks for Wind Power Development   34
1.10 Strengths and Limitations of Wind Power   35
Summary   36
Exercises   36
xi
xii l Contents

2. The Wind Resource 37–60

2.1 Introduction   38
2.2 Types of Wind   40
2.3 Wind Profiling   41
2.4 Turbulence   44
2.5 Hill and Tunnel Effect   45
2.6 Energy in the Wind   46
2.7 Energy Production   49
2.7.1 Weibull and Rayleigh Distribution   51
2.7.2 Wind Rose   52
2.7.3 Wind Power Density   53
2.8 Energy and Power   53
2.9 Energy Pattern Factor   55
2.10 Siting   57
Summary   59
Exercises  59

3. The Wind Power Plant 61–78

3.1 Introduction   62
3.2 Wind Turbine Classes   65
3.3 Rotor   65
3.4 Nacelle   67
3.5 Tower   73
3.6 Electric Substation   75
3.7 Foundations   77
Summary   77
Exercises 78

4. Wind Energy Conversion 79–110

4.1 Introduction   80
4.2 Rotation Principle   80
4.2.1 Drag Principle   80
4.2.2 Lift Principle   81
4.3 Forces on a Rotor Blade   84
4.4 Factors Affecting Performance of Rotor   88
4.4.1 Aerodynamic Efficiency   88
4.4.2 Tip Speed   91
4.4.3 Tip Speed Ratio   92
4.4.4 Solidity   95
4.4.5 Blade Count   97
4.4.6  Blade Twist   99
4.4.7 Blade Taper   102
4.4.8 Wake Losses and Aerofoil Pressure Distribution   103
4.4.9 Yaw Error   103
4.5 Thrust and Torque on Rotor   104
4.5.1 Thrust Force   104
4.5.2 Torque    105
4.6 Power Curve   106
4.7 Lift-Based VAWT   108
Summary 110
Exercises   110
 Contents l xiii

5. Wind Turbine Aerodynamics 111–134

5.1 Introduction   112
5.2 Aerodynamic Power Regulation   112
5.3 Stall Controlled WPP   113
5.3.1 Stalling Phenomenon   113
5.3.2 Stall Power Curve   115
5.3.3 Vortex Generators   116
5.3.4 Features of Stall Controlled WPP   118
5.4 Pitch Controlled WPP   119
5.4.1 Pitching Action   119
5.4.2 Pitch Power Curve   120
5.4.3 Pitching Mechanisms   123
5.4.4 Features of Pitch Controlled WPPs   125
5.5 Active-Stall Controlled WPP   126
5.5.1 Active-stall Action   127
5.5.2 Active-stall Power Curve   127
5.5.3 Features of Active-stall Controlled WPP   128
5.6 Halting a WPP   129
5.6.1 Aerodynamic Braking of WPP   130
5.7 Other Methods of Aerodynamic Control   132
Summary  133
Exercises  133

6. Wind Power Control Strategies 135–154

6.1 Introduction   136
6.2 Power Control Classification   136
6.3 Integrated Aerodynamic and Electric Control Strategies   138
6.3.1 Constant Speed Generator Fixed Pitch (CSG-FP) Configuration   138
6.3.2 Constant Speed Generator Variable Pitch (CSG-VP)
Configuration   139
6.3.3 Variable Speed Generator Fixed Pitch (VSG-FP) Configuration   139
6.3.4 Variable Speed Generator Variable Pitch (VSG-VP)
Configuration   141
6.4 Power Electronic Converters   141
6.5 Constant Speed and Variable Speed WPPs   144
6.5.1 Constant Speed WPP Operation   146
6.5.2 Variable Speed WPP Operation   148
6.6 Back-to-Back PEC in WPP   150
6.6.1 Generator-side Converter Control   151
6.6.2 DC Link Bus   151
6.6.3 Grid-side Converter Control   151
6.6.4 Four-quadrant Control PEC in Variable Speed WPP   152
Summary   154
Exercises   154

7. Constant Speed Wind Power Plants 155–185

7.1 Introduction   156
7.2 Type-A WPP   156
7.2.1 Working Principle   156
xiv l Contents

7.2.2 SCIG Slip   157

7.2.3 Torque of a SCIG   160
7.2.4 Topologies of Type-A WPP   161
7.2.5 Starting of Type-A WPP   163
7.2.6 Type-A WPP—Two Speed Operations   164
7.3 Equivalent Circuit and Modelling of SCIG of Type-A WPP   167
7.4 Type-B WPP   171
7.4.1 Working Principle   171
7.4.2 Performance of Type-B WPP   173
7.4.3 Topologies of Type-B WPP   175
7.5 Equivalent Circuit of WRIG of Type-B WPP   176
7.6 Reactive Power in Constant Speed WPP   176
7.6.1 Shunt Compensation   177
7.6.2 FACTs Devices for Constant Speed WPPs   179
7.7 Features and Limitations of Constant Speed WPPs   183
Summary   185
Exercises   185

8. Variable Speed Wind Power Plants 186–237

8.1 Introduction   187
8.2 Type-C WPP   187
8.2.1 Working Principle   188
8.2.2 Subsynchronous Operation   190
8.2.3 Supersynchronous Operation   190
8.2.4 Back-to-Back PEC in Type-C WPP   192
8.2.5 Type-C WPP and Grid Faults   193
8.3 Equivalent Circuit of DFIG in Type-C WPP   194
8.4 Salient Features and Limitations of Type-C WPP   196
8.5 Type-D WPP   197
8.5.1 Full Rated PEC in Type-D WPP   198
8.6 Type-D Geared WPP with Variable Speed SCIG   200
8.6.1 Working Principle   201
8.7 Equivalent Circuit of Variable Speed SCIG of Type-D WPP   202
8.8 Type-D Geared WPP with Variable Speed WRSG   203
8.8.1 Working Principle   204
8.9 Type-D Hydrodynamic Geared WPP with Constant Speed WRSG   209
8.9.1 Working Principle   209
8.10 Equivalent Circuit of WRSG in Type-D WPP   211
8.10.1 Modelling of a WRSG in Type-D WPP   212
8.10.2 Salient Features of Type-D Geared WPP with WRSG   212
8.11 Type-D WPP with Variable Speed PMSG   213
8.11.1 PMSG Equivalent Magnetic Circuit of Type-D WPP   214
8.11.2 Three-phase PMSG d–q model   216
8.11.3 Two-phase PMSG d–q Model   218
8.12 Type-D Geared WPP with Variable Speed PMSG   218
8.12.1 Working Principle   219
8.13 Type-D Hydrodynamic Geared WPP with Constant Speed PMSG   219
8.13.1 Working Principle   220
8.14 Type-D Geared WPP with Multiple Variable Speed PMSGs   221
8.14.1 Working Principle   222
 Contents l xv

8.15 PMSG Topologies   223

8.15.1 Salient Features of Type-D WPPs with PMSGs   223
8.16 Need for Direct-Drive WPP   224
8.17 Direct-Drive WPP with Variable Speed WRSG   227
8.17.1 Working Principle   227
8.18 Direct-Drive WPP with Variable Speed PMSG   229
8.18.1 Working Principle   230
8.19 Modelling of Type-D Direct-Drive WPP   232
8.19.1 Salient Features of Type-D Direct-Drive WPP   232
8.20 Type-D Hybrid WPP with Variable Speed PMSG   234
8.20.1 Working Principle   235
Summary   236
Exercises 237

9. Quality Issues of Wind Power 238–277

9.1 Introduction   239
9.2 Wind Power Impact   240
9.3 Local Impacts of Wind Power   243
9.3.1 Node Voltages and Branch Flows   243
9.3.2 Fault Currents and Grid Connected WPP   245
9.3.3 Voltage Quality   248
9.3.4 Overview of Local Impacts   259
9.4 Systemwide Impacts of Wind Power   259
9.4.1 Reactive Power and WPPs   260
9.4.2 Power System Stability and WPPs   260
9.4.3 Frequency and WPPs   265
9.5 Wind Power Variability   268
9.6 Islanding   269
9.7 WPP Electrical Safety and Grid   271
9.7.1 Active Power Control of WPP   271
9.8 WPP Inertia   272
9.9 Plant Load Factor (or Capacity Factor)   273
9.10 Capacity Credit   274
Summary   276
Exercises   276

10. Grid Integration of Wind Power 278–325

10.1 Introduction   279
10.2 The Electric Grid   279
10.3 Embedded Generation   281
10.4 WPP in the Electric Grid   281
10.4.1 Requirements of Grid Connected WPP   282
10.4.2 WPP Grid Connections   283
10.5 Interface Issues   287
10.5.1 Short Circuit Power Control   288
10.5.2 Reactive Power Control   291
10.5.3 Voltage Control   294
10.6 Operational Issues   296
10.6.1 Power System Stability   296
10.6.2 Frequency Control   301
xvi l Contents

10.6.3 Short Term Balancing   305

10.6.4 Long Term Balancing   308
10.6.5 Transmission and Distribution System Impacts   309
10.6.6 Economic Despatch and Unit Commitment   309
10.7 Per Unit Calculations   311
10.8 Simulation of Grid Connected WPP   312
Summary  323
Exercises   324

11. Wind Resource Assessment Technologies 326–348

11.1 Introduction   327
11.2 Wind Resource Assessment   327
11.3 Wind Resource Assessment Sensors   330
11.4 Meteorological Mast   332
11.5 Data Logger   334
11.5.1 Data Communication Options   335
11.6 Wind Vane   335
11.7 Anemometer   336
11.7.1 Cup Anemometer   337
11.7.2 Propeller Vane Anemometer   338
11.7.3 Ultrasonic (Sonic) Anemometer   339
11.7.4 SODAR   340
11.7.5 LIDAR   341
11.8 Temperature Sensor   342
11.9 Barometric Pressure Sensor   343
11.9.1 Impact on Wind Power due to Height above Sea Level   344
11.10 Pyranometer   345
11.11 Relative Humidity Sensor   345
11.12 Modem   345
11.13 Area Required by WPP   346
11.14 Software Analytical Tools   346
Summary   347
Exercises   348

12. Design Considerations of Wind Power Plants 349–392

12.1 Introduction   350
12.2 WPP Design Process   351
12.3 Generalised Rotor Design   353
12.3.1 Hub Choice   355
12.3.2 Rigid Hub   356
12.3.3 Hinged Hub   356
12.3.4 Teetering Hub   356
12.4 Aerodynamic Regulation Choice   356
12.4.1 Design of Stall Controlled Blades   357
12.4.2 Design of Pitch Controlled Blades   358
12.4.3 Design of Active-stall Controlled Blades   358
12.5 Blade Number   358
12.6 Blade Design   359
12.6.1 Blade Design Theories   362
12.6.2 Blade Root Design   363
12.6.3 Noise Reduction in Blade Design   363
 Contents l xvii

12.7 Blade Manufacture   364

12.7.1 Blade Materials   365
12.7.2 Blade Manufacturing Technologies   366
12.8 Nacelle Design   367
12.8.1 Geared WPP Main Shaft Design   368
12.8.2 Geared WPP Nacelle Design   373
12.8.3 Coupling Choice   374
12.8.4 Direct-Drive Nacelle Designs   374
12.9 Gearbox Choice   374
12.10 Disc Brake Selection   378
12.11 Electrical Generator Choice   379
12.12 Electronic Controller Choice   380
12.13 Hydraulic and Lubrications Systems   380
12.14 Tower Design   380
12.14.1 Lattice Towers   381
12.14.2 Steel Tubular Towers   382
12.14.3 Concrete Towers   382
12.14.4 Hybrid Concrete Towers   383
12.14.5 Guyed Towers   383
12.15 Substation Design   383
12.16 Foundation Design   384
12.17 Key Equations for WPP Design Analysis   385
12.18 Specific Rating of WPP   388
Summary  390
Exercises   391

13. Small Wind Turbines 393–434

13.1 Introduction   394
13.2 Need of SWT   394
13.3 SWT Classification   396
13.4 VAWT and HAWT   397
13.4.1 VAWT   397
13.4.2 HAWT   397
13.5 Drag and Lift-based VAWTs   397
13.5.1 Drag-based VAWT   398
13.5.2 Lift-based VAWT   399
13.5.3 Musgrove Lift-based VAWT   401
13.5.4 Drag Plus Lift Hybrid Blade Design   401
13.5.5 Integrated Savonius and Darrieus Rotor Design   403
13.6 HAWT Features   403
13.7 Upwind and Downwind SWTs   404
13.8 SWT Components   405
13.8.1 Rotor   405
13.8.2 Generator/Alternator   406
13.8.3 Gearbox   407
13.8.4 Control and Protection System   408
13.8.5 Tail Vane (Yaw System)   409
13.8.6 SWT Tower   409
13.9 Geared and Direct-Drive HAWTs   411
13.10 Speed Regulation of SWTs   411
13.10.1 Twisting of Blades   412
13.10.2 Furling   412
xviii l Contents

13.10.3 Passive Stall Regulation   415

13.10.4 Passive Pitch Regulation   416
13.10.5 Electrical Braking   416
13.10.6 Mechanical Braking   417
13.11 Off-Grid and On-Grid SWTs   417
13.11.1 Off-grid SWT   418
13.11.2 On-grid SWT   418
13.12 Hybrid Wind Energy Systems   419
13.13 Hybrid Wind Diesel Systems   422
13.14 Consumer Labelling   424
13.15 Choice of SWT   424
13.15.1 Choice of SWT Tower   428
13.15.2 Choice of the Hybrid Wind System Battery   429
13.16 SWT Siting   429
13.17 Maintenance Issues   432
13.18 Health Objections to SWT   432
13.19 SWT Industry Challenges   433
Summary 433
Exercises 433

14. Wind Project Life Cycle 435–444

14.1 Introduction   436
14.2 Wind Project Life Cycle   436
14.2.1 Site Feasibility Study   437
14.2.2 Permissions and Procurement   438
14.2.3 Installation and Commissioning   439
14.2.4 WPP Operation   440
14.3 Technical Lifetime   441
14.4 Repowering Wind Power Projects   441
Summary   443
Exercises   443

15. Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems 445–454

15.1 Introduction   446
15.2 Electronics and Power Electronics   446
15.3 Electronics in Solar Power Plants   448
15.3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracker (MPPT)   449
15.4 Electronics in Wind Power Plants   450
15.5 Electronics in Ocean Energy Power Plants   452
15.6 Electronics in Small Hydel Power Plants   452
15.7 Electronics in Biomass Power Plants   453
15.8 Electronic Communication Systems for Grid Integration of
Renewable Energy Resources   453
Summary 454
Exercises 454

Bibliography 455–462

Index 463–468
 List of Symbols/Notations

Symbols/ Main use of the Symbols in this Book Other Uses/Comments

Units
a Angle of attack —
b Blade pitch angle —
g Kinematic viscosity of fluid —
d Load angle (angle between the rotating magnetic
field of electrical machine) Yaw angle of a WPP
l Tip speed ratio —
s Solidity Standard deviations (SD)
q Angle between voltage and current —
j Flux density and power factor (cos j) Inflow angle (fabrication
angle)
w Angular velocity (rad/s) —
y Flux Could be stator/rotor flux
r Density of air (kg/m3) —
ra Area density (kg/m2) —
h Efficiency —
hg Efficiency of gearbox —
he Efficiency of electrical generator —
A Swept area of WPP rotor (m2) —
a Ampere–current —
B Flux density —
c Shape parameter of Weibull probability function —
C Capacitance (F) —
CD Drag coefficient Dimensionless number

xix
xx l List of Symbols/Notations

Symbols/ Main use of Symbols in this Book Other Uses/Comments

Units
CL Lift coefficient Dimensionless number
CM Pitching moment Dimensionless number
Cp Power coefficient or aerodynamic efficiency Dimensionless number
CT Torque coefficient Dimensionless number
D Diameter of wind turbine rotor Diameter of electrical
generator
Dg Air gap diameter ­—
EA Generate voltage —
E Lift-to-drag ratio —
Eyear Energy content of the wind during a year —
f Frequency —
fs Shear stress (Pa or N/m2) —
fd Tangential force —
Fcirc Circumferential or driving force applied in the plane
of rotation and helps the rotor to rotate and produce
the useful power —
Fd Drag force —
FL Lift force —
Fres Resultant force —
Ftorque Torque producing force —
Fthrust Useless force, gets applied perpendicular to the plane
of rotation which tries to bend the WPP tower —
g Gravity —
G Giga (109) Shear modulus
H Hub height or height of obstacle —
I Polar mass moment of inertia —
J Polar area moment of inertia —
kT Torsional spring constant —
K kelvin (absolute temperature measurement) —
L Lift of the wind turbine blade Inductance of a winding
or coil
l litre
ls Axial length of generator stator —
I Current —
IF Fault current —
J Polar moment of inertia of the wind turbine rotor —
k Shape parameter of Weibull probability function kilo (103)
6
M Mega (10 ) —
m Metre Mass or milli (10–3)
mb Milibar (ambient pressure measurement) —
m/s Metre per second —
 List of Symbols/Notations l xxi

Symbols/ Main use of Symbols in this Book Other Uses/Comments

Units

m Micro (10–6) —
n Number of wind turbine rotor blades —
N Revolutions per minute —
Nm (N) newton meter (unit of force in SI units) —
Ns Synchronous speed of generator —
P Active power (kW) —
p Number of poles of an electrical generator Air pressure
p.u. Per unit —
Pe Electrical power delivered by the generator —
Pkin Kinetic power in wind or energy/second (W or J/s) —
Pm Mechanical power produced by the wind turbine rotor —
Q Reactive power kVAr —
R Radius of rotor Resistance
RA Armature resistance —
Rk Reactance of grid —
Re Reynolds number —
s Second Slip of induction generator
Ss Speed of sound
Ssc Short circuit power —
T Torque Time (s); period of rotation
of rotor; tera (1012), and
tesla
Taero Aerodynamic torque of wind turbine rotor shaft —
Tgen Torque of electrical generator rotor shaft —
U Potential energy of wind turbine shaft —
V volt —
VG Generating voltage —
VS Transmission (or sending end) voltage —
v Wind velocity (m/s) —
vd Downstream wind velocity after energy is extracted
and passing through the blades of the rotor —
vh Number of hourly wind speed values during the month —
vmean Mean wind speed —
vo Undisturbed wind velocity before impinging on wind
turbine rotor —
vtip Wind velocity at blade tip —
W watt —
X Reactance —
Xk Reactance of grid —
Xs Synchronous reactance —
Z Impedance —
 Acronyms and Abbreviations

AC Alternating Current
AD Accelerated Depreciation
ADC Analogue to Digital Converter
AEP Annual Energy Production
AF-PMSG Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
agl Above ground level
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ASC Active-Stall Control
AWEA American Wind Energy Association
BDIG Brushless Doubly-fed Induction Generators
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
BWEA British Wind Energy Association
CCT Critical fault Clearing Time
CDM Clean Development Mechanism
CEA Central Electricity Authority
CER Certified Emission reduction Receipt
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CFRP Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polyester
CHB Cascaded H-Bridge
CMS Condition Monitoring System
CoE Cost of Energy
CRGO Cold Rolled Grain Oriented
CSI Current Source Inverter
CSP Concentrating Solar Power
CTU Central Transmission Utility
dB Decibel (measure of sound levels)
DAC Digital to Analog Converter
xxiii
xxiv l Acronyms and Abbreviations

DC Direct Current
DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (pesticide)
DFIG Doubly-Fed Induction Generator
DG Distributed Generation
DisCom Distribution Company
DMPPT Decentralised maximum power point tracker
DNES Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources
DNO Distribution Network Operator
DST Department of Science and Technology
DVR Dynamic Voltage Restorer
EIA Environment Impact Assessment
EMI Electro Magnetic Interference
EPF Energy Pattern Factor
EU European Union
EWEA European Wind Energy Association
FACTS Flexible AC Transmission System
FRT Fault-Ride-Through (similar to LVRT)
GBI Generation-Based Incentive
GEDA Gujarat (and Goa) Energy Development Agency
GIS Geographical Information Systems
GMT Greenwich Mean Time
GPRS General Packet Radio Service (used by GSM mobile phones)
GR Gearbox Ratio
GRP or GFRP Glass-fibre Reinforced Plastic
GSC Grid-Side Converter
GTO Gate Turn-On Thyristor
GWh Gigawatt hours
HF High Frequency
Hg Mercury
HWRT High Wind Ride Through
Hz hertz [i.e., electric power frequency (in cycles per second)]
IC Integrated Chips
IEA International Energy Agency
IEA 2003 Indian Electricity Act 2003
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
IG Induction Generator
IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
IGCT Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor
IREDA Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency
JNNSM Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
kVA kilovolt ampere
kVArH kilovolt ampere reactive hours
kW kilowatt
kWh kilowatt hours
 Acronyms and Abbreviations l xxv

LAN Local Area Network

LIDAR LIght Detection And Ranging
LV Low Voltage
LVRT Low Voltage Ride Through
MCS Micro-generation Certification Scheme
MNRE Ministry of New Renewable Energy
MOSFET Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor
MPPT Maximum Power Point Tracking
msl Mean sea level
MV Medium Voltage
MW Megawatt
MWh Megawatt hour
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Nd-Fe-B Neodymium-iron-boron
NFYP National Five Year Plan
NIWE National Institute of Wind Energy, Chennai, India
NPC Neutral Point Clamped
NPS Negative Phase Sequence
O&M Operation and Maintenance
OLTC On load tap changing (for transformer)
OSIG Opti-Slip Induction Generator
OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
PC Personal Computer
PCC Point of Common Connection (same as POI)
PEC Power Electronic Converter (Circuits)
PFC Power Factor Correction
PLC Power Line Communication
PLC Programmable Logic Controller
PM Permanent Magnet(s)
PMSG Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
POI Point of Interconnection (same as PCC)
PPA Power Purchase Agreement
PV Photo Voltaic
PWM Pulse Width Modulation
R&D Research and Development
REC Renewable Energy Certificates
RF-PMSG Radial flux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
RLDC Regional Load Despatch Centres
RoCoF Rate of Change of Frequency
RPM Revolutions Per Minute
RPO Renewable Purchase Obligation
RSC Rotor-Side Converter
SAPS Stand Alone Power Systems
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCIG Squirrel Cage Induction Generator
xxvi l Acronyms and Abbreviations

SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier

SERC State Electricity Regulatory Commission
SODAR SOnic Detection And Ranging
SPV Solar Photo Voltaics
SR Spinning Reserve
SSC Static Series Compensator
STATCOM STATic (Synchronous) COMpensator
SVC Static VAr Compensators
SWCC Small Wind Certification Council
T&D Transmission and Distribution
TCR Thyristor Controlled Reactors
TCS Thyristor Switched Capacitors
TF-PMSG Transverse Flux Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators
THM Top Head Mass
TSO Transmission System Operator
TSR Tip Speed Ratio (or Thyristor Switched Reactor)
TWh Terawatt hours
Type-A Constant speed WPP
Type-A0 Constant speed WPP with stall regulation
Type-A1 Constant speed WPP with pitch regulation
Type-A2 Constant speed WPP with active-stall regulation
Type-B Narrow range speed WPP
Type-B0 Narrow range speed WPP with stall regulation
Type-B1 Narrow range speed WPP with pitch regulation
Type-B2 Narrow speed WPP with active-stall regulation
Type-C Limited range speed WPP
Type-C0 Limited range speed WPP with stall regulation
Type-C1 Limited range speed WPP with pitch regulation
Type-C2 Limited range speed WPP with active-stall regulation
Type-D Wide range speed WPP
Type-D0 Wide range WPP with stall regulation
Type-D1 Wide range WPP with pitch regulation
Type-D2 Wide range WPP with active-stall regulation
VAr volt ampere reactive
VSC Voltage Source Converter
VRLA Valve Regulated Lead Acid (batteries)
VSI Voltage Source Inverter
WEC Wind Energy Converter
WEG Wind Energy Generator
WFMS Wind Farm Management System
WPP Wind Power Plant
WRIG Wound Rotor Induction Generator
WRSG Wound Rotor Synchronous Generator
 1
Renewable Energy Technologies
...HE makes the wind blow, and the waters flow
— Psalm 147:18 Learning Outcome
‘On studying this chapter, you will be able to
justify the need and potential of renewable
energy technologies and even designing a
simple domestic solar PV system’.

C h a p t e r H i g h l i g h t s
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Renewable energy sources bridging the
energy gap
1.3 Small hydel power plants
1.4 Geothermal power plants
1.5 Solar power plants
1.6 Biomass power plants
1.7 Ocean energy power plants
1.8 Wind power plants
1.9 Drivers and bottlenecks for wind power
development
1.10 Strengths and limitations of wind power

1
2 l Wind Power Technology

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy can be defined as the energy sources that are natural and
continually replenished either at the same rate or faster than the rate at which
they are being used up by humans more or less indefinitely such as the sun, wind,
rain, tides, biomass and geothermal energy. Green energy, alternative energy and
sustainable energy are the other synonyms sometimes used to describe the renewable
energy that is converted into either electricity, heat or mechanical power for use
in homes or in industries by clean, harmless and non-polluting methods. But it is
important to understand the differences between the technologies used by each of
the different sources to make the right choice for any particular application.
The crude oil crisis which began in 1971 and the continuously increasing prices
for fossil fuels, has adversely affected the economic growth of developing countries.
This woke up the world to look for the alternative and sustainable energy solutions.
Therefore, energy security calls for using renewable energy resources. With rapid
economic growth, the demand for energy is increasing. Energy is by far the largest
industry in the world. It is worth about US $ 7 trillion per year while the world’s
total GDP is about US $ 55 trillion. Thus, the energy industry is worth more
than 10% of the entire world’s economy. As reported by Renewable Energy World
Magazine in their February 2, 2018 Issue, for the first time in history in 2017 in
the 28 nation European Union, the power from renewables generated jointly by
wind, solar and biomass was an all time high of 20.9% of all power, overtaking the
power generated by coal which was down to 20.6%.
Since 1980s, the government of India (and many other governments) has
introduced myriad of incentives for the use and promotion of renewable energy
sources. This chapter has been written to make the reader aware of the vast potential
of renewable energy and it also provides an overview of the various renewable
energy technologies. It is expected that this chapter will encourage and motivate
the reader to undertake further study and research with the ultimate aim to make
the concerned renewable energy technology efficient, reliable techno-economical and
commercially viable for the community at large. Table 1.1 shows a comparison of
renewable and conventional energy.

Table 1.1 Comparison of Renewable versus Conventional Energy

S.No. Criteria
1 Availability
2 Quantity available
3 Transportability
4 Green house gases (GHG) Nil
5 Energy security
6 Pollution
Renewable Energy Conventional Energy
Can be used without any Needs to be extracted and treated through
treatment laborious and environmentally damaging
processes
Continuously replenish- Dwindling reserves
able resource
No need to transport, Needs to be transported from the site
used where it is available rendering it environmentally harmful
Releases green house gases
Minimises reliance on Energy security remains at risk due to
dwindling resources such more dependence on oil
as oil, coal and others
Completely pollution-free Pollution occurs at various levels
Another random document with
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 "No! Not yet!..."

Lebas, pretending not to have heard, called out—

"Héron! Hér..."

Robespierre threw himself on him, and pinning him to the wall, said
breathlessly—

"Don't call, I tell you! Don't call!"

Then lowering his voice he muttered in a dry whisper—

"Be quiet, man, I say! Be quiet! ... It is my son!"

"Ah!" and Lebas looked at him in stupefied amazement.

When he had sufficiently recovered from his surprise, he asked in a low

voice—

"Why do you not tell him so?"

Could Robespierre tell him? Tell the lad who loathed him! Would he
believe him? Olivier would say it was false, or how could he hate him so?

"Oh, no! I cannot tell him that I am his father!" he said sadly, sinking
down exhausted on a chair.

Lebas took his hand and pressed it sympathetically, deeply touched.

"You are right!" he murmured.

And turning to Olivier he said aloud—

"Then let us discover the prisoners without him!"

Olivier understood that matters were becoming very serious. However,

Robespierre looked discouraged. How was it possible to find the women,
under their assumed names, in Vendée? But Lebas remarked that they might
be in Paris. At this Olivier visibly trembled, which Lebas did not fail to
notice.

"Why," he continued—"why should he be so far from them?"

The point of this remark struck Robespierre.

"Yes, to be sure; you are right," he said, and interpreting Lebas's

thoughts he bade him take a carriage and drive to each prison and interview
every woman that had been arrested with a young girl. Lebas, who had
already put on his hat, remarked that he did not think the night would
suffice; there were so many women arrested with a daughter or a younger
sister. And what if Olivier spoke the truth, and his mother had been
inscribed on the prison-register under another name—her husband's, for
instance?

"Mauluçon," interrupted Robespierre, the name suddenly recurring to

him.

Lebas took out a note-book from his pocket. Was he a soldier, or a

magistrate, this Mauluçon? Robespierre could not say. All he knew of him
was that among the people represented as having gone into mourning for
Louis XVI. he had seen the names of Pontivy, his son-in-law Mauluçon,
and his daughter Clarisse.

"Clarisse!" repeated Lebas, stopping his note-taking.

Robespierre looked at him in surprise. In what way could that name

interest him? Lebas had now closed his note-book, deep in thought.
Clarisse? Olivier's mother was called Clarisse? But the woman who
implored Robespierre's clemency for her son, aged nineteen, the woman
whose letter he had refused to read just now ...

"Was signed Clarisse?" cried Robespierre breathlessly.

"Yes," replied Lebas.

"That is his mother!"...

 And pointing to the young man, who was on the brink of swooning.

"You see, it is she! Look at him; there is no mistaking, it is she!"

"She is at the prison of La Bourbe, then," said Lebas.

Robespierre could no longer hide his joy, at last he knew where to find
them!

But he was interrupted by a cry of pain. Olivier, thinking his mother

now irretrievably lost, had fainted away. Robespierre ran to him, and
bending over tried to bring him to consciousness, gently reassuring him,
swearing he was going to give the prisoners their liberty.

But Lebas, who was also bending over the young man, reminded the
Incorruptible that Olivier no longer heard him. Then Robespierre, with
infinite precautions, assisted by Lebas, lifted him into an armchair, and
taking a bottle of scent left behind by the ladies, gently bathed Olivier's
temples with the perfume. Lebas, rather anxious lest Robespierre's paternal
solicitude should be discovered, remained on the watch, imploring him to
be prudent.

"Some one might come in!" he urged.

Robespierre, entirely taken up with Olivier, shrugged his shoulders.

"Let them come!" he said impatiently. "I have a right surely to pardon
my own son!"

Lebas recalled him to reality.

No! he had no right to pardon a chouan, who had insulted the Republic
the day before in presence of the whole nation. Robespierre's enemies
would seize the occasion to cite the example of Brutus sacrificing his son to
the interest of his country. They would exact from him a like proof of
patriotism....

Robespierre was trying to loosen Olivier's cravat, but not succeeding

asked Lebas's assistance. After all, he was right, especially as his enemies
on the Committee of Public Safety, out of hatred for him, would kill the lad
all the quicker. Opening the collar gently, he continued the while to reason
about it, saying that the only means of saving him was to throw him brutally
into prison, so as to mislead them, and to get him out secretly after three
days.

The young man heaved a sigh.

"He is coming to," said Robespierre, checking his speculations.

Lebas observed that it was high time to let others come in; they would
wonder at the length of the cross-examining. Robespierre assented, his eyes
fixed on his son, who seemed now coming to himself. As the Incorruptible
bent over him to ascertain if this was so, his lips touched the pale forehead.

But he heard steps, and had only time to pull himself up, when Héron
entered, followed by his men.

Héron looked straight at Olivier, who had now recovered his senses.

"What! Did he faint?" he asked.

Robespierre had regained possession of himself, and at once assumed a

brutal demeanour. Yes, the scoundrel had been playing a farce, and an
infamous farce too! The family now entered also, brimming with curiosity
and questions.

"Has the young man made a confession?"

"No; but he has betrayed himself, and I know all that I desired."

General satisfaction was expressed. At last, then, he was caught, and his
accomplices! At this moment Madame Lebas and Victoire discovered in
what a sad state Olivier was. Had he been ill, then? They would have come
to him; but Robespierre stopped them, assuming contempt.

"It was better," he said, "to leave the young madman alone, for he really
did not deserve that any one should take interest in him."
 "Monster!" Olivier groaned.

Robespierre had heard the word. He took hold of Lebas's arm, as if for
support, and pressed it convulsively. Then, in a voice which he tried to
render harsh, he told him to conduct Olivier to the Prison de la Force.
Héron had only waited for this; and his men seized their prisoner, who at
the roughness of the police-agents gave a sharp cry.

"You brutes!" exclaimed Robespierre, in a faltering voice, taking a step

towards his son in spite of himself. But Lebas stopped him.

"Be careful!" he whispered.

Robespierre sat down, realising his imprudence.

Lebas again whispered to him—

"Don't be uneasy, I will watch over him."

And telling the men not to handle the prisoner too roughly, he went out
with them.

Robespierre watched his son disappear, and when he had gone he felt
some one take his hand. This made him tremble. It was Cornélie.

How tired he seemed! Every one was around him now. That young
madman had given him terrible trouble, hadn't he?

"Yes," he replied, wiping his temple, "it was very trying! Exceedingly
trying!"

Duplay remarked that, judging from the length of the cross-

examination, he must have learnt something very important. Robespierre
made a gesture, as if protesting. Then rising abruptly he took leave of the
company, on the pretext of urgent work.

"The lad can rest assured," said Duplay, "it is his death-warrant our
friend has gone to sign."
 "What a pity!" observed Victoire; "the young fellow seemed so nice!"

But mother Duplay stopped her daughter indignantly, asking her if she
was mad. What would the Incorruptible say if he could hear her?

CHAPTER IX

HOURS OF ANGUISH

Once in his room, Robespierre sank exhausted into a chair. At last he

was alone! He could now give free vent to his long suppressed emotion.
The feeling uppermost at the moment was one of dread dismay, as the
terrible position rose before his mind, with all its fearful consequences. He
gave no thought to the insult, it was the fate of the two women which
haunted him. If he saved them it would atone for all in the eyes of his son.
They had been arrested, thrown into prison, and cast for death, but he would
set them free.

Who had arrested them? What had they done? Were they implicated in
some seditious plot which would render it difficult to deliver them? As to
Olivier's release, he would see to that. By causing things to drag a little,
Olivier's trial could be put off until Robespierre had the power in his own
hands, and could act as he liked towards his son. It was after all his concern,
for it was he whom Olivier had insulted, and not the Republic, which he
could not yet impersonate. Had he even been proclaimed dictator, and sole
representative of France, he would, he supposed, have had the right to
pardon. It would seem but natural that his first act on accession to power
should be an act of clemency! The most important thing then at present was
that Olivier should remain in prison as long as possible under the closest
supervision.
 But again, why had the women been arrested? By whose orders? They
were perhaps at that very moment at the Conciergerie, on their trial, before
the Revolutionary Tribunal. He could, no doubt, secure their acquittal, but
what if the inquiry brought Olivier's name to light?

"I am wandering!" he caught himself exclaiming. How, indeed, could

the name of Olivier be mentioned during the trial? The young man had
nothing to do with it. He had insulted Robespierre, it was to him personally
he had to answer.

The Incorruptible rubbed his eyes, unable longer to follow the thread of
his own thoughts. He was suddenly reminded of the law to be submitted by
him next day to the Convention, the vindictive law which would ensure
conviction without proof, evidence, or even cross-examination. This law
would be of twofold service to him; it would rekindle the Terror, would
help Robespierre to get rid of those who were still in his way, and be the
means of reducing the two women to silence, thus saving not only Olivier's
life, but theirs also. Olivier would then see that Robespierre was not the
monster he imagined, for he would owe the lives of his mother and of his
fiancée to him, the very man he had so wantonly insulted!

Robespierre's reflections were suddenly interrupted by a knock. He

started up. Some one was calling him. He listened, and recognising Lebas's
voice, hastened to open the door.

"I saw a light through your window," said Lebas, "and knew you had
not yet gone to bed."

"Well, what have you learnt?" Robespierre asked anxiously.

"They are still at the prison of La Bourbe."

"Both of them?"

"Yes, both of them."

"Ah!" sighed Robespierre, with relief.

 "And I have given strict instructions in your name, that they were not to
be allowed out, under any circumstances. I am quite satisfied on that point,
since the Concierge knows that they have been arrested by your orders."

"By my orders?"

"Yes, alas!"

And he whispered to the Incorruptible, as if fearing to be heard—

"They are the two women from Montmorency."

"The women of the forest?"

"Yes!"

Robespierre leant back against his desk for support. Lebas pulled an
armchair towards him, into which he sank quite overcome.

"You could not have prevented it!" said Lebas gently; "nowadays
surprises of that sort are common enough. How could you know?"

The Incorruptible gave no reply, but seemed lost in a dream.

"Take some rest now.... You must feel exhausted.... I feel so myself....
Au revoir till to-morrow. After all, why should you worry? Are we not the
masters?"

"That is the question!" murmured Robespierre, without lifting his eyes.

But Lebas had just closed the door, and wished him good night.

Robespierre, left alone, resumed his train of thought. He had, himself,

then, ordered the two women to be arrested. This made everything clear to
his mind! He now understood why Olivier had insulted him, and matters
were more complicated than he had imagined. But what was Clarisse doing
at Montmorency? How had she gained acquaintance with that man
Vaughan, who had proposed to him the Regency in the name of England?
For one moment he was vain enough to think that Clarisse had acted in
conjunction with the Englishman. She had perhaps an idea of winning
Robespierre over to the Royalist cause, and of rendering homage to his
exalted position and power, realising all the good he could do. If this were
indeed the fact, then she knew everything, was aware of the Englishman's
proposals, and of the forest interview! She was in possession of his secret
and could by a single word completely ruin him!

No! No! He was raving! ... Why! he was accusing the mother of his
child! For she was the mother of his son! Then he alone was in fault; ... he
who had her arrested for no reason! For no reason? Was that so certain?
And he sought about in his mind for excuses. Yes! he was the dupe of Fate,
the tool of blind Destiny! Why had Clarisse been there? Why had she been
implicated with the secret interview? Why? Ah! why?

With closed eyes, still repeating that unanswered "Why?" he fell into a
half sleep. Little by little the image of a cell in the prison of La Bourbe rose
before him; Clarisse was there. She appeared to him, as he had seen her in
her youth, at the Rue des Lions, with her sweet pale face, large blue eyes,
fair silken hair, so fair ... so fair.... He began to wonder that one so young
and frail should have a son so big as Olivier! His dream-thoughts became
more confused.... She was now Olivier's fiancée.... He was promising her to
marry them in London, through the intervention of Vaughan ... of Fox....
Fox was all powerful in England, as he, Robespierre, was in France.... His
head gradually sunk on his shoulder, and he fell asleep at last.

The lamp, turned very low, shed upon him a flickering light, pale and
subdued as the glow of a sanctuary lamp, softening as if in pity the stern
lines of his troubled countenance, which even in sleep did not relax the
painful contraction of its features. He had fallen asleep, dressed as he was,
his head aslant, his arms hanging by his sides listlessly. Now and then, his
whole frame would twitch and quiver nervously, and vague, incoherent
words escaped his lips at intervals; harsh, guttural sounds fell from him
suddenly in that silent apartment, whose curtains and drapery in the
subdued light assumed the soft and delicate tints of a young girl's chamber.

Its hangings were really of damask, with designs of white flowers on a

blue ground, cut out of an old dress by Madame Duplay. This was the one
obvious attempt at ornament. The Incorruptible's room was otherwise very
modestly furnished, containing only the armchair in which he had fallen
asleep, a few cane chairs, a very simple desk, a plain deal bookcase
overladen with books and fastened to the wall, and a bed of walnut-wood.

The room was situated, as already said, in a wing which connected the
main building occupied by the Duplay family with an outhouse opening on
the Rue Saint-Honoré. It also communicated with little Maurice's room, to
whom the Incorruptible in his leisure hours gave lessons in history, and on
the duties of a citizen. The child, who had been sent early to bed on the
arrival of the police-agents with Olivier, now slept soundly.

At about three o'clock, the boy awoke with a start. He heard a noise in
the next room, and, thinking he recognised Robespierre's voice, turned over
to sleep again. It was not the first time his good friend had talked aloud in
his sleep. But he was awakened again by the falling of a chair, and jumped
from his bed anxiously and ran to open the door. In the flickering light of
the nearly extinguished lamp he discerned the Incorruptible standing erect,
still dressed, and gesticulating wildly as if pushing some one back. The boy
advanced towards him, asking what was amiss. Robespierre stared at him
with a frightened look, then folding him in his arms, he fell on his knees
moaning. Between his groans the child could catch the words—

"My son! ... My son!"

Then the lamp went quite out.

The child gently disengaged himself. Bon ami had called him his son!
Yes, he was his son, his affectionate and dutiful son. Then with tender
solicitude he helped him to rise. The day was already peeping through the
half-closed shutters. Maurice with some difficulty succeeded in replacing
his friend on the armchair in which he had passed the night, and asked him
if he wished for anything. But Robespierre had fallen asleep again.

The boy returned to his room, walking backwards on tiptoe, fearing to

awaken him, and went to bed again.

At seven o'clock in the morning Robespierre opened his eyes. He

remembered nothing. The fact of having slept in his clothes, and in an
armchair, did not surprise him. He had often done so in the days of sore
trial. He drew aside the curtains, and the room was suddenly flooded with
daylight. Some one knocked. It was Maurice Duplay, asking if he could
come in.

The boy's early visit surprised Robespierre.

"Are you well, bon ami?"

"Yes, why?"

"Nothing ... only ... last night ... you know..."

"Last night? Well!"

"You rather frightened me!"

"Frightened you?"

"Yes, you frightened me!"

The child then told him what had taken place in the night.

"Are you quite sure?" asked Robespierre anxiously.

"Oh! quite sure, and since you called me your son it shows you
recognised me, and had not the fever so badly after all."

"Yes, you are right! It was nothing since ... as you said ... since I
recognised you; ... for it was you of course I called my son: ... you are my
good little son, are you not?"

And he patted his cheeks, adding—

"But you must not speak of it to anybody! not to anybody, mind! It is

not worth while worrying your father and mother."

"Oh no! I have never said anything!"

 Robespierre began again to feel uneasy.

"How do you mean? You have never said anything?"

"Why, it is not the first time it has happened to you."

"Have you heard me before, then?"

"Oh yes! speaking loud in your sleep."

"And what did I say?"

"Oh, I never understood anything, ... disconnected words, that's all....

And then I was so accustomed, I did not pay much attention. But last night
it was too much and I got up."

"You should not have done so, it was nothing more serious than usual,
only the worry and bother that upset me so."

"It was the cross-examination of the Chouan yesterday which unstrung

you, I suppose?"

"Perhaps; ... it may be.... But, you see, now I am quite well."

As the lad was going he called after him.

"Now you know, and you won't give it another thought, will you? And
not a word, mind, not a word! Now go, child."

He was subject to such nightmares then?

"Perhaps I don't take enough exercise," he thought, and he resolved to

go out at once into the open air. A good walk to the Champs-Elysées would
completely revive him. He changed his clothes, shaved, powdered and
perfumed himself as usual, and had actually started, but went back and took
from a drawer in his desk the draft of the new law which he had prepared
the day before, and put it in his pocket. He had decided after reflection not
to submit it himself, but to confide it to Couthon, one of the most faithful of
his friends on the Committee with Lebas, Saint-Just, and Augustin. Couthon
would read the document from the tribune, and this would leave him fresh
and fit for the ensuing debate.

Having called at Couthon's house, and concluded this arrangement,

Robespierre made his way to the Champs-Elysées through the Tuileries
with his dog Blount, who gambolled joyously in his new-found freedom
after a three days' confinement in the house. The Incorruptible walked
quickly and briskly as usual, in spite of the intense heat, which was but little
diminished by the shade of the chestnuts lining the avenue. He was already
telling over in his mind those among his enemies who would be the first
victims of the new law. As to Olivier and the two women, it was quite
decided. They should remain in prison in the most absolute secrecy until the
time came for him to be master.

At the end of the avenue he turned into the Allée de Veuves and went
towards the Seine. Blount, who had scented the water, leapt and bounded
forward in high glee. On fine summer days the dog used to swim in the
river under the eyes of Robespierre. When he reached the banks of the
Seine Blount was awaiting him, and at a sign jumped in the water, and the
Incorruptible found some release from his harrowing thoughts in watching
the gambols of his dog in the river.

At the Convention the Bill read by Couthon was received with loud
protests, and the subsequent debate opened amid turbulence and uproar.
That the judgments of the Revolutionary Tribunal should be accelerated by
the suppression of evidence and cross-examinations had already frightened
not a few; but when it became a question of transmitting to the Committee
of Public Safety the right of life or death, the whole assembly was filled
with fear. Up to that time the Convention alone had the right to sit in
judgment on a representative of the people!

A voice was heard exclaiming—

"If that law is passed, nothing is left but to blow out our brains!"

Robespierre appeared in the tribune. The Bill was voted. The next day
several attempts were made in the Convention to repeal the atrocious law
which brought the Terror into their very midst, but all such efforts failed.
 With so trenchant a law, a two-edged weapon which could be turned at
will either against the Committee of Public Safety or against the
Convention, according to the intricate windings of his subtle policy, with
such a weapon Robespierre could keep his enemies of the Committee at
bay. He had in future but to accuse them, and have them replaced by
creatures of his own, satellites of his will.

However, all was going well. His adversaries, blind and unwary, had
begun to tear each other to pieces in party disputes, and to split up into
factions, the very day after the passing of the atrocious law which made him
so dreaded.

The Incorruptible tried to take advantage of these cabals, but he was too
hasty. The Committee, realising their danger, united against him; and this
was the prelude to a terrible and decisive struggle, for in case of failure
there remained nothing for Robespierre but to have recourse to force.
Realising this to the full, he no longer attended the sittings of the
Committee, but worked silently in the shade, preparing the coup d'état
which was to rid him at once and for ever of all his enemies,—with Saint-
Just, whom he had sent for from the Northern Army, with Hauriot,
Commander-in-Chief of the armed force; Fleuriot-Lescot, Mayor of Paris;
Payan, Agent of the Commune; and Dumas, President; and Coffinhal, Vice-
President of the Revolutionary Tribunal. His design was very simple. He
would denounce his adversaries of the Committee of Public Safety at the
bar of the Convention and ask for their arrest and judgment. Should the
Convention resist, he would subdue them with the help of Hauriot and his
troops, and of all sections of the Commune, who on a sign from him and
from Fleuriot, Payan, Dumas, Coffinhal, and their friends, would be stirred
to insurrection, and would take the Tuileries by storm.

As to Olivier and the two women, they were always under his hand.
Olivier, at La Force Prison, was in no way disturbed. Clarisse and Thérèse
had been kept at La Bourbe by his orders. Twice the names of Olivier's
mother and fiancée had appeared on the list of the Revolutionary Tribunal,
and twice their names had been struck off by Robespierre, who, anxious and
watchful, took care that all lists should be submitted to him.
 Soon the decisive hour approached. It was the 7th Thermidor. Six weeks
had elapsed since the memorable Fête of the Supreme Being, and the
passing of the horrible Prairial law, which had sent hundreds of victims to
the scaffold. The Terror was at its height, and France, prostrate before the
knife of the guillotine, was awaiting in distracted anxiety the result of the
struggle. The guillotine was also waiting, ready to devour whichever of the
two parties was vanquished—Robespierre's opponents or Robespierre
himself and his partisans.

The Incorruptible, driven to the last extremity, had fixed the battle for
the next day, the 8th Thermidor, when he would throw off his mask and
accuse his adversaries of the Committee of Public Safety in presence of the
Convention. Although he was almost certain of the issue, he deemed it none
the less prudent to take infinite precautions, and to put Olivier and the two
women in perfect safety, in case of defeat, however impossible it might
seem. They must be taken from prison, and all three placed in some secure
retreat, out of the reach of danger, from whence they could escape if
necessary.

Robespierre thought of the Hôtel de Ville, where he reigned supreme.

Behind this, in the Rue du Martroy, were some unoccupied apartments, in a
building connected with and forming part of the hotel. Clarisse might live
there with her niece and Olivier until they could with safety leave Paris. He
unfolded his projects to Lebas, who alone knew of the secret drama which
poisoned the private life of the Incorruptible at the very moment when his
public career was reaching its climax. Lebas approved the plan.

"I am entirely at your service!"

"Thanks. I was counting on your help. But don't let us be too hasty. To-
morrow will be time enough. Everything depends on the sitting. If you see
that the majority hesitate from the commencement, go immediately to La
Bourbe and take the two women out, then to La Force and see about my
son. The apartments are ready. You have only to take them there. But save
the women first. Olivier must find his mother and his fiancée when he
arrives."
 Then taking two papers from his pocket, he added, "Here are the
warrants of release."

"Agreed!" said Lebas, after reading them.

Next day at the Convention, Lebas, a parliamentary expert, judged that

Robespierre would come out victorious from the contest, nor was he
mistaken. The Incorruptible had brought a general accusation, without
mentioning names, against members of the Committee of Public Safety and
General Security. This was received in anxious silence, a few only daring to
protest. But the printing of the speech, and its circulation in all the
communes of Paris, was none the less voted. It was an official accusation,
by the voice of Robespierre, of his adversaries, before the whole of France.
It was victory; and nothing was left but to name the victims.

But the implicated members of the Committee of Public Safety did not
give him time. Vadier boldly made for the tribune, followed by Cambon,
who, feeling it was a case of kill or cure, played a daring game, and replied
to the general accusation of Robespierre by a direct, personal accusation,
denouncing him openly to the astonished Assembly. The real traitor, he
declared, was this masterful Robespierre, who paralysed the will of the
National Convention!

There was a counter-wave of feeling among the members of the

Assembly at this public indictment, and censure of their slavish submission
to Robespierre. They seemed suddenly to realise their position, and the
more daring members, seeing the tide turn, prepared for the fight. Thus the
attacked were in their turn attacking.

Billaud-Varennes succeeded Cambon at the tribune.

"The mask must be torn aside, no matter whose face it covers!" he cried.
"I would rather my corpse should be the stepping-stone of the ambitious
than by my silence be an accomplice of their crimes!"

Others succeeded Billaud-Varennes, reiterating his accusations more

boldly and insultingly. Robespierre, disconcerted, tried to face the storm,
but it was too late. In confining himself to a general accusation, in
mentioning no names, he had frightened every one. The Assembly revoked
their previous decision, and amended the Bill. The speech was not to be
sent to the Communes, but to the Committee, to be examined.

"What!" cried Robespierre, "I have the courage to make before the
Convention revelations which I believe necessary to the salvation of the
country, and my speech is to be submitted for examination to the very men
whom I accuse!"

Victory had been followed by defeat; a partial defeat, it was true, for,
seeing the hesitating attitude of the Convention, Robespierre hoped to win
them back again the next day. He must, however, be prepared for every
emergency! That very evening he would take steps to organise an
insurrection of the Communes, which, in case of resistance, would
annihilate the whole set of dastardly cowards. The Incorruptible wished to
act within legal bounds as long as possible, and only to overstep them when
forced to do so.

Robespierre looked round for Lebas, but he had disappeared, and this
gave him grounds for hope that the two women, and perhaps Olivier, had
reached the private apartments chosen by him in the Rue du Martroy.

"I must go and make sure that all is well," he said to himself; "there is
not a moment to lose"—and leaving the Convention, he hastened in the
direction of the Hôtel de Ville.

CHAPTER X

THE TUMBRILS

At that very moment Lebas reached the Hôtel de Ville with Clarisse and
Thérèse. On leaving the prison of La Bourbe he had given a false address to
the coachman who drove the prisoners, and he followed them at a distance
in another carriage, accompanied by a man to superintend the luggage, who
was one of the attendants at the Hôtel de Ville, and a devoted adherent of
Robespierre. The second carriage soon overtook the first, when Lebas gave
the correct address to the driver—

"13, Rue du Martroy!"

Clarisse and Thérèse mounted the stairs more dead than alive, ushered
up respectfully by Lebas, and Urbain, the attendant, carrying their luggage.
Where were they going? Who were these people? Lebas at the prison had
scarcely spoken to Clarisse.

"For your safety," he had said simply, "for your niece's safety, do not
question me before we arrive at our destination."

For her safety? For Thérèse's safety! Then they were to be saved? Who
could save them? She would surely learn now who it was.

The two men stopped on the third floor, and Urbain opened a door.

"It is here!" said Lebas, making way for them to pass in.

The two women entered, and found themselves in a plain sitting-room

with fittings and furniture of dark grey wood. Urbain took the luggage to a
door opening on the left, through which a bedroom was visible.

"You must make yourself quite at home, here," said Lebas.

And he informed them that they were free, but from motives of
prudence he who had saved them, and for whom Lebas was acting, had
judged it advisable to offer them these apartments as a temporary residence,
where they would be entirely out of danger's reach. Clarisse and Thérèse
could not recover from their surprise, and wished to know to whom they
owed their deliverance. But Lebas would not tell them, having received no
orders to that effect. All he could say to reassure them was that their
protector was all-powerful at the Paris Commune, and that the apartments
were in direct communication, through a door which he indicated, with the
Hôtel de Ville, so that they were under his immediate care.

Clarisse started. She understood now. She owed her safety to the
Incorruptible! Her letter of the preceding month had reached Robespierre.
She knew this already, as he had acknowledged it in a few brief words three
days after receiving it—"Fear nothing, your son is safe!" And this was all
she had heard.

Lebas was still giving the women particulars of their new surroundings.
Everything had been arranged to render them as comfortable as possible.
The man who had accompanied them was entirely at their disposal, and it
was to his interest to serve them well. His wife would see also to their
wants, and take charge of their apartments, where they would be absolutely
free and unrestrained.

Only one precaution was earnestly recommended to them; to show

themselves as little as possible at the windows of their sitting or bed room,
so as not to attract the attention of neighbours. They were especially told to
avoid this in the afternoon, from four to six. The windows looked on to the
Rue du Martroy, through which the carts carrying the condemned passed.
The scaffold was now installed at the Barrière du Trône Renversé, and it
was the shortest way.

The two women shuddered.

"Unhappily we had no choice," Lebas added, seeing their repugnance,

"but you will be warned by the cries of the crowd, and you can then retire to
the dining-room which looks on to the courtyard. It lasts but a quarter of an
hour or twenty minutes, at the most."

But Clarisse scarcely listened, her whole mind occupied with one
thought, the longing to inform Olivier, whose whereabouts she hoped soon
to learn, of their release from prison.

"Could I write a few words to some one who is very dear to me?" she
asked. "I wish to set his mind at rest about our welfare."
 Lebas replied in the affirmative, and she thanked him gratefully. He
politely protested; she owed him no thanks, these were solely due to him
whose orders he was executing. He then offered to take the letter himself,
saying he would return for it in a quarter of an hour, as he had another
urgent duty to fulfil. And he retired, leaving the two women with Urbain,
who busied himself arranging the furniture of the sitting-room.

Thérèse, now full of hope, gave thanks to God. They would perhaps
soon see Olivier again. What joy! But to whom did they owe their release?
She looked inquiringly at her aunt. Clarisse owned that she believed it was
to an ex-secretary of Thérèse's grandfather, now all-powerful, and to whom
she had written from the prison of La Bourbe. Thérèse seemed astonished
that her aunt had not told her of this. But Clarisse made the very plausible
excuse that she did not wish to raise her hopes, not knowing whether her
appeal would have success.

The young girl was now looking through the shutters of one of the
windows which Urbain had partly opened.

"Ah! there is a church!" she exclaimed, and immediately she thought

that if they were allowed to go out she would go and pray for their
protector, for he could not be all-powerful and not have done wrong; he
must belong also to the Government of Terror.

At the mention of a church, Clarisse approached the window. She

recognised the building; it was St. Gervais Church, on whose portal could
be read in large letters the sadly ironical inscription: "National Property, to
be let as a Warehouse."

At Clarisse's request Urbain had placed an ink-stand and blotting-paper

on the table, and Clarisse hearing it was ready turned round joyfully. "At
last I can write to Olivier!" she thought.

She then seated herself at the table and began to write, while Thérèse
was making a tour round the room, taking a survey of the furniture.
Suddenly catching sight of an illustrated paper on a sofa, she took it up to
pass the time away. It was five weeks old, and had been preserved no doubt
on account of the illustrations. Its pages gave an elaborate account of the